Sociological Theory and Research
Institutions
Established and enduring patterns of social relationships
Collecting data
Gathering information or evidence to test the hypothesis
Creative reasoning
Generating new ideas or solutions, considering alternatives
Understanding
Comprehending the content and intent of information
Role conflict
Conflict between the expectations of two or more roles
Step three: Global analysis
Consider the impact and perception of the problem in other cultures and regions
social, economic, and historical circumstances
Considering broader factors that shape individual and collective realities
Constructive thinking
Constructing knowledge out of personal experience and interaction with others
Basic principles of sociology
Different in groups Obey rules More say than others rewards and penalties
Sanctions
Rewards or punishments for conforming to or violating norms
What is sociology
Scientific study of human social behavior and social phenomena
Roles
Set of behaviors, rights, obligations, and expectations associated with a status
Values
Social agreements about what is considered good, bad, right, wrong, desirable, or undesirable
Structural injustice
Social institutions structured to benefit dominant groups and oppress marginalized groups
Statuses
Social positions that individuals occupy within a social group
Norms
Social rules about what is considered acceptable in a certain situation
Conflict and competition
Society characterized by constant struggle for scarce resources
personal lives and social world
Understanding the relationship between individual experiences and broader social structures
Inequality and power
Unequal distribution of resources leading to conflict between different social groups
Dysfunctional functions
Unintended consequences that disrupt social stability
Latent functions
Unintended or less apparent consequences of social institutions or practices
Role strain
When the demands of a role are overwhelming or conflicting
Secondary research
Analysis of existing data or research conducted by others
sociological Interpretation
Analyze and make sense of social phenomena using sociological theories and frameworks
Practical thinking
Applying knowledge or skills to make decisions or find solutions
Illustrating the sociological imagination
Applying sociological perspective to analyze personal and social phenomena
Evaluation
Assessing and judging the validity or worth of something
Help implement change
Assist in the practical application of proposed solutions or interventions
Class consciousness
Awareness of social class and the potential for collective action
Values and worshiping/religion
Beliefs and practices related to spirituality and faith
Analysis
Breaking down information into its constituent parts to understand its structure and function
Folkways
Casual norms, customs, and manners of society
Defining variables
Determining the concepts or factors that will be measured or observed in the research
Beliefs
Definitions and explanations of what is assumed to be true
Social imagination
Distinctive perspective that allows sociologists to critically analyze society
Overgeneralization
Drawing broad conclusions based on limited evidence
Inference
Drawing conclusions or making predictions based on available evidence
Conflict theory
Emphasizes social inequality and power struggles in society
Step two: Local analysis
Examine the relationship between the problem and other aspects of social life
Reviewing the literature
Examining existing research and scholarly works related to the research problem
Intersection between personal biography and history
Examining the interplay between personal experiences and broader historical events
Step four: Historical analysis
Explore the historical origins and changes of the problem over time
Alienation
Feeling of estrangement or detachment from one's own humanity
Macro theory
Focuses on broader social structures and systems
Symbolic interactionism
Focuses on how individuals interpret and create meaning through social interactions
Micro theory
Focuses on individual interactions and meanings
Selective or inaccurate observation
Focusing on certain information while ignoring or misinterpreting other information
Laws
Formal norms backed by authority
Formulating a research problem
Identifying and defining the specific issue or question to be investigated
rewards and penalties
Incentives and consequences associated with conformity or non-conformity
socially constructed rules
Individuals adhere to norms and regulations created by society
Manifest functions
Intended and obvious consequences of social institutions or practices
Powerlessness
Lack of control over one's work and a sense of meaninglessness
Connection between biography and history
Linking personal experiences to historical and societal contexts
Informed judgment
Making decisions based on a thorough understanding of the relevant information
What do sociologists do
Monitor societal changes through research Interpret social conditions from the sociological perspective Provide suggestions for change Help implement change
Quasi-experimentation
Non-randomized experimentation
Mores
Norms against unjustified assaults on other persons
Taboos
Norms so deeply held that violating them is unthinkable
question structural arrangements
Objective perspective that allows for examination and critique of social systems
Correct assessing of statements
Observing, inferring, generalizing, conceiving, and evaluating
Status inconsistency
Perceived conflict between two or more statuses
Formulating a hypothesis
Proposing a testable statement or prediction based on the research problem
Step one: Describe the problem
Provide a detailed description of the social issue or phenomenon
Surveys
Research method using questionnaires or interviews to gather data from respondents
Explanation
Providing a rationale or justification for a phenomenon or event
Critical thinking
Purposeful, self-regulatory judgment resulting in interpretation, analysis, evaluation, and inference
Social constructionism
Reality is socially constructed through individual interpretation and interaction
Problem-solving process
Reflective thinking that begins with a situation and ends in a resolved solution
Resistance to change
Reluctance or opposition to accepting new ideas or perspectives
Symbols
Representations that stand for something else
Field research
Research method involving direct observation and interaction in natural settings
Experiments
Research method involving manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect
Deductive reasoning
Starting with a theory and deriving hypotheses to test with data
Inductive reasoning
Starting with data and developing theories or generalizations based on patterns or observations
Ascribed status
Status assigned based on factors beyond individual control
Achieved status
Status assigned based on individual characteristics or accomplishments
Master status
Status considered most significant in a person's social identity
Value neutrality
Striving for objectivity and avoiding personal biases in research
Corroborating evidence
Supporting evidence that confirms or strengthens a claim or argument
Role ambiguity
Uncertainty or lack of clarity about the expectations of a role
Creative thinking
Thinking outside the box and higher order thinking in decision making or problem solving
Reflection and self-regulation
Thoughtful consideration of one's own thoughts, actions, and beliefs
Interpretation
Understanding and explaining the meaning of information or data
Analyzing values and behavior considering time and place
Understanding how cultural and historical factors shape individual values and actions
Social groups
Two or more people with a common identity and social relationship
Illogical reasoning
Using flawed or fallacious arguments
Reasons for evaluation
Using higher levels of reasoning to support or refute a viewpoint
Applying
Using knowledge or skills in a practical or real-world context
Structural functionalist perspective
Views society as a system of interrelated parts that function for the benefit of the whole
Barriers to critical thinking
afraid to challenge our own assumptions don't want to work together - Passive receptors of information - The internet and rapid information technology - Schools are set up to transmit existing knowledge - Teacher do not model critical thinking/grading learning on critical thinking is difficult for faculty
Elements of culture
beliefs, values, norms, sanctions, and symbols.
Elements of social structure
institutions, social groups, statuses, and roles
Effects of elements on society
manifest dysfunctional and functional functions
Skills in critical thinking
o Inclusion of a variety of perspectives o Interpretation o Analysis o Evaluation o Inference o Explanation o Reflection and self regulation o Informed judgment o Corroborating evidence
Key components of sociological imagination
o Individual circumstances are inextricably linked to the structure of society o You must have a willingness to view the world from the perspective of others o Must move away from individual terms and focus more on social economic and historical circumstances o Detach from the taken-for-granted assumptions and establish a critical distance to be able to see and question structural arrangements o Seek and see solutions to social problems in terms of changing the structure of society