A&P Final Lab Practical

Be able to discuss the experiment done to measure protein digestion (Act 10). And, know the reason for results for each condition tested.

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How did you test for breakdown of fats? (Act 11)

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How do gastric glands contribute to digestion.

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Structure from bladder to body exterior.

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Understand how kidneys filter blood as described in manual and shown in video.

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When observing the sounds of digestion, how many sounds should be heard as fluid moves through esophagus and why?

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Difference between bolus and chime.

Bolus: A mass of masticated food in the esophagus that is ready to be passed into the stomach. Chyme: The mixture of partly digested food and digestive secretions found in the stomach and small intestine during digestion of a meal. It is a varicolored, thick, nearly liquid mass.

Basophil

Granolocyte. Rarest of WBC;s. Represents 0.5% to 1% of WBC population. U or S shaped nucleus and coarse sparse granules that stain deep purple. Granules contain chemicals, including histamine, vasodilator that helps mediate inflammatory response.

*Neutrophil*

Granulocyte. Represent 50% to 70% of the leukocyte population. Nucleus consists of three to seven lobes. Pale lilac cytoplasm contains fine cytoplasmic granules, which take up both red and blue dyes. Function as active phagocytes and their numbers increase during acute infection.

Know the functions of each of the 4 teeth types (classifications).

Incisors: biting Canines: tearing or piercing Premolars and molars: grinding food

Pharynx

Initiates wavelike contractions that propel the food inferiorly into the esophagus.

Differentiate between internal and external sphincters of the urinary bladder.

Internal urethral sphincter: -Involuntary and made of smooth muscle External urethral sphincter: -Voluntary and made of skeletal muscle

How did you take a pulse in activity 1? And what possible arteries can be used to take a pulse?

Listening to the heart using a stethoscope. Arteries to take Pulse: Common Carotid Artery - at the side of the neck Superficial temporal artery - anterior to the ear Facial Artery - Clench the teeth, and palpate the pulse just anterior to the masseter muscle in line with the corner of the mouth. Brachial Artery - In the antecubital fossa, at the point where it splits into the radial and ulnar arteries. Radial Artery - at the lateral aspect of the wrist , just above the thunb. Femoral Artery - In the groin Popliteal Artery - At the back of the knee Posterior tibial artery - Just above the medial malleolus Dorsalis pedis Artery - On the dorsum of the foot

What are the organs of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract (alimentary canal)? Also, know their functions and locations.

Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus, Stomach, Small Intestine, Large Intestine.

Which layer contains nerves and vascular tissue?

Muscularis Externa

Small Intestine

Nearly all food absorption occurs in the small intestine, where three tructural modifications that increase absorptive area appear...The circular folds are deep folds of the mucosal and submucosal layers that force chyme to spiral through the intestine, mixing it and slowing its progress to allow time for digestion and absorption. Any residue remaining undigested at the end of the small intestine enters the large intesting through the ileocecal valve.

Understand pulmonary circulation and the movement of oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood.

Pulmonary circulation: functions to bring blood into close contact with the air sacs of the lungs to permit gas exchanges that rid the blood of excess carbon dioxide and replenish its supply of vital oxygen. Begins with the large pulmonary trunk, which leaves the right ventricle and divides into the right and left pulmonary arteries about 2 inches above its origin. The pulmonary arteries plunge into the lungs, where they subdivide into lobar arteries (three on the right and two on the left), which accompany the main bronchi into the lungs. The lobar arteries branch extensively within the lungs and finally end in the capillary networks surrounding the air sacs of the lungs. The respiratory gases diffuse across the walls of the air sacs (alveoli) and pulmonary capillaries. The pulmonary capillary beds are drained by venules, which converge to form larger and larger veins and finally the four pulmonary veins (two leaving each lung), which return the blood to the left atrium of the heart.

Major blood vessels associated with the kidneys.

Renal Artery, Cortical Radiate Veins, Arcuate Veins, Interlobar Veins, Renal Vein.

Which lung has 3 lobes? 2 lobes? And, why are they different?

Right lung has 3 lobes. Left lung has 2 lobes. To make room for the heart.

What enzymes digests starch while food is in oral cavity?

Salivary Amylas

What type of epithelium is found lining the mucosa layer?

Simple Columnar

Purpose of: Water

Solvent for carrying other substances; absorbs heat.

Difference between systole and diastole.

Systole: contraction of ventricles Diastole: relaxation of ventricles

Know the parts of the pharynx.

The nasopharynx, the oropharynx, the laryngopharynx.

laryngopharynx

accommodates both food and air. It extends to the larynx where the common pathway divides into the respiratory and digestive channels. From the laryngopharynx, air enters the lower respiratory passageways by passing through the larynx (voice box) into the trachea below.

Why might the apical be faster than the radial count (act. 2)?

because of a slight lag in time as the blood rushes from the heart into the large arteries where it can be palpated.

Blood

blood is classified as a type of connective tissue because it consists f a nonliving fluid matrix in which living cells are suspended. The fibers typical of a connective tissue matrix become visible in blood only when clotting occurs. They then appear as fibrin threads, which form the framework for clot formation. Formed elements account for 45% with plasma making up the other 55%.

Be able to identify cardiac muscle using a microscope and how it's different from other striated muscle.

branching cells and the areas where cells interdigitate, the intercalated discs are the two structural features that provide a continuity to cardiac muscle not seen in other muscle tissues and allow coordinated heart activity.

Large Intestine

compact and propel the fecal matter toward the anus and to eliminate it from the body. While it does that chore, it provides the site for intestinal bacteria to manufacture some vitamins (B and K), which it then abosrbs into the blood stream, and reclaims most of the remaining water (and some electrolytes) from undigested food, thus conserving body water.

Which muscles control breathing

diaphragm, intercostal muscles, abdominal muscles, and accessory muscles.

internal respiration

exchange of gases to and from the blood capillaries of the systemic circulation (oxygen unloading and carbon dioxide loading)

Where does exchange of gases occur and how can this be impaired?

gas exchange occurs by simple diffusion across the respiratory membrane.

Platelets

small clusters of dark-staining, irregularly shaped bodies that appear much smaller than the other formed elements. Platelets are cell fragments of large multinucleate cells called megakaryocytes. Normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 to 400,000 per cubic millimeter. Needed for clotting process that occurs in plasma when blood vessels are ruptured.

Explain the process of peristalsis and if it's voluntary or involuntary.

A progressive wavelike movement that occurs involuntarily in hollow tubes of the body, esp. the alimentary canal. It is characteristic of tubes possessing longitudinal and circular layers of smooth muscle fibers. Peristalsis is induced reflexly by distention of the walls of the tube. The wave consists of contraction of the circular muscle above the distention with relaxation of the region immediately distal to the distended portion. The simultaneous contraction and relaxation progresses slowly for a short distance as a wave that causes the contents of the tube to be forced onward.

*Monocyte*

Agranulocyte. Largest of leukocytes. Approximately twice the size of red blood cells. Represent 3% to 8% of leukocytes. The dark blue nucleus is generally kidney shaped, and its abundant cytoplasm stains gray-blue. Functions as an active phagocyte (long term clean up) increasing in number during chronic infections such as Tb.

*Lymphocyte*

Agranulocyte. Smallest of leukocytes. Approximately the size of a RBC. Large dark blue to purple, generally spherical or slightly indented nucleus. Sparse cytoplasm appears as thin blue rim around the nucleus. Represent 20% to 45% of WBC population. Function as "warriors" of the immune system.

Know the structure of alveoli and the cellular structure

Alveoli are tiny balloonlike expansions along the alveolar sacs, are composed of a single thin layer of squamous epithelium (called type 1 alveolar cells) overlying a wispy connective tissue layer. Type II alveolar cells secrete a fluid called surfactant, which alters the surface tension of the alveoli to prevent a collapse. The external surfaces of the alveoli are desnely spiderwebbed with pulmonary capillaries. Together, the alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membranse form the resporatory membrane.

Mouth

As food enters the mouth, it is mixed with saliva and masticated. The cheeks and lips help hold the food between the teeth during mastication. The mobile tongue mixes the food with saliva during chewing and initiates swallowing. Thus the mechanical and chemical breakdown of food begins before the food has left the mouth.

How is blood pressure measured (and the units) and what is considered to be high or low blood pressure.

Blood pressure is the pressure the blood exerts against the inner blood vessel walls; it is generally measured in the arteries. Because the heart alternately contracts and relaxes, the rhythmic flow of blood into the arteries causes the blood pressure to rise and fall during each beat. Thus you must take two blood pressure readings: the systolic pressure, which is the pressure in the arteries at the peak of ventricular ejection, and the diastolic pressure, the pressure during ventricular relaxation. Blood pressures are reported in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) with the systolic appearing first. High BP:

How was BP and HR affected by exercise in comparison to rest?

Both initially increase during exercise, BP eventually equalizes. During rest, both are relatively low.

Purpose of: Fibrinogen

Clotting of blood

Purpose of: Globulins

Defense (antibodies) and lipid transport.

What membranes protect the lung and how?

Double layered serous membrane sac called pleura. The outer layer, the parietal pleura, is attached to the thoracic walls and the diaphragm. The inner layer, covering the lung tissue, is the visceral pleura. The two pleural layers produce lubricating serous fluid that causes them to adhere closely to one another, holding the lungs to the thoracic wall and allowing them to move easily against one another during the movements of breathing.

What are the 3 areas of the small intestine and know their location.

Duodenum: extends from the pyloric sphincter for about 10 inches and curves around the head of the pancreas. Jejunum: Continuous with the duodenum, extends for about 8 feet. Ileum: The terminal portion of the small intestine is about 12 feet long and joins the large intestine at the ileocecal valve.

Functions of the urinary system and its role in maintaining homeostasis.

Elimination of waste products: -Nitrogenous wastes -Toxins -Drugs Regulate aspects of homeostasis: -Water balance -Electrolytes -Acid-base balance in the blood -Blood pressure -Red blood cell production -Activation of vitamin D

Be able to navigate passage of food through alimentary canal.

Food starts off travelling through the mouth, where it is chewed into smaller particles. Saliva in the mouth breaks down carbohydrates, and turns starch into sugar. Next it travels down the oesophagus, the oesophagus doesn't play any part in the chemical breakdown of food, it only transports it to the stomach. In the stomach gastric juices containing enzymes break down the food. The enzyme pepsin breaks down proteins into peptides. Lipase breaks down the fats. Next the food particles move down into the first part of the small intestine (duodenum), thats where the food is absorbed into the intestine walls. The intestine has small projections called villi, which aid this process by creating more surface area for diffusion. After the nutrients have been absorbed, the rest (waste) move onto the large intestine. The large intestine transports it and sucks out the water from the waste, then the waste moves out through the anus.

Eosinophil

Granulocyte. Represents 2% to 4% of the leukocytes.Nucleus generally figure 8 or bilobed in shape, large cytoplasmic granules that stain red-orange. Increase in number during allergies and parasite infections.

What is a hematocrit test and what steps did you take to perform one in lab?

Hematocrit is routinely done when anemia is suspected. Centrifuging whole blood spins the formed elemets to the bottom of the tube, with plasma forming the top layer. Since the blood cell population is mostly RBC's, the hematocrit is generally considered equal to the RBC volume, and this is the only value reported. However, the relative percentage of WBC;s can be differentiated, and both WBC and plasma volume will be reported (here). Normal hematocrit values for male: 42%-52%. Females: 37%-47%.

What is difference between microvilli and villi? Understand the importance of their structure.

Microvilli are minute projections of the surface plasma membrane of the columnar epithelial cells of the mucosa. Villi are fingerlike projections of the mucosa that give it a velvety appearance and texture. In the core of each villus is a dense capillary bed and a wide lymphatic capillary called a lacteal. Digested food stuffs are absorbed through the epithelial cells into both the capillary blood and the lacteal.

Describe the histology of the alimentary canal by each of the tunics (3).

Mucosa: innermost layer that lines the alimentary canal lumen. It consists of a surface epithelium (in most cases, a simple columnar later), a lamina propria (an areolar connective tissue layer) and a muscularis mucosae (a scant layer of smooth muscle fibers). The major functions of the mucosa are secretion (of enzymes, mucus, hormones, etc.), absorption of digested foodstuffs, and protection (against bacterial invasion). The mucosa in a particular organ may be involved in one or all three functions. Submucosa: Superficial to the mucosa, the submucosa is connective tissue containing blood and lymphatic vessels, scattered lymph nodules, and nerve fibers. Its intrinsic nerve supply is called the submucosal plexus. Its major functions are nutrition and protection. Muscularis Externa: typically is a bilayer of smooth muscle, with the deeper layer running circularly and the superficial layer running longitudinally. The smooth muscle is controlled by the myenteric plexus, an intrinsic nerve plexus in this tunic. Consequently, this plexus is the major regulator of GI motility. Serosa: The outermost serosa is the visceral pertitoneum. It consists of a single layer of squamous epithelium associated with scant areolar connective tissue and houses a third intrinsic nerve plexus, the small subserous plexus. The lubricating serous fluid produced by the serosa reduces friction as the GI tract organs work and slide across one another and the cavity walls.

Locations and functions of microscopic kidney anatomy: parts of the nephron)

Nephrons are associated with two capillary beds: -Glomerulus -Peritubular capillary bed Glomerulus: -Fed and drained by arterioles -Afferent arteriole—arises from a cortical radiate artery and feeds the glomerulus -Efferent arteriole—receives blood that has passed through the glomerulus -Specialized for filtration -High pressure forces fluid and solutes out of blood and into the glomerular capsule Peritubular Capillary Beds: -Arise from efferent arteriole of the glomerulus -Normal, low pressure capillaries -Adapted for absorption instead of filtration -Cling close to the renal tubule to reabsorb (reclaim) some substances from collecting tubes

Most Abundant Leokocyte to least abundant

Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas Neutrophils, Lymphocytes, Monocytes, Eosinophils, Basophils

What part of digestive system is shared with respiratory system?

Oral cavity and pharynx

Purpose of: Albumin

Osmotic Balance

Purpose of: Salts (electrolytes)

Osmotic balance, pH buffering

Explain the different peaks in an ECG (electrocardiogram).

P-Wave: represent atrial depolarization. Precedes each QRS complex. QRS Complex: represents depolarization of the ventricles. Should be between 0.06 and 0.10 Q: first downward deflection R: Any upward deflection S: any downward deflection following an R wave. T-Wave: represents ventricular re-polarization. Seen as a small wave after a QRS Complex.

Composition of Blood

Plasma (55%): Water, salts (sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, bicarbonate), plasma proteins (albumin, fibrinogen, globulins), substances transported by blood (nutrients: glucose, fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins. Waste products of Metabolism: urea, uric acid. Respiratory gases: O2, CO2. Hormones) Formed Elements (45%): RBC's, WBC's, Platelets.

Know the procedure used to determine blood type in the lab and understand the ABO blood types. And, what factor makes it positive or negative?

RH (rhesus)

Erythrocytes

Red Blood Cells. sacs of hemoglobin molecules that transport oxygen (and a small amount of carbon dioxide). Anucleate. Life cycle of about 4 months.

What are the accessory organs to the digestive system?

Teeth, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas

What is the importance of the epiglottis?

The epiglottis forms a lid over the larynx when we swallow. This closes off the respiratory passageway and routes the incoming food or drink into the esophagus or food chute, posteriorly.

Know each of the heart chambers and the blood flow through these chambers. (use FIGURE 20.3 as a guide for blood flow)

The heart is a double pump that serves two circulations. The right side of the heart pumps blood through the pulmonary circuit to the lungs and back to the left heart. The left heart pumps blood via the systemic circuit to all body tissues and back to the right heart. Notice that blood flowing through the pulmonary circuit gains oxygen and loses carbon dioxide. Blood flowing through the systemic circuit loses oxygen and picks up carbon dioxide. Vena Cava -> Right Atrium -> right ventricle -> pulmonary arteries -> lungs -> pulmonary veins -> left atrium -> left ventricle ->aorta. Valves: Right side - Tricuspid Left side - mitral (bicuspid)

How is the heart protected from rubbing against the lungs and body cavity as it moves?

The pericardium and serous fluid.

Be able to differentiate between an artery and vein using a microscope.

The walls of arteries tend to be thicker than those of veins. The tunica media in particular is much heavier and contains much more smooth muscle and elastic tissue. This structural difference reflects a functional difference in the two types of vessels. Because arteries are closer to the pumping action of the heart, they must be able to expand as blood is propelled into them and then recoil passively as the blood flows off into the circulation during diastole, and their walls must be strong and resilient enough to withstand such pressure fluctuations. By contrast, veins are far removed from the heart in the circulatory pathway and are essentially low-pressure vessels. For this reason, the walls of the veins are thinned than those of arteries. However, the pressure in veins tends to be too low to force blood back to the heart, and the blood returning to the heart often flows against gravity; so, structural modifications are needed to ensure that venous return equals cardiac output.Thus, the lumen of veins tend to be substantially larger than those of corresponding arteries, and their are valves in larger veins to prevent backflow of blood.

Be able to explain how a bell jar model lung works.

This model mimics the action of the lungs. The demonstrator's hand performs the function of the abdominal muscles (or thoracic muscles), and the balloons, of course, are the lungs. With the diaphragm relaxed, the balloons are flaccid. When one pushes up on the diaphragm, the balloons deflate completely, and when one pulls down on the diaphragm, they inflate.

Be able to explain what tidal volume, expiratory reserve volume, vital capacity, inspiratory reserve volume and residual volume are and how to measure them using the spirometer.

Tidal Volume: volume of air inhaled and exhaled with each normal respiration, is approximately 500 mL. To conduct the test, inhale a normal breath, and then exhale a normal breath of air into the spirometer mouthpiece (do not force). Expiratory Reserve Volume: the volume of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal expiration, ranges between 700 and 1200 mL. Inhale and exhale normally two or three times. Then insert the spirometer mouthpiece, and exhale forcibly as much of the additional air as you can. Vital Capacity: total exchangeable air of the lungs (sum of TV, IRV, ERV) is normally around 4500 mL with a range of 3600 mL to 4800 mL. Breathe in and out normally two or three times, and then bend over and exhale all the air possible. Then, as you raise yourself to the upright position, inhale as fully as possible. Quickly insert mouthpiece and exhale as forcibly as you can. Inspiratory Reserve Volume: volume of air that can be forcibly inhaled following a normal inspiration. Compute using the average values obtained for TV, ERV and IRV. (IRV=VC-(TV+ERV))

Leukocytes

White Blood Cells. part of the body's nonspecific defenses and the immune system. Contain a nucleus. Much less numerous than RBC's.

Esophagus

conducts food to the stomach by peristalsis. The gastroesophageal/cardiac sphincter controls food passage into the stomach.

Agranulocyte

contain no observable cytoplasmic granules. Much more abundant in lymphoid tissue than blood stream. Nuclei tend to be closer to the norm (spherical), oval, or kidney shaped. Two types.

external respiration

gas exchanges to and from the pulmonary circuit blood that occur in the lungs (oxygen loading and carbon dioxide unloading)

Granulocytes

have granules in their cytoplasm. Have peculiar nuclei, which often consist of lobes of nuclear material connected by thin strands of nucleoplasm.

What is the function of hemoglobin and what metal does in contain to perform this function?

hemoglobin transports oxygen. Hemoglobin contains iron to perform this function. The oxygen combines with the heme (iron-containing portion) of the hemoglobin molecule, is picked up by the blood cells in the lungs and unloaded in the tissues.

What is the function of bile?

important to fat digestion because it acts as an emulsifier (breaks down larger particles into smaller ones.) of fat. This creates a larger surface area for fat-digesting enzymes to work on.

Describe function and location of the larynx.

is made up of nine cartilages, most quite small. The largest are the shield-shaped thyroid cartilage, whose anterior protrusion is commonly called the Adam's Apple, and more inferior ring-shaped cricoid cartilage. All laryngeal cartilages are composed of hyaline cartilage except the epiglottis, a flaplike elastic cartilage superior to the opening of the larynx. If anything other than air enters the larynx, a cough reflex attempts to expel the substance. This reflex operates only when a person is conscious. The mucous membrane of the larynx is thrown into a pair f folds called the vocal folds, or true vocal cords, which vibrate with expelled air for speech. The slitlike passageway between the vocal folds is called the glotis.

Where is the appendix located and complications that could arise.

large intestine. Appendicitis.

nasopharynx

lies posterior to the nasal cavity and is continuous with it. Because it lies above the soft palate, it serves only as an air passage. High on its posterior wall are the pharyngotympanic tubes (auditory tubes or Eustachian tubes), which allow middle ear pressure to become equalized to atmospheric pressure, drain into the nasopharynx.

oropharynx

lies posterior to the oral cavity and is continuous with it through an archway called the isthmus of the fauces. It extends from the soft palate to the epiglottis of the larynx inferiorly, so it serves as a common conduit for food and air. In its lateral walls are the palatine tonsils. The lingual tonsil covers the base of the tongue.

Function of liver and gallbladder to the digestive system.

liver: produce bile. gallbladder: store and concentrate bile

formed elements

most numerous: RBC's (erythrocytes) WBC's (leukocytes) platelets

Plasma

nonliving fluid matrix in blood

What is the importance of the serosa?

nutrition and protection

What accessory organ secretes glucagon and insulin and why?

pancreas.

What part of the tooth encases blood and nerve supply?

pulp cavity

Know which factors influence rate and depth of respiration.

talking, yawning, coughing, and exercise. Changes in oxygen or carbon dioxide concentrations in the blood, or changes in blood pH.

Stomach

temporary storage region for food as well as a site for food breakdown. It contains a third obliquely oriented layer of smooth muscle in its musclaris externa that allows it to churn, mix, and pummel the food, physically breaking it down to smaller fragments.Gastric glands of the mucosa secrete hyrdochloric acid and hyrdochloric enzymes. The hyrdrochloric acid in the stomach serves two functions: it creates an environment that is hostile to foreign organisms, and it activates the digestive enzymes that are initially secreted into the stomach in an inactive form. The mucosal glands also secrete a thick mucus that protects the stomach from being digested by its protein-digesting enzymes.

Pulmonary ventilation

the movement of air into and out of the lungs. More simply called ventilation or breathing.

What factors are involved in blood coagulation? What if the body is unable to produce on of these proteins such as fibrinogen?

tissue factor and PF3. If the body is unable to to produce one of these proteins, the blood will not clot well or in a normal time frame.

transport of respiratory gases

transport of the respiratory gases between the lungs and tissue cells of the body using blood as the transport vehicle.

What are the layers of the blood vessels and what are the comprised of?

tunica intima: lines the lumen of a vessel, is a single thin layer of endothelium (squamous cells underlain by a scant amount of connective tissue) that is continuous with the endocardium of the heart. Its cells fit closely together, forming an extremely smooth blood vessel lining that helps decrease friction as blood flows through the vessel. tunica media: the bulky middle coat made primarily of smooth muscle and elastic tissue. The smooth muscle, controlled by the sympathetic nervous system, is active in changing the diameter of blood vessels, which in turn alters peripheral resistance and blood pressure. tunica externa: the outermost tunic, is composed of fibrous connective tissue. Its function is to support and protect the vessel.