Sociological Theory and Research

Institutions

Established and enduring patterns of social relationships

Collecting data

Gathering information or evidence to test the hypothesis

Creative reasoning

Generating new ideas or solutions, considering alternatives

Understanding

Comprehending the content and intent of information

Role conflict

Conflict between the expectations of two or more roles

Step three: Global analysis

Consider the impact and perception of the problem in other cultures and regions

social, economic, and historical circumstances

Considering broader factors that shape individual and collective realities

Constructive thinking

Constructing knowledge out of personal experience and interaction with others

Basic principles of sociology

Different in groups Obey rules More say than others rewards and penalties

Sanctions

Rewards or punishments for conforming to or violating norms

What is sociology

Scientific study of human social behavior and social phenomena

Roles

Set of behaviors, rights, obligations, and expectations associated with a status

Values

Social agreements about what is considered good, bad, right, wrong, desirable, or undesirable

Structural injustice

Social institutions structured to benefit dominant groups and oppress marginalized groups

Statuses

Social positions that individuals occupy within a social group

Norms

Social rules about what is considered acceptable in a certain situation

Conflict and competition

Society characterized by constant struggle for scarce resources

personal lives and social world

Understanding the relationship between individual experiences and broader social structures

Inequality and power

Unequal distribution of resources leading to conflict between different social groups

Dysfunctional functions

Unintended consequences that disrupt social stability

Latent functions

Unintended or less apparent consequences of social institutions or practices

Role strain

When the demands of a role are overwhelming or conflicting

Secondary research

Analysis of existing data or research conducted by others

sociological Interpretation

Analyze and make sense of social phenomena using sociological theories and frameworks

Practical thinking

Applying knowledge or skills to make decisions or find solutions

Illustrating the sociological imagination

Applying sociological perspective to analyze personal and social phenomena

Evaluation

Assessing and judging the validity or worth of something

Help implement change

Assist in the practical application of proposed solutions or interventions

Class consciousness

Awareness of social class and the potential for collective action

Values and worshiping/religion

Beliefs and practices related to spirituality and faith

Analysis

Breaking down information into its constituent parts to understand its structure and function

Folkways

Casual norms, customs, and manners of society

Defining variables

Determining the concepts or factors that will be measured or observed in the research

Beliefs

Definitions and explanations of what is assumed to be true

Social imagination

Distinctive perspective that allows sociologists to critically analyze society

Overgeneralization

Drawing broad conclusions based on limited evidence

Inference

Drawing conclusions or making predictions based on available evidence

Conflict theory

Emphasizes social inequality and power struggles in society

Step two: Local analysis

Examine the relationship between the problem and other aspects of social life

Reviewing the literature

Examining existing research and scholarly works related to the research problem

Intersection between personal biography and history

Examining the interplay between personal experiences and broader historical events

Step four: Historical analysis

Explore the historical origins and changes of the problem over time

Alienation

Feeling of estrangement or detachment from one's own humanity

Macro theory

Focuses on broader social structures and systems

Symbolic interactionism

Focuses on how individuals interpret and create meaning through social interactions

Micro theory

Focuses on individual interactions and meanings

Selective or inaccurate observation

Focusing on certain information while ignoring or misinterpreting other information

Laws

Formal norms backed by authority

Formulating a research problem

Identifying and defining the specific issue or question to be investigated

rewards and penalties

Incentives and consequences associated with conformity or non-conformity

socially constructed rules

Individuals adhere to norms and regulations created by society

Manifest functions

Intended and obvious consequences of social institutions or practices

Powerlessness

Lack of control over one's work and a sense of meaninglessness

Connection between biography and history

Linking personal experiences to historical and societal contexts

Informed judgment

Making decisions based on a thorough understanding of the relevant information

What do sociologists do

Monitor societal changes through research Interpret social conditions from the sociological perspective Provide suggestions for change Help implement change

Quasi-experimentation

Non-randomized experimentation

Mores

Norms against unjustified assaults on other persons

Taboos

Norms so deeply held that violating them is unthinkable

question structural arrangements

Objective perspective that allows for examination and critique of social systems

Correct assessing of statements

Observing, inferring, generalizing, conceiving, and evaluating

Status inconsistency

Perceived conflict between two or more statuses

Formulating a hypothesis

Proposing a testable statement or prediction based on the research problem

Step one: Describe the problem

Provide a detailed description of the social issue or phenomenon

Surveys

Research method using questionnaires or interviews to gather data from respondents

Explanation

Providing a rationale or justification for a phenomenon or event

Critical thinking

Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment resulting in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference

Social constructionism

Reality is socially constructed through individual interpretation and interaction

Problem-solving process

Reflective thinking that begins with a situation and ends in a resolved solution

Resistance to change

Reluctance or opposition to accepting new ideas or perspectives

Symbols

Representations that stand for something else

Field research

Research method involving direct observation and interaction in natural settings

Experiments

Research method involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect

Deductive reasoning

Starting with a theory and deriving hypotheses to test with data

Inductive reasoning

Starting with data and developing theories or generalizations based on patterns or observations

Ascribed status

Status assigned based on factors beyond individual control

Achieved status

Status assigned based on individual characteristics or accomplishments

Master status

Status considered most significant in a person's social identity

Value neutrality

Striving for objectivity and avoiding personal biases in research

Corroborating evidence

Supporting evidence that confirms or strengthens a claim or argument

Role ambiguity

Uncertainty or lack of clarity about the expectations of a role

Creative thinking

Thinking outside the box and higher order thinking in decision making or problem solving

Reflection and self-regulation

Thoughtful consideration of one's own thoughts, actions, and beliefs

Interpretation

Understanding and explaining the meaning of information or data

Analyzing values and behavior considering time and place

Understanding how cultural and historical factors shape individual values and actions

Social groups

Two or more people with a common identity and social relationship

Illogical reasoning

Using flawed or fallacious arguments

Reasons for evaluation

Using higher levels of reasoning to support or refute a viewpoint

Applying

Using knowledge or skills in a practical or real-world context

Structural functionalist perspective

Views society as a system of interrelated parts that function for the benefit of the whole

Barriers to critical thinking

afraid to challenge our own assumptions don't want to work together - Passive receptors of information - The internet and rapid information technology - Schools are set up to transmit existing knowledge - Teacher do not model critical thinking/grading learning on critical thinking is difficult for faculty

Elements of culture

beliefs, values, norms, sanctions, and symbols.

Elements of social structure

institutions, social groups, statuses, and roles

Effects of elements on society

manifest dysfunctional and functional functions

Skills in critical thinking

o Inclusion of a variety of perspectives o Interpretation o Analysis o Evaluation o Inference o Explanation o Reflection and self regulation o Informed judgment o Corroborating evidence

Key components of sociological imagination

o Individual circumstances are inextricably linked to the structure of society o You must have a willingness to view the world from the perspective of others o Must move away from individual terms and focus more on social economic and historical circumstances o Detach from the taken-for-granted assumptions and establish a critical distance to be able to see and question structural arrangements o Seek and see solutions to social problems in terms of changing the structure of society