Unit 5b- Thinking and Language

Amos Tversky

A key figure in the discovery of systematic human cognitive bias Application: Showed that people frequently do not behave rationally to maximize their welfare.

Algorithm

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Application: A mathematical formula is a good example of an algorithm.

Wolfgang Kohler

Gestalt psychologist that first demonstrated insight through his chimpanzee experiments. Application: He noticed the solution process wasn't slow, but sudden and reflective.

Steven Pinker

Linguist that believed that we learn language from the environment Application: This is very important because it contributes to the development of language and how humans acquire it.

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think Application: The term implies that people who speak different languages as their mother tongues have different thought processes.

linguistic influence

Words influence, but do not determine, thinking Application: This is an important aspect in psychology because it has to do with how humans think and communicate.

Concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people Application: Concepts are based on our experience.

Prototype

a mental image or best example of a category Application: Prototypes are used to enhance memory and recall.

Heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently Application: usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms.

Insight

a sudden and often novel realization of the solution to a problem Application: For example, a dog is in a room with a small gate to keep him from leaving. He pushes a box over to the gate in order to stand on it and jump over the gate.

Mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past Application: For example, if the last time your computer froze you restarted it and it worked, that might be the only solution you can think of the next time it freezes.

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence Application: For example, people who support or oppose a particular issue will only seek information to support it.

Cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating Application: This is important in understanding how and why humans think the way they do.

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning Application: An example would be love at first sight.

Metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes. Application: It includes a critical awareness of one's thinking and learning and oneself as a thinker and learner.

two word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly two-word statements Application: Same as the babbling stage

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language Application: This is very important in the psychological study of how humans develop their ability to communicate.

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited Application: This is an inherent human behavior caused by one's pride and inability to admit being wrong.

Daniel Kahneman

defined availability and representative heuristics Application: He drew on cognitive psychology in relation to the mental processes used in forming judgements and making choices.

telegraphic stage

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram--'go car'--using mostly nouns and verbs and omitting 'auxiliary' words Application: This style of speaking resembles the way of writing that used to be used in telegrams.

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory Application: if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common.

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions Application: creative thinking that diverges in different directions.

Aphasia

impairment of language Application: usually caused by left hemisphere damage either to Broca's area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's area (impairing understanding).

Grammer

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Application: Without grammar no one would be able to understand each other and it's critical in the study of psychology.

Morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or a part of a word (such as a prefix) Application: Phonemes are combined to form morphemes.

phoneme

in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Application: An example of phoneme is "c" in the word "car."

Robert Sternberg

intelligence; devised the Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (academic problem-solving, practical, and creative) Application: He came up with the theory that these abilities function collectively to allow individuals to achieve success.

Representative heuristics

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes Application: An example of this would be when investors automatically assume good companies make good investments.

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution Application: For example, multiple choice tests, standardized tests, quizzes require convergent thinking.

language

our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning Application: Language is a very important study in psychology because communication is essential for life.

Benjamin Lee Whorf

psychologist famous for describing linguistic determinism Application: He developed the principle that thought is influenced by the structure of language.

Fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set Application: For example, individuals with oral fixations may have problems with drinking, smoking, eating, or nail-biting.

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Application: Same as babbling stage

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments. Application: An example is when people overestimate how quickly they can do work and underestimate how long it takes them to get things done.

Framing

the way an issue is posed Application: how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Noam Chomsky

theorist who believed that humans have an inborn or "native" propensity to develop language Application: He is important because he made it known that language is an important field of cognitive psychology.