Wellbeing

Literature

has also explored the role of meaning and purpose 17 One recent example: Philip Pullman's His Dark Materials

Religion

What is common across religions: · stories of community · of treating others with respect finding your purpose in life

What do autonomy supportive environments look like?

- Choice - Freedom to try, solve - Freedom to initiate - Meaningful rationale if direction is given Positive outcomes in various settings

Cultivating autonomy

- Choose contexts that align with our values and purpose - BUT what about when we choose (for other reasons) or are somehow forced to endure contexts that do not align with our values and purpose???

What does this all mean?

- Cognitive reappraisal may be particularly important for psychological wellbeing in situations you can't control or change ➝ A potential route to enhance one's subjective sense of autonomy

Cognitive reappraisal: Influence

- Extensive body of research - Key role in current psychological interventions, e.g., Unified Protocol for Transdiagnostic Treatment of Emotional Disorders (Barlow et al., 2017) Brief cognitive reappraisal intervention = 1 of 3 studies in the Psychological Science Accelerator COVID-19 Rapid Project, spanning 55 countries (Wang et al., 2020)

Basing self-esteem on body shape/weight

- For eating disorders, the primary dysfunction in the self-esteem system is the domain upon which affected individuals base their self-worth: body shape/weight - Being thin is the primary or even only way of having a sense of self-worth, whereas not being thin is equated with being weak, lazy, unlovable, incompetent etc. As a result of heavily basing their self-worth on their shape/weight, these individuals become intensely focused on pursuing weight loss through extreme dieting and other unhealthy strategies

Cognitive reappraisal: A good strategy?

- Generally touted as a "good strategy" - Seminal study by Gross and John (2003) found CR was associated with: o Reduced negative emotion o Increased positive emotion o Better social functioning o Increased psychological wellbeing - Large meta-analysis (Aldao et al., 2010) found CR was associated with reduced psychopathology BUT, of course, nothing is universally good nor ba

Adolescence: "Who I am" formation

- Increase in "exploratory behaviours" - Individuating from parents (psychologically, as well as physically) - Parents de-idealised à imperfect (Beyers & Goossens, 1999) - Formation of own belief system, values Positive parent-child relationship supports processoptimal outcomes

Low self-esteem predicts eating disorders

- Low self-esteem among 11-12 year-old girls predicts eating disorder symptoms at age 15-16 - Anorexia nervosa described as "a desperate struggle for a self-respecting identity" (Bruch, 1973); "It's like I never knew what self-respect was all about until now. The thinner I get, the better I feel ... This has become the most important thing I have ever done" (Ciseaux, 1980) - Binge eating as an escape from negative states of self-awareness (Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991)

BUT context is not determinative

- Lower autonomy support was associated with lower well-being within both the Russian and US samples (Chirkov & Ryan 2001) - Higher autonomy is associated with wellbeing in Bulgarian workers in state-owned companies and in US workers in private companies (Deci et al., 2001) Person-environment alignment and how we perceive the world are important!

Gender differences in Self-esteem Kling et al., 1988. Psychological Bulletin, 125, 460-500

- Males report slightly higher global self-esteem than females, with the gender difference greatest during late-adolescence - Diverse factors proposed to account for this gender difference e.g., appearance standards and violence against girls/women - "Despite numerous assaults on girls' and women's self-esteem, the gender difference in self-esteem remains small"

Viktor Frankl

- Man's Search for Meaning Logotherapy

Cultivating your position along the continuum of autonomy

- Not all or nothing! - What can I do to increase my sense of autonomy? - Are there some areas of my life where it is possible to be more autonomous (in small ways)? Can I spend a greater proportion of my time in contexts that support my autonomy?

The 'Self-Esteem Movement'

- Self -esteem has been a focus since the earliest writings in psychology (e.g., William James, 1890) - This interest has been driven by research suggesting widespread consequences of self -esteem - From the 1970s, the 'self -esteem movement' popularised the notion that low self -esteem causes many of society's ills (e.g., anti -social behaviour and drug/alcohol problems) Longitudinal research suggests that some of the consequences of self - esteem may in fact be causes

Self-esteem & Wellbeing

- Self-esteem has been repeatedly shown to be strongly correlated with wellbeing/happiness/life satisfaction - Diener & Diener (1995). Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 68, 653-663. o 31 nations and 13,1118 college student participants o Self-esteem was strongly correlated with life satisfaction (r = .47) Self-esteem was a stronger predictor of life satisfaction than satisfaction with family, friends or finances

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) (Deci & Ryan, 1985; Ryan & Deci, 2000)

- Self-governing" (Ryan, Huta, & Deci, 2008) - Autonomy is a basic psychological need - Associated with intrinsic motivation - Associated with pursuing intrinsic goals

Self-esteem & academic achievement

- Several longitudinal studies have found that selfesteem fails to predict academic grades, but that higher academic grades predict higher self-esteem (summarised in Baumeister et al., 2003) - One intervention study aimed at enhancing the selfesteem of college students with lower academic grades on an exam with the aim of improving their academic performance (Forsyth et al., 2007) Past research suggests that when students get back their tests, they tend to lose confidence: they say things like "I can't do this," or "I'm worthless," or "I'm not as good as other people in college." Other studies suggest, though, that students who have high self-esteem not only get better grades, but they remain self-confident and assured . . . Bottom line: Hold your head - and your self-esteem - high.

Context matters

- Single women report higher levels of autonomy than married women (Ryff, 2014) - Middle-aged adults report higher levels of autonomy than younger or older adults (Ryff, 1991) - Formal religious involvement is associated with lower levels of autonomy (Greenfield et al., 2009) Compared to US students, Russian adolescents report their authority figures provide less autonomy support (Chirkov & Ryan 2001)

Situation-strategy fit: Emerging evidence

- Troy et al. (2016) found CR was associated with: o Lower levels of depression for people experiencing uncontrollable stress o BUT higher levels of depression for people experiencing controllable stress - Troy et al. (2017) found CR was associated with lower levels of depression for people with low SES but not high SES Haines et al. (2016) found people who used CR more in uncontrollable situations, but less in controllable situations, reported decreased depression, anxiety and stress

Situation-strategy fit

- Whether or not a strategy is adaptive depends on the situation - Theoretical argument: CR most important (for psychological wellbeing) when situational control is low (e.g., as in Viktor Frankl's situation)

autonomy

- decides for tehsmleves -self motivated -rrists social pressure -behviour with own standards -self evaluated against own standards

Definition: Meaning

- having direction in life, connecting to something larger than oneself, feeling that one's life is valuable and worthwhile, and that there is a purpose to what one does (Steger, 2012). perMa: - having a sense of purpose in life, a direction where life is going, feeling that life is valuable and worth living, or connecting to something greater than ourselves, such as religious faith, a charity or a personally meaningful goal. Meaning provides a sense that life matters (Butler & Kern, 2016)➝Meaning - purposeful existence

Messages for people who base their self-esteem on their shape/weight

1. Having a pie chart with a dominant slice is risky since it's like "having all your eggs in one basket"; when things aren't going well in this domain you feel completely worthless 2. Having a pie chart with a dominant slice narrows your life and is self-perpetuating - nothing much else matters and almost all your energy and focus goes into this one domain such that other areas remain underdeveloped "As I grow into middle age I realise with great sadness how much energy I've directed towards controlling my weight. I could be doing something productive with my energy - building relationships, reading, writing. I don't know what I might do but I don't want my epitaph to be 'Jane wished she was thin'." 2. Judging yourself on the basis of your shape/weight is inherently problematic. It's not just having all of your eggs in one basket that's the problem; the basket itself isn't a good one. - Our weight is under strict physiological control so attempting to alter it in the long-term will have negative consequences; our shape is also only partially within our control. - Judging yourself in this way makes you do things that harm you such as strict dieting and subsequent binge eating; purging; over-exercising; repeatedly checking/avoiding your shape/weight; being preoccupied with thoughts of shape/weight; marginalising other areas of your life

Engagement (Flow)

1. LINKS TO CREATIVITY AND ATTENTION NEEDED FOR CREATIVITY MENTAL CAPACITY LIMITED SO AWARENESS OF OWN EXISTENCE TEMPORARILY SUSPENDED (FLOW) 2. FLOW HAPPENS AT THE INTERSECTION OF CHALLENGE AND SKILL 3. FLOW RELATED TO ENGAGEMENT & HAPPINESS (intrinsic motivation, help others, contributing something worthwhile...meaning, purpose) FLOW CAN BE STRENGETHENED AND THIS IS A GOOD THING

Relationships: Conclusions

1. Social relationships are a robust, and often overlooked, protective factor for wellbeing 2. Social relationships are best measured by focusing on subjective belonging to social groups 3. Social relationships provide psychological resources, e.g. meaning and purpose Interventions to increasesubjective, group-basedsocial connectedness show promise for benefiting community wellbeing

Major Developmental Tasks

1. Understand "self" as separate, with own unique perspective 2. Clear sense of "who I am" (e.g., values, purpose) 3. Competencies, mastery (e.g., assertiveness) ➝ Context = how well does "who I am" align with societal pressures?

The Problems with Pursuing Self-esteem: Overestimating our positive qualities

1000 Americans were asked to rate the likelihood of themselves and various well - known people of going to heaven - Mother Teresa: 79% - Respondents: 87% The 'better-than-average effect' - Students judge themselves as better than the average person on 38 of 40 traits People with high self-esteem are especially prone to overestimating their positive qualities - Intelligence - attractiveness

Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-being (PWB)

18-item - 3. "Some people wander aimlessly through life, but I am not one of them." - 7. "I live life one day at a time and don't really think about the future." - 10. "I sometimes feel as if I've done all there is to do in life." 42-item - 6. "I enjoy making plans for the future and working to make them a reality." - 20. "I have a sense of direction and purpose in life." - 32. "I don't have a good sense of what it is I'm trying to accomplish in life." "My daily activities often seem trivial and unimportant to me."

What is accomplishment?

Accomplishment = achievement, mastery or competence According to Seligman (2011), accomplishment can be measured objectively or subjectively. The PERMA emphasis is on the subjective experience or perception of accomplishment · Accomplishment = achievement, mastery or competence · Accomplishment/Achievement is related to one's own goals and not others' goals or accomplishments. · Reflecting on our attempts to do things and whether this reflection provides a positive sense of accomplishment/achievement. It is created through attempting, engaging and trying something that we already do not know how to do. · Having goals and ambition in life can help us to achieve things that can give us a sense of accomplishment. You should make realistic goals that can be met and just putting in the effort to achieving those goals can already give you a sense of satisfaction when you finally achieve those goals a sense of pride and fulfillment will be reached. · Having accomplishments in life is important to push ourselves to thrive and flourish. · "Achievement is among the central goods in life, both in popular thought and in philosophical circles. We celebrate our accomplishments, we are disappointed with missed opportunities and failures, and we shape our lives to achieve our goals. We even pursue our achievements at great expense of other goods, and in the best cases, see this as a justified cost that was worth the sacrifice" (Bradford, 2016) · ACCOMPLISHMENT/MASTERY IS LINKED TO INTRINSIC MOTIVATION "the desire to perform certain learning activities because the activity itself is inherently interesting, exciting or otherwise satisfying" (Bieg et al., 2017, p. 667)

Accomplishment

Accomplishment is associated with wellbeing - Interventions targeting accomplishment/ mastery can increase wellbeing/positive psychological responses - There is an important role of autonomy/ self-guided goals - Grit is another way to think about person- level variables

Pie chart to assess self-esteem based on shape/weight

All of us have a system for evaluating our worth as a person. Typically, people evaluate themselves according to various things such as their relationships (say with their parents, partner or friends), how they're performing at work or in their studies, or how they're doing in various pastimes (like sport, playing a musical instrument or cooking). And appearance too may be important. Now, if things are going well in these various areas of life, people feel good about themselves. But if things are not going well, people feel bad about themselves. A helpful way of figuring out your own system of evaluating yourself is by using a pie chart, with the various slices representing the various areas in life that are important to how you judge yourself; the bigger the slice, the more important that area is in terms of how you judge yourself.

Higher autonomy associated with

Better adjustment to relocation in older adults (Smider et al., 1996) ➝ Lower levels of depression symptoms in older adults in aged care (Davison et al., 2012)

Can emotions be experienced unconsciously?

Binocular rivalry - perception alternates between different images presented to each eye Unconscious influence of emotions: Þ Binocular suppression - experimental technique to supress the image in one eye; if one flashes an image of greater strength to one eye, the image in the other eye will not be consciously perceived

Sources of Meaning

By far the most important source of meaning in life is relationships: ➝ Family - although this can be in one- direction ➝ Friends Relationships Matter

And also by

Carl Jung - A goal driven model (teleological) - Purpose is individuation & integration - "The first half of life is devoted to forming a healthy ego, the second half is going inward and letting go of it." Utilised the idea of the DeamonAnimus/anima

And also

Carl Rogers - Humanistic therapies - Values ⇾ 'the good life' - the fulfilling, happy life - as a life in which the aim is fulfil potential. Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)Values based work

Role of Self, own goals

Children, 8-12 years - Monitors of physical activity - accelerometer around waste (estimated physical activity). - Children studied individually - Time engaged in activities - Time sedentary (Roemmich et al., 2012)

Philosophy

Confucius: "By three methods we may learn wisdom: first by reflection, which is noblest; second by imitation, which is easiest; and third by experience, which is the bitterest." Socrates (5th Century BC): · "The unexamined life is not worth living." · He asserts that life must be contemplated & examined. · To not examine life's essence reduces our species to something less. Aristotle: · Each person's life has a purpose and that the function of one's life is to attain that purpose. · The purpose of life is earthly happiness or flourishing that can be achieved via reason and the acquisition of virtue.

Ongoing: Competencies, mastery

Continually developing skills (competencies) that support our autonomy

Engagement (Flow) 2

EVIDENCE: INTERVENTIONS Randomly assigned 347 Year 9 students to Language Arts classes that contained the positive psychology curriculum (Positive Psychology Condition) or did not contain the positive psychology curriculum (Control). Curriculum consists of approximately 20 -25 80 -minute sessions. Standard questionnaires completed before the programme, after the programme, and through two years of follow -up. Questionnaires measured students'strengths (e.g., love of learning, kindness), social skills, behavioural problems and enjoyment of school, grades.

Philosophy 2

Early 19th century: "the meaning of life." - Schopenhauer - Kierkegaard - Nietzsche - Tolstoy - Sartre He who has a why to live can bear almost any how Friedrich Nietzsche

Irvin Yalom

Existential therapy

Introduced by Glaw, Kable, Hazelton, Inder 2018

Five main theorists: - Viktor Frankl - Logotherapy - Irvin Yalom - Existential therapy - Martin Seligman - Positive psychology - Paul Wong (2012) - Marié Wissing (2014)

Definition of Self-acceptance (Ryff, 1989)

High Self-Acceptance - Positive attitude towards the self - Able to acknowledge and accept multiple aspects of the self (positive and negative) - Positive evaluation of one's life to date Low Self-Acceptance - Dissatisfied with the self - Troubled about certain personal qualities Disappointed with what has occurred in one's life to date

Definition of Self-esteem

High self-esteem refers to a highly favourable global evaluation of the self Low self-esteem refers to an unfavourable global evaluation of the self

Engagement (flow) Moneta & Csikszentmihalyi (1996)

Flow theory - attempt to integrate motivation, personality and subjective experience into a unified framework. Two central variables 1. the perceived challenges (or intrinsic demands) 2. the perceived skills (or self-perceived capacity to meet demands) - both low = apathy - challenge>skill = anxiety - skill>challenge = boredom - challenge+skill = flow (cognitively efficient, motivated & happy) Drive to seek balance challenge & skill focused attention/flow which will enhance mental health, performance, talent & creativity. Personality factors confront problems, cope complexity, "hardiness". EVIDENCE: FLOW HAPPENS AT THE INTERSECTION OF CHALLENGE AND SKILL Experience Sampling Method - same questionnaire, random times during daily activities for 7 days (electronic pager) Talented students prestigious high schools (n=371) Concentration: How well were you concentrating? Wish: Do you wish you had been doing something else? Involvement Happiness Challenge: Challenges of the activity Skill: Your skills in the activity 4 contexts - school, family, friends, alone (Where were you?, Who were you with?) Balance of challenges and skill positive effect some contexts but not in others (relevant where achievement is dominant). If schools provide "students with high challenge and high skill then ideal for optimization of concentration and involvement" (p. 303) "Balance of challenge and skill limited role in family life" (p. 303) Different contexts lead to different concentration, wish, involvement and happiness.. that can be explained only in part by the flow model... challenges and skill are not the only factors affecting the quality of these four dimensions of experience" (p. 304)

But also

Freud - A person's purpose can be conscious or unconscious. And it is often unconscious. - Meaning in what the patient said - Prior to Freud, symptoms were biological impulses - Freud saw symptoms as meaningful - Make sense based on a person's history and what happened to them

Future Research

Glaw et el (2016) · predominant use of undergraduate psychology students as participants in meaning in life research. o representative of the wider community? o Developmental model required? · Limited research on meaning in/of life in 40 - 60 year age bracket.

The Daemon

Greek - symbolizes the highest essence of a human being. InAristotle'sethics, the daemon was virtue and wisdom in the most practical sense.

Contributors and predictors

Grit 'perserverance and passion for long-term goals' How gritty are you? - Setbacks don't discourage me - I finish what I begin - Set a goal, then later decide to pursue another... (Duckworth & Quinn, 2009) (Eskreis-Winkler, Gross & Duckworth, 2016) Achievement—Cog and Non-Cog Factors... (Duckworth et al., 2019) Achievement—Talent and Effort... (Duckworth, Eichstaedt, & Ungar, 201)

Interventions 2

Growth Mindset - You see failure as a chance to learn & even pivot - View critical feedback as a chance to improve where they can develop new systems - More likely to embrace challenging tasks & work hard to improve - View obstacles as a chance to experiment & solve problems - Focus on a journey of continual improvement - More likely to take creative risks

Negative Consequences of Overestimating Our Positive Qualities

Holding an overly flattering view of one's personality, abilities, and other attributes is often a recipe for personal disaster. Success in life comes largely from matching one's abilities to appropriate situations, jobs, and relationships. To the extent that they misperceive who or what they are really like, people are more likely to make bad decisions. When self-serving illusions blind people to their shortcomings and weaknesses, they are unlikely to try to improve. The person who blames an uncontrollable temper on everyone else, poor school performance on unfair teachers, or a long string of romantic failures on other people's inability to handle intimacy will not do what is needed for positive change. Leary (2004)

Cognitive reappraisal

How we interpret situations can influence our wellbeing: threat or challenge? Tomaka et al. (1997) - Mental arithmetic task, under surveillance - Threat instructions: "emphasized the importance of completing the task as quickly and accurately as possible and that responses would be scored for speed and accuracy" - Challenge instructions: "think of the task as a challenge and... yourself as someone capable of meeting that challenge" Challenge instructions à more adaptive physiological responding during task

Values

I am inclined to think that congruent meaning making relating to core values underlying situation-specific and existential meaning is likely to be most conducive to well-being. (Vella-Brodrick, 2014, p. 122) 39 ➝ Antecedents to meaning and purpose ⇾ Values ⇾Character traits⇾Signature strengths

Ikigai

Japanese notion · 'that which most makes one' s life seem worth living'Purpose in life · The reason you get out of bed each day o Linked to Requires deep reflection

PERMA

M1 In general, to what extent do you lead a purposeful and meaningful life? M2 In general, to what extent do you feel that what you do in your life is valuable and worthwhile? M3 To what extent do you generally feel you have a sense of direction in your life?

What do we mean? Definitional Issues 2

Martela & Steger (2016) Meaning in Life Coherence - Being able to discern understandable patterns - The feeling that one' s experiences or life itself makes sense' A life narrative that makes sense Purpose: measured in terms of a lifespan rather than a day - having direction and future-oriented goals in life o although different conceptualizations vary in terms of the magnitude and grandeur attributed to purpose. - Ryff (1989): having 'goals in life and a sense of directedness.' - Mcknight and Kashdan (2009): 'central, self-organizing life aim that organizes and stimulates goals, manages behaviors, and provides a sense of meaning.' o a person may have multiple purposes in life. - George and Park: ' a sense of core goals, direction in life, and enthusiasm regarding the future' (2013). Significance - value, worth, and importance - worthwhileness and value of one' s life. - ' a sense of life' s inherent value' - a life worth living o connects closely with the idea of eudaimonia, § an ancient Greek word translated as happiness, but which is more precisely about living well, successfully, and responsibly

What do we mean? Definitional Issues

Martela & Steger (2016) The Meaning of Meaning - Meaning of Life - philosophy - looks at life and the universe as a whole and asks what, in general, is the point of life: Why does it exist, and what purpose does it serve? These kind of metaphysical questions are, however, ' out of reach of modern objectivist scientific methodology'... and not questions for psychology to answer. - Meaning in Life - psychology The aim of psychological research on meaning in life is more modest. It aims to look at the subjective experiences of human beings and asks what makes them experience meaningfulness in their lives

Adaptive function of positive emotions

Much research on the adaptive/survival function of negative emotions Þ Fleeing from predators or danger Þ Vigilance for danger (e.g.,anxiety) Þ Aggression toward predators or enemies (e.g., resource accrual) Much less research on the adaptive/survival function of positive emotions

The Problems with Pursuing Self-Esteem: Interpersonal Problems

People pursuing self-esteem want to be superior to others. Consequently, life becomes a zero-sum game, and other people become competitors and enemies rather than supports and resources (Crocker & Park 2004)

Martin Seligman

Positive Psychology - Focus on a good life rather than mental illness per se - Full life = pleasant life & engaged life; meaningful relationships

Undo function?

Previous research had shown that PA stimuli do not "do" anything to our peripheral physiology In the 1990's Barbara Frederickson conducts some early studies to test whether the function of PA is to "undo" the deleterious effect of NA (e.g., the unpleasant feeling of fear)

Interventions

Role of Self, Own Goals... When choices are present—and there is an environment that facilitates autonomy, that can support accomplishment

Measures

Ryff Scales of Psychological Well-Being (PWB) PERMA Purpose in Life (PIL) Meaning in Life Questionnaire - Presence of Meaning Scale (MLQ-P) Sources of Meaning Profile (SOMP)Valued Living Questionnaire (VLQ) & VLQ-2

The Problems with Pursuing Self-esteem: Unstable self-view

Self -esteem tends to be a fair -weather friend, there for us when we succeed but deserting us precisely when we need it most - when we fail or make a fool of ourselves." (Neff & Germer, 2018)

Multidimensional Definition

Sherer's components processing model of emotion specifies 5 crucial elements: 1. Cognitive appraisal - evaluative component 2. Bodily sensations - physiological component 3. Action tendency - motivation component 4. Expression - mainly facial and vocal Feelings-a subjective component

Definitions - Vella Brodrick 2014

Situational Meaning · deriving meaning from specific circumstances and events in a relatively narrow and context-specific way. vs. Existential meaning · the contemplation of meaning from a more global perspective · often transcends the self · big questions "who am I and what do I stand for?" "what can I be doing with my life to make it more worthwhile?" "why does suffering and death occur?"

Collective

Social well-being - individuals embedded in social structure and communities and social factors such as social integration, belonging, acceptance will impact on happiness and well-being Zumeta et al (2016) Collective activities may serve to build engagement and lead to increases in well-being and performance. Optimal experiences particularly intense and enjoyable when they are performed collectively (Zum eta et al., 2016, p. 717) Ritualised gathering: San Sabastian 24 hr celebration of St Sebastian Feast Day

The risk of certain contingencies of self-worth

Some contingencies of self-worth are more within the person's capacity to control and hence are associated with positive self-esteem - e.g., correlation between virtue and self-esteem = .12 Other contingencies of self-worth are less within the person's capacity to control and hence are less associated with positive self-esteem - e.g., correlation between others' approval and self-esteem = -.20

Evidence: Engagement/flow is a good thing

The Dark Side of Flow: A Qualitative Study of Dependence in Big Wave Surfing Partington Partington & Olivier (2009) possibility of finding both positive and negative consequences of experiencing flow. 15 of the world's top big wave surfers. extremely high achievers one- to-one semi structured interviews 1-2 hours in duration DARK FLOW "in which people are so involved in an activity that nothing else seems to matter; the experience itself is so enjoyable that people will do it even at great cost, for the sheer sake of doing it" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1991 p. 4). Dependence In Figure 2, D's use of the term 'addiction' when discussing his need to surf was shared by many of the surfers: There is a risk of dying, of breaking bones, but the feeling you get off it ( ow) is like no other feeling in the world. The best drugs cannot get you the same level of ecstasy, feeling of really good adrenaline. Once you get familiar with that feeling it's an addiction. (Participant D). DARK FLOW - DEPENDENCE Bamber, Cockrill, Rodgers and Carroll, (2003) Tolerance - increase amount of time spent on activity to achieve desired effect Withdrawal - symptoms such as anxiety or fatigue when deprived of exercise Intention effect - exercise taken in greater amounts or for longer durations than was intended Loss of Control - unsuccessful efforts made to reduce the amount of exercise taken Time - excessive time spend on activity Conflict - occupational or social activities given up because of exercise Continuance - continue to exercise despite impediments such as injury

Frederickson's Broaden & Build Theory

The primary tenets of the Broaden & Build Theory are: 1. That positive emotions broaden the scope and breadth of people's perception and understanding, enabling them to act more creatively, flexibly and with sensitivity to the future That the adaptive advantage of a broader perceptual, cognitive, social and behaviour perspective is to spur the development of resources and personal trajectories of growth

The joy of definitions

There are challenges in defining what is meant by meaning & purpose Difference between psychology & philosophy - Philosophy: meaning of life - Psychology: meaning in life - But this still gets confused within literature What are we measuring? "The meaning of life used to be an elusive concept for scientist, but in the last couple of years much progress has been made in this area" (Schippers & Ziegler, 2019, p 4)

Meaning Matters

There is a link between health, mental health, and meaning fulfilment. Meaning is central to successful human functioning and is associated with positive health and mental health - Glaw, Kable, Hazelton, Inder (2017, pp 243 - 244) Higher levels of meaning have been linked to : better physical health / fewer health problems reduced mortality risk / greater longevity higher life satisfaction / happiness less vulnerability to acquiring psychopathology / enhanced quality of living Meaningfulness: - can help reduce stress and enhance physical, psychological, and mental well-being People with meaning and purpose in life are less neurotic and more sociable Meaning in life has been linked to: - psychological and spiritual well-being - psychological strength - positive development - happiness - a more positive affect - life satisfaction - psychosocial health - well-being - coping and better adjustment after stress Lack of meaning: can lead to fatigue, a decrease in physical energy and can affect how people interact with each other related to psychopathology, depression, substance abuse, suicidality, neuroticism, anxiety, and anomia (the inability to remember names of objects), post- traumatic stress disorder, and lower levels of well- being Loss of meaning in life has also been associated with psychological distress and physical illness

Measuring social connectedness

Wellbeing and health are best predicted by: Subjective measures that focus on felt belonging · Loneliness; belonging · "How often do you feel isolated from others?" (RULS-8; Roberts, Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1993) Measures that emphasise group-based connectedness over interpersonal ties. · Social identification; multiple group membership · "This group is an important part of how I see myself" (SISl; Postmes et al., 2013)

The Problems with Pursuing Self-Esteem: Engaging in Dysfunctional Behaviours

When self-esteem falters due to inevitable setbacks and personal failures, people may be prone to engaging in dysfunctional behaviours to restore self-esteem (e.g., severe dieting) or to escape from the negative feelings arising from self-criticism (e.g., binge eating or drinking)

Ikigai matters

that which most makes one' s life seem worth living' - One of reasons why people in certain areas of the world live so long Linked to Increase in health and longevity across cultures, ages and sexes This relationship is found even when things such as lifestyle, positive relationships with others and general affect were controlled for in the analyses. Schippers & Ziegler (2019, p. 4)

Why groups?

· 'Showing up' probably isn't enough · Social identification is the psychological sense of connection, belongingness and self-definition that is subjectively experienced in group memberships · 45 years of psychological research suggests social identification underpins group-based behaviour leadership, prejudice, justice, protest, voting (Turner et al., 1987; Haslam et al., 2012) · Could social identity be the reason why social connectedness matters for mental health? · 92 participants with a diagnosis of depression or anxiety · Participated in 4 weeks of group CBT psychotherapy ➝ 53% had comorbidity · Age M = 44.75 (SD =12.86); 72.8% female · Measured depression severity at T1 and T2, social identification and frequency of attendance · 52 participants experiencing significant disadvantage · Participated in Reclink approximately weekly for 3 months: Yoga, Soccer, Art, Sewing · 44.2% reported having a formal mental health diagnosis · Age M = 44.65 (SD =13.34); 81.4% female · Measured depression severity at T1 and T2, social identification and frequency of attendance

Harvard study of adult development

· 724 men, recruited as teenagers in 1938 · Two samples: Harvard graduates and their Boston peers from the poorest neighbourhoods · Followed across 80 years · Extensive data collection: interviews with family and friends, physiological and genetic measures, questionnaires · High quality close relationships singled out as the most important predictor of healthy ageing. · Ratings of the quality of one's relationship with friends, family, or spouse BUT · Causality is really hard to establish in these kind of population studies · Maybe people get sick and then their relationships deteriorate?

Building social relationships: a whole of community approach

· A group-based psychotherapeutic program that focused on building meaningful social group connections · Facilitated by a group leader and a co-leader · Manual contains suggested wording to introduce topics/exercises · Modules comprised of group activities and homework / weekly reflections · Participant workbook that summarizes the activities and reflections · N = 120 people with a mental health diagnosis or clinically significant depressive symptoms · Aged 17-69 (M = 31.06, SD = 12.80) 64% female · Recruitment: community members referred from GPs, psychologists, and community health services in the region. · Diagnosis: 36% None; 42% Major Depression; 38% anxiety disorder; 5% PTSD · Adjunct treatment: Medication 43%; Psychotherapy 45% · Randomised to receive Groups 4 Health or Treatment as usual · Facilitated by provisional psychologists (postgrads) · Follow-up at four months · Measures: o Loneliness "How often do you feel isolated from others?" (RULS-8; Roberts, Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1993) o Multiple group membership "I have friends in lots of different groups" (Haslam et al., 2008) o Depression "I felt down-hearted and blue" (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) Social anxiety"Being embarrassed or looking stupid are among my worst fears"(mini-SPIN; Connor et al., 2001)

Building Social Relationships: Groups 4 Health

· A group-based psychotherapeutic program that focused on building meaningful social group connections · Facilitated by a group leader and a co-leader · Manual contains suggested wording to introduce topics/exercises · Modules comprised of group activities and homework / weekly reflections · Participant workbook that summarizes the activities and reflections · N = 120 people with a mental health diagnosis or clinically significant depressive symptoms · Aged 17-69 (M = 31.06, SD = 12.80) 64% female · Recruitment: community members referred from GPs, psychologists, and community health services in the region. · Diagnosis: 36% None; 42% Major Depression; 38% anxiety disorder; 5% PTSD · Adjunct treatment: Medication 43%; Psychotherapy 45% · Randomised to receive Groups 4 Health or Treatment as usual · Facilitated by provisional psychologists (postgrads) · Follow-up at four months · Measures: o Loneliness "How often do you feel isolated from others?" (RULS-8; Roberts, Lewinsohn, & Seeley, 1993) o Multiple group membership "I have friends in lots of different groups" (Haslam et al., 2008) o Depression "I felt down-hearted and blue" (DASS-21; Lovibond & Lovibond, 1995) o Social anxiety "Being embarrassed or looking stupid are among my worst fears" (mini-SPIN; Connor et al., 2001)

1. Meaning & Purpose throughout the ages

· At least since the time of Aristotle, scholars, philosophers, and religious leaders have pondered the question: "How can we become lastingly happier?" Seligman, Steen, Park & Peterson (2005) The human quest to understand the meaning of life has been pervasive throughout time Vella-Brodrick (2014, p, 122)

What evidence supports the Broaden component: Emotional Resilience

· Common for intermixed emotion in the face of crisis; amidst the anger, sadness, fear, and anxiety provoked by the 911 terror attacks, people may have felt: a) Grateful for life and the safety of loved ones b) Heightened connection to one anotherc) Inspired by acts of bravery · 60% of people reported closer interpersonal relations; just under 50% felt more hopeful for the future immediately after the attacks · Resilient people use positive emotions (humour, optimism, engagement)

Measures 1

· Limits to self-report measures · Individuals find meaning from a variety of sources o Relationships are most prominent o Other sources too A variety of sources of meaning in life contribute to an overall sense of meaning in life

What is the direction of the effect?

· N = 21,227 population sample of New Zealand residents from the New Zealand Attitudes and Values Survey (NZAVS) · Fully cross-lagged panel analysis at Waves 2 - 5 (2010-2013) · Age M = 44.67 (SD =14.66); 62% female · Psychological distress: K6 M = 5.00 (SD = 4.01) · Social connectedness: "I feel like an outsider" Control variables: age, gender, socioeconomic status

Comparing different types of relationships

· N = 827 boys at a large private school in Brisbane · Measured interpersonal ties (number of friends) · Measured social identities (number of groups)

Building social relationships: a whole of community approach?

· Neighbour Day is a grass roots community-based campaign to increase individual and community social connections, foster healthy relationships, reduce loneliness and promote social inclusion. · Activities include local BBQs, craft stalls, setting up neighbourhood facebook pages, random acts of kindness, etc · An estimated 300,000 people participated in 2019 · 437 hosts across 344 suburbs around Australia Surveyed in March, April and October 2019

Social relationships are psychological resources

· Resources buffer us against life's stressors · Resources can be used in a variety of different ways · 300 American community members (aged 18-70) · Experiment: participants reminded of the loss or gain of a social identity Measured psychological need satisfaction · Belonging · Autonomy · Meaning and purpose · Esteem Measured depression · 171 retirees (aged 50+) · Measured social connectedness to multiple groups and quality of life · Interested in the capacity of groups to provide meaning and purpose in retirement · Measured social support received and social support provided

Building Social Relationships

· Social skills? · Befriending? · A meta-analysis found disappointing outcomes for these approaches. · "...the most we can say is that these interventions achieve, at best, only modest improvement but not recovery." · Our view is that these previous approaches lack a focus on building social group connections

Why important accomplishment

· Students completed an extensive well-being questionnaire, which the school developed as part of an initiative to build student well-being. · Range of scales to measure PERMA and well-being (factor analysed and used to explain range of outcomes). Life satisfaction Hope, Gratitude, School engagement Growth mindset Spirituality, Somatic symptoms Stressful life events Physical vitalityPhysical activity (Kern et al., 2015)

What about in the context of social distancing?

· We can be physically distant without being socially distant

What evidence supports the Broaden component: Big Picture

Þ Comprehensive review of whether happiness predicts or causes success: 1. Cross-sectional studies 2. Longitudinal studies 3. Experimental studies Þ Examined 225 published paper and 11 unpublished dissertations; 293 samples, over 275,000 participants and 313 independent effects sizes Associated with: Þ Superior mental and physical health, positive social relationships, healthy behaviour, less stress, accident and suicide rates, coping, and immune function Predicts (precedes) Þ Successful outcomes in work, relationships and health, positive moods and behaviours associated with success (prosociality, extraversion, social activity, coping, creativity) Causes: Þ Positive mood,positive perceptions and judgements, sociability, energy, enjoyment of activities

Experimental Mental State

Þ Do experiential mental states arise automatically and reliably in response to the environment? Richard Lazarus (1991) emphasized the impact of context and appraisal in emotional experience

Do emotions represent distinct categories?

Þ Emotions pioneer, Paul Eckman, suggested emotions are discrete, measurable, distinct, and universally recognized Þ Cordaro & Keigner added based on facial/vocal expressions

What evidence supports the Broaden component: Forecasting Love

Þ Harker and Keltner (2001) and Hertenstein and colleagues (2009) examined whether smile intensity predicted marriage and divorce Þ Photographs were coded by raters for intensity of two muscle groups (AU6, Orbicularis and AU12 Zygomatic major), which are necessary for a Duchene smile In Study 1 (2001), graduating class at women's private school; followed over adulthood for health, well-being, personality & marriage Þ Smile intensity predicted likelihood of marriage by age 27, happiness of marriage and several personality factors (more organised, content, nurturing, compassionate and sociable) In Study 2 (2009), 359 psychology alumni graduating from 1941 through 2005 answered questions on relationship status Þ Smile intensity predicted likelihood of divorce

Can positive emotions be developed

Þ Lyubomirsky and colleagues emphasize that achieving positive emotions is more than engaging in things that feel good Þ Happy people have been shown to: o Express gratitude o Help others o Practice optimism about the future o Savour pleasures and live in the present o Make physical activity a habit o Often have a spiritual aspect to their lives o Deeply committed to life goals Þ They also emphasize the benefit of doing something intentional Þ In 1980's Michael Fordyce conducted several controlled trials using an educational intervention that taught the "14 Fundamentals of Happiness" 1. Keep busy, active 2. Socialise lots 3. Meaningful work 4. Lower expectations 5. Better organised 6. Stop worrying 7. Develop optimism 8. Be present oriented 9. Work on your personality 10. Extraversion 11. Be yourself 12. Eliminate negativity 13. Close relationships 14. Happiness as a priority

What evidence supports the Broaden component: Immunological Resistanc

Þ Sheldon Cohen and colleagues asked whether positive emotions can protect against the common cold Þ Community sample of 175 women, 159 men Þ Thoroughly screened for medical illness, Þ respiratory abnormalities, or early viral infection Þ Quarantined for 5 days and exposed to one of two types of rhinoviruses; monitored for the development of a cold (clinical, virological , mucus weight) and rated physical symptoms Þ Measures of emotional style taken by phone interview 6 weeks prior

What are emotions?

Þ Word emotion adapted from the French, émourvoir - "to stir up"; coined in the early 1800s by Thomas Brown Þ Consensus definition elusive, but most agree: o Momentary,experientialmentalstates o Accompaniedbyphysiologicalchanges o Prepareorganismsforadaptiveaction

Deci 1971 - Cognitive Evaluation Theory (CET)

➝ Emphasises role of psychological needs in human motivation ➝ "effects of an event such as a reward depend on how it affects perceived selfdetermination" — Deci et al., 1999, p. 628 ➝ Rewards can be interpreted as controlling

Values 2

➝ Important "guidance system" which leads to purposeful, enriching patterns of behaviour. ➝ Differentiating values from goals. ➝ Values as a compass Warning:⇾ need to track for pilance ⇾ Often bittersweet. - In our pain we find our values, and in our values we find our pain