Adolescence Chapter 1 & 2
Exosystem
Consists of links between a social setting in which the adolescent doesn't have an active role and the individual's immediate context. Ex. a husands experience at home may be influenced by a mother's experience at work.
Chronosystem
Consists of the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course as well sociohistorical circumstances. For exmaple, divorce is one transition.
Thyroid Gland
interacts with the pituitary gland to influence growth and skeletal maturation.
Development
pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span. Most development involves growth, although it also includes decay.
Biological Processes
physical changes in an individuals body. Ex. Height/Weight gains.
G. Stanley Hall
proposed that development is controlled primarily by biological factors.
Cohort Effects
refers to effects due to a person's date of birth, era or generation but not to actual chronological age.
1890-1920
"Age of adolescence" Lawmakers passed laws that excluded youth from most jobs and required them to attend secondary school. Two Changes Happen -Decreased employment of youth -Increased school attendance in youth
Margaret Meads
-Basic nature of adolescent is Sociocultural. -Culturals that allowed adolescent to observe sexual relations and other adult things, will know clearly what their adult roles will be, tend to promote a stress free adolescence.
Allens ways to help adolescent to become mature
-provide them with opportunites to be contributors -give candid quality feedback to adolescent -create positive adult connections with adolescents -challenge adolescent to become more competent
Formal Operational Stage
11 to 15, individuals move beyond concrete experiences and think in abstract and more logical terms. Adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances, they become more systematic, developing hypotheses about why something is happening the way it is and then testing thoses hypothesis.
Emerging Adulthood
18 to 25, experimentation and exploration characterize the emerging adult.
Middle Adulthood
35-45, Increasing interest in transmitting values to the next generation
Late Adulthood
60,70, to death, reviewing one's life and adapting to changing social roles.
Concrete Operational Stage
7 to 11, children can perform operations that involves objects and they can reason logically as long as they can apply reasoning to specific or concrete examples.
Erikson's Psychosocial Theory
8 stages of development unfold as we go through life. Each stage consists of a unique developmental tasks that confronts individuals with a crisis that must be faced.
Correlational Coefficient
A number based on a statical analysis that is used to describe the degree of association between two variables.
Puberty
A period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal and bodily changes that take place primarily in early adolescence. Puberty is thought of as the most important marker for the beginning of adolescene However, puberty doesn't necessarily span all of adolescene. For most people, puberty ends long before the end of adolescence.
Longitudinal Research
A research strategy in which the same individuals are studied over a period of time, usually several years or more.
Cross Sectional Research
A research strategy that involves studying people all at one time.
Adolescent Generalization Gap
Adelson's concept of generalization about adolescent based on information regarding a limited, often highly visible group of adolescent.
Debriefing
After the study has been completed, participants should be informed of its purpose and the methods that were used.
Jacqueline Lerner 5 Cs of Positive Youth Development
Competence-Confidence-Connection-Character-Caring/Compassion To develop these five positive characteristics youth need access to positive social contexts. Ex. youth development programs, organized youth activitites
Contributions of Psychanalytic Theories
Emphasis on a developmental framework, family relationship and unconscious aspects of the mind.
Cognitive Theories
Emphasizes conscious thoughts
Information Processing Theory
Emphasizing the individuals manipulate information, monitor it and strategize about it. Central to this approach are the processes of memory and thinking. Like a computer.
Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory
Focusing on the influence of five environmental systems.
Storm and Stress View
G. Stanley Halls concept that adolescence is a turbulent time charged with conflict and mood swings.
Jeffery Arnett 5 features of Emerging Adulthood
Identity exploration, instability, self focused, feeling in between, age of possibilities
Weight, body fat and Leptin
In boys, undernutrition may delay puberty. Higher weight and obesity is linked to earlier pubertal development Some researcher hypothesize that the onset of menarche(first menstrual period) is influenced by the % of body fat in relation to total body weight in females. Increasing evidence for a link between birth weight and weight gain during infancy and the onset of puberty.
Deception
In some circumstances telling the participants beforehand what the research study is about substantially alters the participants' and invalidates the researchers data. The psychologist must ensure that the deception will not harm the participants and that the participants will be told the complete nature of the study as soon as possible after the study is completed.
Criticisms of Psychanalytic Theories
Lack of scientific support, too much emphasis on sexual underpinning and an image of people that is too negative.
Bronfenbrenner's Five Systems
Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, and Chronosystem.
Eclectic Theoretical Orientation
Orientation that doesn't follow any one theoretical approach but rather selects from each theory whatever is considered the best in it.
Contributions of Cognitive Theories
Positive view of development and an emphasis on the active construction of understanding.
Hormones
Powerful chemicals secreted by the endocrine glands and carried through the body by the bloodstream.
Periods of Development
Prenatal period infancy Early childhood
Growth Spurt
Puberty brings forth the most rapid increases in growth since infancy. Occurs approzimately two years earlier for girls(9) than boys(11). The peak of pubertal change in growth occurs 11 and half for girls and 13 and a half for boys. Girls increase in height about 3 and a half inches per year: boys about 4 inches.
Heredity
Puberty is not an environmental accident. The timing for the energence of puberty is programmed into the genes of human beings. Onset takes place between about 9 and 16 years of age for most individuals. Environmental factors also play some role and influence its onset and duration.
The Endocrine System
Puberty onset involves the activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal (HPG) axis.
Sociocultural and Environmental Factors
Recent research indicates that cultural variations and early experiences may be related to earlier pubertal onset. -Adolescents in developed countries and large urban areas reach puberty earlier than their counterparts in less developed countries and rural areas. -Children adopted from developing countries to developed countries often enter puberty earlier than their counterparts who continue to live in developing countries.
Experience Sampling Method
Research method that involves providing participants with electronic pagers and then beeping them at random times, at which point they are asked to report on various aspects of their lives.
Descriptive Research
Research that aims to observe and record behavior.
Experimental Research
Research that involves an experiment, a carefully regulated procedure procedure in which one or more of the factors, believed to influence the behavior being studied are manipulated while all other factors are held constant.
Correlation Research
Research whose goal is to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics. Correlation doesn't equal causation.
Confidentiallity
Researchers are responsible for keeping all of the data they gather on individuals completely confidential and when possible completely anonymous
Criticism of Margaret Meads
Samoan adolescence is more stressful than Mead suggested and that delinquency does appear.
Social Cognitive Theory Emphasis
Scientific research and environmental determinants of behavior.
4 Stages of Piagets Theory of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor Stage, Preoperational Stage, Concrete Operational Stage and Formal Operational Stage.
Criticism of Cognitive Theories
Skepticism about the pureness of Piagets stages and too little attention to individual variations.
Piagets Theory
States that children actively construct their understanding of the world and go through four stages of cognitive development.
Independent Variable
The factor that is manipulated in experimental research.
Dependent Variable
The factor that is measured in experimental research.
Estrogens
The main class of female sex hormones.
Androgens
The main class of male sex hormones.
Criticisms of Social Cognitive Theory
Too little emphasis on cognitions in Skinner views and give inadequate attention to developmental changes.
Ethnic Gloss
Use of an ethnic label such as African American and Latino in superficial way that portrays an ethnic group as being more homogeneous than it really is.
Behaviorisms
We can study scientifically only we can directly observe and measure.
Determinants of Puberty
a number of complex factors are involved in the initation of puberty, though no single, precise has been identified. -Changes in the endocrine system -weight -body fat We don't know if thoses factors are a cause or a consequence of puberty
Resilience
adapting positively and achieving successful outcomes in the face of significant risks and adverse circumstances.
Informed Consent
all participants must know what their research participation will involve and what risks might develop. Participants must retain right to withdraw from their study at any time and for any reason
Testosterone is..
an androgen. Plays an important role in male pubertal development. Rising testerone levels are associated with a number of physical changes in boys: -development of external genitals -increase in height -voice change -also linked to sexual desire and activitly
Estradiol is....
an estrogen. Important in female pubertal development, as levels rises changes that occur: -breast development -uterine development -skeletal changes Less clear whether estradoil contributes to sexual desires and activity in adolescent girls than it is that testosterone does so for boys.
Theory
an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions.
Hypotheses
are specific assertions and predictions that can be tested.
Early Adulthood
begins in the late teens or early 20s and last through the 30s. Establishing personal and economic independence and career development.
Socioemotional Processes
changes in an individuals emotions, personality, relationships with other and social contexts. Ex. talking back to parents, aggression toward peers.
Cognitive Processes
changes in an individuals thinking and intelligence. Ex. memorizing a poem.
Joseph Adelson
coined the term adolescent generalization gap.
Early Adolescence
corresponds roughly to the middle school or junior high school years, includes most pubertal changes.
Psycholanalytic Theories
describes development as primarily unconscious(beyond awareness) and heavily colored by emotion. Emphasizes that behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that true understanding of development requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior and deep inner working of the mind.
Human development is
determined by biological, cognitive and socioemotional process.
Adolescence
development period of transition from childhood to adulthood: it involves biological, cognitive and socioemotional changes. Begins 10 to 13, ends in late teens.
Positive Youth Development
emphasizes the strengths of youth and the positive qualities and developmental trajectories that are desired for youth.
Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory
focused on observational learning, which learning occurs through observing what others do.
Daniel Offer
found no support for negative views of adolescence.
Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory
gave social interaction and culture far more important roles in cognitive theory.
Stereotype
generalization that reflects our impressions and beliefs about a broad groups of people. All stereotypes refer to an image of what the typical member of a specific group is like.
Millennials
generation born after 1980, first to come of age and enter emerging adulthood in the new millennium. Two Characteristics -ethnic diversity -connection to technology
Intimacy vs. Isolation
individuals experience during early adulthood years. They face the developmental task of forming intimate relationships.
Adrenarche
involves hormonal changes in the adrenal glands. Theses changes occur early, from about 6 to 9 years of age in girls and about one year later in boys. Occurs before what is generally considered the beginning of puberty.
Mesosystem
involves relations between microsystems or connections between contexts. Example are the relation of family experiences to school experiences to peer experiences. For ex, adolescents whose parents have rejected them may have difficulty developing positive relations with teachers.
Macrosystem
involves the culture in which adolescents live. Culture refers to the behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a group of people that are passed on from generation to generation.
Vygotsky's Theory
is a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
Boundary Testing
is a way in which adolescent move toward accepting, rather than rejecting parental views.
Identity vs Identity confusion
is the adolescent stage of erikson theory. If adolescent explore roles in a healthy manner and arrive at a positive path to follow in life, they achieve a positive identity, if not identity confusion reigns.
Gonadarche
is the period most people think of of as puberty. Follows adrenarche by about two years. Invovles the maturation of primary and secondary sexual characteristics.
Microsystem
is the setting which the adolescent lives. These contexts include the adolescents family, peers school and neighborhood. The most direct interactions with social agents take place. Adolescent is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings but someone who helps to construct the settings.
Contexts
settings in which development occurs. These settings are influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors.
Hypothalamus
structure in the higher portion of the brain that monitors eating, drinking and sex.
Inventionist View
that adolescence is a sociohistorical creation. Especially important in this view are the sociohistorical circumstnaces at the beginning of the 20th century, a time when legisalation was enacted that ensured the dependent of youth and made their move into economic sphere more manageable.
Social Policy
the course of action designed by the national government to influence the welfare of its citizens. Peter Benson thinks government too often focused on the negative development deficits of adolescent, such as drug use and delinquency and not enough on positive strength based approaches.
Nature vs Nurture
the debate about whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nurture.
Early vs Later experiences Issue
the degree to which early experiences (especially early in childhood) or later experiences are the key determinants of development.
Pituitary Gland
the endorcrine glad controls growth and regulates other
Continuity vs Discontinuity Issue
the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity)
Late Adolescence
the latter half of the second decade of life. Career interests, dating and idenitity exploration are often more pronounced.
Gonads
the sex glands, testes in males, ovaries in females- that secrete sex hormones.
Social Cognitive Theory
the view that behavior, environment and cognitive are the key factors in development.
B.F Skinner
through operant conditioning the consequences of a behavior produce changes in the probability of the behavior occurance. Behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to recur, wheras a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus.