APES Test
Population change equation
(births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration)
Different species and their populations thrive under different physical and chemical conditions.
Some need bright sunlight, others need shade, some need intense heat, some need extreme cold, some need dry, some need wet.
Limiting Factor
Single factor that limits the growth, abundance, or distribution of the population of a species in an ecosystem. Example: low precipitation levels in desert ecosystems limit desert plant growth.
Define limiting factor and give an example
Single factor that limits the growth, abundance, or distribution of the population of a species in an ecosystem. EX: Soil nutrients
Indicators of overall health of a country
- Life expectancy (not just that everyone is going to live to 78, it means that an infant born in 2019 is expected to live until they are 78.) - Infant mortality # of babies/1000 who die before 1st birthday
Parasitism
Interaction between species in which one organism, called the parasite, preys on another organism, called the host, by living on or in the host. Example: fleas/ticks/tapeworms and mammals or mosquitoes and humans
Predation
Interaction in which an organism of one species (the predator) captures and feeds on some or all parts of an organism of another species (the prey)
Which is the below is an examped of a positive use of nature's natural capital?
increased reliance on renewable energy resources
Which of the below is NOT used to calculate population growth rate?
infant mortality rate
Why is a replacement-level fertility slightly 2 children per couple?
some children die before reaching reproductive years
Replacement level fertility:
women has enough children to replace her and each of her sexual partners
Explain how living systems achieve some degree of sustainability by undergoing constant change in response to changing environmental conditions?
Stability, or capacity to withstand external stress and disturbance, is maintained only by constant change in response to changing environmental conditions.
6. Which reproductive strategy do most species of insect pests and harmful bacteria use? Why does this make it difficult for us to control their populations?
Most insect pests and harmful bacteria have a large amount of smaller sized offsprings. Because their offsprings are too many, it is almost impossible to detect all of them and take control of their population.
What is a population's age structure? What are the three major age groups called?
Percentage of the population (or number of people of each gender) at each age level in a population Prereproductive, Reproductive, and post-reproductive stages
Explain how the interactions among plant and animal species in any ecosystem are related to the scientific principles of sustainability.
Plants and animals depend, directly or indirectly, on solar energy, and all populations play roles in the cycling of nutrients in the ecosystems where they live. The biodiversity found in the variety of species in different terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems provides alternative paths for energy flow and nutrient cycling, better opportunities for natural selection as environmental conditions changes, and natural population control mechanisms. Disrupting these paths violates all 3 scientific principles of sustainability.
Annual Growth Rate
R = (B - D)/(10) Annual Growth Rate = Crude Birth - Crude Death Example: R = (31% - 22%)/10 Annual Growth Rate = .9% ~or~ 31/1000 - 22/1000 = 9/1000 Annual Growth Rate = .9%
Define range of tolerance.
Range of chemical and physical conditions that must be maintained for populations of a particular species to stay alive and grow, develop, and function normally
Range of Tolerance
Range of variations in any physical or chemical environmental factor under which population can survive.
Explain how living systems achieve some degree of sustainability by undergoing constant change in response to changing environmental conditions.
This stability, or capacity to withstand external stress and disturbance, is maintained only by constant change in response to changing environmental conditions.
4. How would you reply to someone who contends that efforts to preserve natural systems are not worthwhile because nature is largely unpredictable?
Though the natural is largely unpredictable, there are parts we do know about. For example, we know that over hunting one species might cause another species to overgrow and eventually ruin the whole habitat. As we know the negative consequence, we should have done something to preserve the natural system and avoid the natural disaster.
State the limiting factor principle.
Too much or too little of any physical or chemical factor can limit or prevent the growth of a population, even if all other factors are at or near the optimal range of tolerance
5. Explain why most species with a high capacity for population growth tend to have small individuals, while those with low capacity for population growth tend to have large individuals.
These are all strategies developed after time. To maximize the possibility for the offspring to servive, the parents tend to produce a bunch of small offsprings or few of large offsprings. The smaller offsprings require less care from the parents and, because of the large number, still have a possibility to survive by chance. The bigger offsprings usually require the parents' care and, because the small number, are protected more thoroughly by their parents so they can survive.
K-selected species
These species tend to do well in competitive conditions when their population size is near the carrying capacity of their environment. They tend to reproduce later in life and have a small number of offspring with fairly long life spans. Example: Most large mammals, birds of prey,, and large and long-lived plants
Explain why there is a bride shortage in China
because there is a strong preference for male children, who do not leave their parents at marriage or require a dowry. Some women use ultrasound to determine the gender of their fetus and get an abortion if the child is female.
Explain why most cities and urban areas are not sustainable.
because they have a high resource input of food, water, and materials that result in a high waste output.
Demographers Must:
- Determine reliability of current estimates - Make assumptions about fertility trends - Deal with different databases and sets of assumptions
Describe four phases of urban growth in the United States.
1) migrated from rural areas to large central cities, (2) from large central cities to suburbs and smaller cities, (3) from the North and East to the South and West and lastly, some people have fled both cities and suburbs and migrated to developed rural areas.
What are this chapter's three big ideas? Explain how changes in the nature and size of populations are related to the three principles of sustainability.
3 big ideas: •Certain interactions among species affect their use of resources and their population sizes. •Changes in environmental conditions cause communities and ecosystems to gradually alter their species composition and population sizes (ecological succession). •There are always limits to population growth in nature.
A medium population growth projection calls for population of 9.3 billion people in 2050 up from the current population of 6.7 billion. What percent increase is this?
39%
Population Doubling Time
70% Annual
What factors influence the size of the human population?
> population size increases through births and immigration, and decreases through death and emigration > the average number of children born to women in a population (total fertility rate) is the key factor that determines population size
Limiting Factors
A number of physical or chemical factors that can help to determine the number of organisms in a population. Examples: - Precipitation: Lack of water in a desert limits plant growth - Soil nutrients: if there is a lack of nutrients, plants and vegetation will suffer. - Too much of anything can be harmful. - Too much water for a plant can drown it.
Explain how age structure affects population growth and economic growth.
A population has the potential to increase if a large % falls in the pre-reproductive and reproductive categories and decrease if a large % falls in the post-reproductive age. Economic growth may be predicted based on how many individuals are in a group that would be working and spending money.
What is a predator-prey relationship?
A predator ( a bear) and a prey (salmon) form a relationship where the bear eats the salmon
One of largest diseases killing reproductive population
AIDS
How has the AIDS epidemic affected the age structure of some countries in Africa?
AIDS kills many young adults and leaves many children orphaned, causing a change in the young-adult age structure of a country and a sharp drop in average life expectancy.
Environmental Resistance
All of the limiting factors that act together to limit the growth of a population.
Why do most populations live in clumps?
Allows them to cluster where resources are available, provides some protection from predators, and gives predator species a better chance of getting a meal.
Commensalism
An interaction between organisms of different species in which one type of organism benefits and the other type is neither helped nor harmed to any great degree Example: Epiphytes and tree trunks/ branches or bees and pollen
Demographic transition
As countries become. Industrialized first their death rates then their birth rates decline Process of which a population changes as death and birth rates change
Interspecific competition.
Attempts by members of two or more species to use the same limited resources in an ecosystem. Examples: Humans and animals
How many of us are likely to be on the planet in 2050?
By 2050 there could be 9.6 billion people.
Problems with rapid population decline
Can threaten economic growth Labor shortages Less government revenues with fewer workers Less entrepreneurship and new business formation Less likelihood for new technology development Increasing public deficits to fund higher pension and health-care costs Pensions may be cut and retirement age increased
What are the world's three most populous countries?
China, India and the United States.
Define cultural carrying capacity:
Cultural carrying capacity is the maximum number of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely, without decreasing the ability of the earth to sustain future generations
Doubling time
DT = 70/Annual Rate ~or~ Annual Rate = 70/DT
Logistic growth
Decreased population growth rate as population size reaches carrying capacity
Population Crash
Dieback of a population that has depleted its supply of resources, exceeding the carrying capacity of its environment. Example: Reindeer were introduced onto a small island in the Bering Sea in the early 1900s
The graying of america
Due to baby boom, 2029 biggest generation will start to turn 65, in creasing age of overall population significantly
Economic rewards
EX: being paid to have children or not have children
Which of the below has been utilized in both India and China to attempt to reduce population growth rates?
Family planning and education
Population
Group of individual organisms of the same species living in a particular area.
Explain why humans are not exempt from nature's population controls.
Humans aren't exempt from population crashes, if they have used up their resources.
Wha currently accounts for 40% of US population growth
Immigration
What is migration?
Migration is the movement of people into (immigration) and out of (emigration) specific geographic areas.
Reasons for human population increase
Movement into new habitats and climate zones Early and modern agriculture methods Control of infectious diseases through - Sanitation systems - Antibiotics - Vaccines - Health care
What limits the growth of populations?
No population can continue to grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources and because of competition among species for those resources.
Predator species
Organism that captures and feeds on some or all parts of an organism of another species (the prey) Example: Lion
Prey species
Organism that is killed by an organism of another species (the predator) and serves as its source of food. Example: Zebra
Explain how each of these species interactions, along with predation, can affect the population sizes of species in ecosystems.
Parasitism keeps the population in check, mutualism is one species on their own, Commensalism one benefits and the other isn't harmed
Logistic growth of a population
Pattern in which exponential population growth occurs when the population is small, and population growth decreases steadily with time as the population approaches the carrying capacity. S-curve
Why is infant mortality viewed as on of thee best measures of a countries health
Reflects general level of healthcare and nurtition
Predator-prey relationship Why is it important?
Relationship that has evolved between two organisms, in which one organism has become the prey for the other, the latter called the predator. It is important because interactions between predator and prey species can drive each other's evolution.
What is age structure
The distribution of makes and females among groups in a. Population
Explain why we should help to preserve kelp forests.
The kelp forest should be helped to preserve because it is one of the most biologically diverse ecosystems found in marine waters and without it there would be a less source of shelter or food for marine life, and the kelp forest helps reduce shire erosion by trapping some of the outgoing sand.
Key concept for 5.2
The species composition of a community or ecosystem can change in response to changing environmental condition through a process called ecological succession.
About how many people are added to the world's population each year?
There were about 83 million people added during 2011. But the number of people added to the worlds population grows each year.
What is urban sprawl?
Urban sprawl is the growth of low-density development on the edges of cities and towns.
What is total fertility rate
average number of children born to women in a population during their reproductive years
Population change
increase or decrease in the size of a population. (Births + Immigration) - (Deaths + Emigration).
Migration
movement of people into and out of specific geographic areas.
Factors than can hinder the demographic transition:
o Rapid population growth. o Extreme poverty. o Increasing environmental gradation.
Family planning
providing information, clinical services, and contraceptives to help people choose the number and spacing of children they want to have.
How to calculate population change
subtract number of people leaving a population from number entering it during a specified period of time
Explain why succession does not follow a predictable path.
successional ecosystems are in a state of continual disturbance and change and
Fertility rate
the number of children born to a woman during her lifetime
Crude death rate
the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year; annual number of deaths per 1,000 people in the population of a geographic area at the midpoint of a given year.
Crude birth rate
the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year; annual number of live births per 1,000 people in the population of a geographic area at the midpoint of a given year.
Carrying capacity
the number of people, other living organisms, or crops that a region can support without environmental degradation
What causes baby booms
usually war
Four advantages of urbanization:
• Provide innovation/technological advances. • Increase access to education. • Increase access to jobs. • Serve as centers of industry, commerce, and transportation.
Read all the case studies in both chapters
.
Population crash
a lot of death not a lot of growth
What are this chapter's three big ideas?
• The human population is increasing rapidly and may soon bump up against environmental limits. • We can slow human population growth by reducing poverty, encouraging family planning, and elevating the status of women. • Most urban areas, home to half of the world's people, are unsustainable but they can be made more sustainable and livable within your lifetime.
Describe some of the problems faced by the poor who live in urban areas
• The poor who live in urban areas face a lack of medical services, poor sanitation, and increased poverty.
List three trends in global urban growth
• Trends in global urban growth are that urban populations are increasing, the number and sizes of large urban areas is mushrooming, urban growth is much slower in developed countries than in less-developed countries, and poverty is becoming increasingly urbanized.
Benefits of immigration:
• U.S. has a historical role as a place of opportunity for the world's poor and oppressed. • Immigration adds cultural diversity and innovation. • Most immigrants and their descendants start new businesses(Mexican resturants), create jobs, add cultural vitality, and help the United States to succeed in the global economy. • Immigrants will work low paying jobs that Americans won't
Four variables that govern changes in population size.
Births, deaths, immigration, and emigration
Human populations grow or decline in particular counties, cities, or other areas through the interplay of three factors:
- Births (fertility) - Deaths (mortality) - Migration
There are 3 ways that members of a population are typically dispersed
- Clumping > The resources species need vary greatly in availability from place to place, so the species tends to cluster where the resources are available > Individuals moving in groups have a better chance of encountering patches or clumps of resources, such as water and vegetation, than they would searching for the resources on their own. > Living in groups can help to protect some individuals from predators > Living in packs gives some predator species a better chance of getting a meal - Uniform dispersion - where resources are scarce - Random dispersion - example: animals might not live together but they gather to hunt
Exponential growth
Starts slowly, then accelerates to carrying capacity when meets environmental resistance (J Curve)
What is the planet's cultural carrying capacity? And what is the difference between carrying capacity and cultural carrying capacity?
- Cultural Carrying Capacity: Maximum number of people who could live in reasonable freedom and comfort indefinitely, without increasing the ability of the earth to sustain future generations - Carrying Capacity: The max population that can exist in order to continue with the resources available
List three factors that account for the rapid increase in the world's human population over the past 200 years.
- Humans have expanded into almost all of the planet's climate zones and habitats. - Modern agriculture has emerged which has allowed us to grow more food for each unit of land area farmed. - Death rates dropped sharply because of improved sanitation and health care.
Factors affecting death rates
- Increase food supply and distribution (decrease death rates, people are not dying of malnutrition) - Better nutrition (decrease) - Medical advancement (medicine can cure things that people used to die from) - Improved sanitation - Safer water supply
Two types of fertility rates
- Replacement level fertility rate: average number of children a couple must have to replace themselves. 2.1 in developed countries, up to 2.5 in developing countries - Total fertility rate (TFR): average number of children born to women in a population
Limiting factors for aquatic life zones
- Temperature - Sunlight - Nutrients - Low levels of oxygen gas - Salinity (the amounts of various inorganic minerals such as salts dissolved in a given volume of water).
Five factors that affect death rate:
- sanitation - health care - medical advances - food distribution -nutrition - water supply - married women working
Several factors affect birth rates and fertility rates
-The importance of children as a part of the labor force (especially in less developed countries). - The cost of raising and educating children - The availability of, or lack of, private and public pension systems - There are more infant deaths in poorer countries - Urbanization
List four variables that affect the population change of an area and write an equation showing how they are related
-birth rate: # of children being born per woman in a geographical region -immigration: ppl coming into a geographical region -death rate: # of ppl dieing in a geographical region -emigration: people leaving a geographical region -Population change = (births + immigration) - (deaths + emigration) if death rate is higher than birth rate, then population will decline. if birth rate is higher than death rate, then population will grow.
10 factors that affect a country's average birth rate
-importance of children as part of the labor force -cost of raising and educating children -availability of public and private pension systems -urbanization -education and employment opportunities available to women -infant mortality rate -average age at marriage -availability of legal abortions -availability of reliable birth control methods -religious beliefs traditions and cultural norms
Rapid decline in population can cause several problems such as:
-threaten economic growth -labor shortages -less likelihood of technology development - increasing public deficits to fund high pensions and health care costs - pensions may be cut out and retirement age increased
Why do 41 countries have longer life expectancies than the USA even though we spend the most on healthcare
1) 45 million Americans lack healthcare insurance 2) adults in the U.S. a have one of the worlds highest obesity rates
3 major factors that account for population increase
1) humans developed the ability to expand into diverse new habitats and different climate zones. 2) the emergence of early and modern agriculture allowed more people to be fed for each unit of land area farmed. 3) the development of sanitation sys- tems, antibiotics, and vaccines helped control infectious disease agents.
Describe two different reproductive strategies that can enhance the long-term survival of a species.
1. By producing so many offspring that a few will likely survive and reproduce and keep pattern going 2. Reproduce later in life and have a small number of offspring with longer life spans
The world's population is growing exponentially at a rate of about ___% a year. Geographically, this growth is unevenly distributed and this pattern is expected to continue.
1.21%
Over time the number of individuals in a population can increase, decrease or stay the same in response to environmental conditions
A population increases by birth and immigration (arrival of individuals from outside the population) A population decreases by death and emigration (departure of individuals from the population)
2. Use the second law of thermodynamics to help explain why predators are generally less abundant than their prey. In your explanation, make use of the pyramid of energy flow.
Based on second law of thermodynamics, there is always waste when converting energy. Because when the predator eats the prey energy convertion happens, there is an energy lose. As the trophcal level increases, the amount of energy decreases because there is always some heat losed. Therefore the predators are generally less abundant than their prey.
How has the world's TFR changed since 1955?
Between 1955 and 2011, the average global lifetime number of births of live babies per woman dropped from 5 to 2.5.
Chapter's three big ideas
Certain interactions among species affect their use of resources and their population sizes. There are always limits to population growth in nature. Changes in environmental conditions cause communities and ecosystems to gradually alter their species composition and population sizes (ecological succession).
Define and give an example of coevolution.
Coevolution: when populations if two different species interact in such ways over a long period of time,changes in the gene pilot one species can lead to changes in the gene pool of the other Ex: bats using echolocation to navigate and locate prey to avoid bats their prey moths species have evolved ears that are sensitive to sound frequencies of bats and to escape the moths drop to the ground or fly evasively.
Secondary ecological succession
Ecological succession in an area in which natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom sediment has not been destroyed. Examples: abandoned farmland, burned or cut forests, heavily polluted streams, and flooded land
Primary ecological succession
Ecological succession in an area without soil of bottom sediments Examples: bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier, newly cooled lava, an abandoned highway or parking lot, and a newly created shallow pond or reservoir
Distinguish between the environmental resistance and the carrying capacity of an environment, and use these concepts to explain why there are always limits to population growth in nature.
Environmental resistance: All of the limiting factors that act together to limit the growth of a population Carrying capacity: Maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat can support over a given period The environment causes a limited amount of availability of light, water, temperature, space, or nutrients, or by exposure to predators or infectious diseases limiting populations and carrying capacity limits how the population by a set amount of resources available
Coevolution
Evolution in which two or more species interact and exert selective pressures on each other that can lead each species to undergo adaptations. Example- Bees and flowers
What is family planning?
Family planning includes educational and clinical services that help couples choose how many children to have and when to have them.
Why is the recovery of the southern sea otters slow What factors are threatening this recovery?
Female sea otters cannot reproduce fastly, because they cannot reproduce until they are 2 to 5 years old, and stop reproducing when they are 15. They are K- strategists, they have on average only one pup per year. The population of otters has fluctuated because of changes in environmental conditions. The rise in number of orca whales, have caused populations of sea otters to decrease because the whales feed on the otters. The orca whales have started feeding on the otters because of a decline in the populations of the species that they typically prey on
Demographic transition (as countries become industrialized)
First death rates decline Then birth rates decline Four stages: 1. Preindustrial - Slow population growth, due to high birth rate and high death rate 2. Transitional - Population grows rapidly because birth rates are high and death rates drop because of improved food production and health 3. Industrial - Population growth slows as both birth and death rates drop because of improved food production, health, and education 4. Postindustrial - Population growth levels off and then declines as birth rates equal and then fall below death rates. *When birth rate and death rate are the same, that's when you know you've hit the postindustrial stage. Occasionally countries will fall into a Failing state: They get stuck in stage 2: the transitional stage. The population is booming and not leveling off.
2 problems that remain with Family Planning
First, according to the U.N. Population Fund, 42% of all pregnancies in developing countries are unplanned and 26% end with abortion. Second, an estimated 201 mil- lion couples in developing countries want to limit the number and determine the spacing of their children, but they lack access to family planning services.
3. How would you reply to someone who argues that we should not worry about the effects that human activities have on natural systems because ecological succession will heal the wounds of such activities and restore the balance of nature?
Firstly, it takes a long time for the environment to recover from a harm. When it is recovering, there is not much resource produced by the land for humans' constant use. Besides, harm on environment also affects other species and possibly lead to their extinction. Once biodiversity decreases, more species would be affected and the whole environment may also be changed because of the lose of some keystone species.
Key concept for 5.1
Five types of interactions among species- interspecific competition, predation, parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism- affect the resource use and population sizes of species.
Describe India's efforts to control its population growth.
For over 50 years, India has tried to control its population growth with only modest success. Due to cultural preferences for large families and male children, only 48% of couples use birth control, even though 90% have access to at least one modern birth control method.
Exponential growth of a population
Growth in which some quantity, such as population size or economic output, increases at a constant rate per unit of time. J-curve
7. List three factors that have limited human population growth in the past and that we have overcome. Explain how we overcame each of these factors. List two factors that may limit human population growth in the future. Do you think that we are close to reaching those limits? Explain.
Have overcome: Bubonic plague, people created antibiotics to cure the disease. Hunger, the technology has greatly changed out lives, though in most countries hunger is still an important issue. In future: land and super bacteria. Water. Yes, because the population is keep growing while the land is limited. the use of antibiotics also creates problems. Wasting water is still a problem to be solved.
Population growth in developing countries is
Increasing 9 times faster than developed countries
Intraspecific competition
Intraspecific competition takes places within a species
Two indicators of overall health of people in a country
Life expectancy Infant mortality rate
Humans are not exempt from natures population controls
Ireland experience a population crash when a fungus destroyed a potato crop and killed almost 1 million people from hunger or disease related to malnutrition (1845). Bubonic Plague - spread through densely populated EU cities and infected humans by travelling through rats. Currently, the world is experiencing a global epidemic of AIDS, which has killed more than 27 million people and continues to claim 2 million lives each year -- four deaths per minute. Technological , social, and other cultural changes has expanded the earth's carrying capacity for the human species. We've increased food production, used large amounts of energy to occupy formerly uninhabitable area. Some say we will keep expanding out ecological footprint indefinitely, because of our technological ingenuity. Others say we will reach the limits that nature always imposes on all populations.
For the past 200 years, human population growth has demonstrated the ____ curve rather than exponential growth
J-curve
Describe 3 types of curves
Late loss- typically has high survivorship to a certain age, then high mortality. Early loss- survivorship is low early in life. Constant loss- shows a fairly constant death rate at all ages.
Define life expectancy and infant mortality rate and explain how they affect the population size of a country
Life expectancy is the average # of years a newborn infant can expect to live, and the infant mortality rate is the number of babies out of every 1,000 born who die before their first birthday. A longer life expectance and a lower infant mortality will increase population.
Survivorship Curve
Line graph that shows the percentages of the members of a population surviving at different ages.
Carrying capacity of an environment
Maximum population of a particular species that a given habitat can support over a given period.
5-3 What is the key concept for this section?
No population can grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources and because of competition among species for those resources.
Key concept for 5.3
No population can grow indefinitely because of limitations on resources and because of competition among species for those resources.
Population density Explain how some limiting factors can become more important as a population's density increases?
Number of organisms in a particular population found in a specified area of land or volume of water or air. Some limiting factors (Density-dependent) become more important as a population's density increases because, for instance, in a dense population, parasites and diseases can spread more easily, resulting in higher death rate. However, a higher population density can help sexually reproducing individuals to find mates more easily in order to produce offspring.
Some species use different reproductive patterns to help ensure their long term survival.
One pattern is: Small offspring Little to no parental care Many don't survive - Algae - Bacteria - insects Other Species (K strategist, K-selected): Reproduce later in life Small number of offspring Young offspring grow inside mother Long time to maturity Protected by parents, potentially groups - Humans - Elephants
Define parasitism, mutualism, and commensalism and give an example of each.
Parasitism:occurs when one species (the parasite) feeds on another organism (the host), usually by living on or inside the host EX: blood sucking sea leech attached to lake trout mutualism: two species behave in ways that benefit both by providing each with food, shelter, or some other resource EX: pollination of flowering plants by species such as honeybees, hummingbirds, and butterflies Commensalism: interaction that benefits one species but has little, if any, beneficial or harmful effect on the other EX: involves plants called epiphytes (air plants), which attach themselves to the trunks or branches of trees (Figure 5-10) in tropical and subtropical forests. Epiphytes benefit by having a solid base on which to grow.
Distinguish between primary ecological succession and secondary ecological succession and give an example of each.
PRIMARY ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION is Ecological succession in a area without soil or bottom sediments EX: bare rock exposed by a retreating glacier (Figure 5-11), newly cooled lava, an abandoned highway or parking lot, and a newly created shallow pond or reservoir. SECONDARY ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION:Ecological succession in an area in which natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom sediment has not been destroyed ( has soil to start with) EX: abandoned farmland (Figure 5-12), burned or cut forests, heavily polluted streams, and flooded land
Write an equation showing how these variables interact.
Population change= (Births + Immigration) - (Deaths + Emigration)
Write an equation showing how they interact.
Population change= (births + immigration) - (Death+ Emigration)
Define population density and explain how some limiting factors can become more important as a population's density increases.
Population density: Number of organisms in a particular population found in a specified area or volume. Parasites ad Disease: spread more easily and have he effect of controlling population growth Higher population density: can help sexually reproducing individuals to find mates easier
Compare rates of population growth in developed countries and developing countries. Explain the differences that you find.
Population growth is higher in countries that are still developing compared to the countries that are already developed. Countries that are developed have birth control, health care, provide education, better jobs/ careers; while countries that are in the process of developing don't aren't able to provide all of these things to their population. So without education and career opportunity, women continue to have more and more children. Without birth control women also continue to have more and more children.
What is a population's age structure and what are three major age groups called?
Population's age structure:Percentage of the population (or number of people of each sex) at each age level in a population Three major age groups: Pre-reproductive stage: not mature enough to reproduce reproductive stage: capable of reproduction post-reproductive stage:too old to reproduce
Define predation and distinguish between a predator species and a prey species and give an example of each.
Predation:a member of one species feeds directly on all or part of a living organism as part of a food web Predator species capture prey by many methods such as walk swim or fly or camouflage while Prey species run swim or fly fast, highly developed Senses ( they have avoidance adaptations from predators), camouflage, chemical warfare, or warning coloration or mimicry. Predators benefit and prey is harmed. Ex: Predator species: lions, cheetahs,bear Prey species: butterfly, octopus, leaf insects
Describe three ways in which predators can increase their chances of feeding on their prey and three ways in which prey species can avoid their predators.
Predators: 1. Camouflage 2. Pursuit and ambush 3. Chemical warfare Prey: 1.warning coloration 2. Chemical warfare 3.protective shells
Which of the below are the correct order of demographic transition states that a country experiences when industrializing?
Preindustrial Transitional Industrial Postindustrial
8. If the human species were to suffer a population crash, what are three species that might move in to occupy part of our ecological niche? Expain why this might happen.
Probably some omnious. Humans's niche in environment is complicated, because humans are all over the world. It is hard to find out a species that can replace humans. There might be some keystone species who are able to change environment that once changed by humans in some ways to make a new environment for other species.
What is ecological succession?
Process in which communities of plant and animal species in a particular area are replaced over time by a series of different and often more complex communities.
Ecological succession
Process in which communities of plant and animal species in a particular area are replaced over time by a series of different and often more complex communities. The types and numbers of species in a biological community change due to conditions such as fires, volcanic eruptions, climate change, and the clearing of forests to plant crops. Two main types of ecological succession: - Primary ecological succession: Gradual establishment of biotic communities in lifeless areas where there is no soil in a terrestrial ecosystem or no bottom sediment in an aquatic ecosystem. This takes usually thousands of years bc of the need to build up fertile soil or aquatic sediments to provide the nutrients needed to establish a plant community - Secondary ecological succession: A series of communities or ecosystems with different species develop in places containing soil or bottom sediment. This type of succession begins in an area where the ecosystem has been disturbed, removed, or destroyed, but some remains.
Resource partitioning Explain how it can increase species diversity?
Process of dividing up resources in and ecosystem so that species with similar needs (overlapping ecological niches) use the same scarce resources at different times, in different ways, or in different places. Example: Insect-eating bird species It increases species diversity, because eventually they can't all survive by sharing the same exact resource so one has to evolve with either having less or none of the resource
1. What difference would it make if the southern sea otter became extinct primarily because of human activities? What are three things we could do to help prevent the extinction of this species?
Sea otter is a keystone species. If it were to extinct, other species who rely on it would as well be harmed. Firstly, people should know the importance of its niche. Secondly, people should prevent using wild animal fur in order to have a more sustainable life style. Thirdly, people should protect the environment where the sea otter lives.
Explain how southern sea otters act as a keystone species in their environment. Explain why we should care about protecting this species from extinction, which could result primarily from human activities.
Sea otters prey on the sea urchins, which helps the kelp forests. The sea otters keep the population of sea urchins down, which allows the kelp forests to grow, & helps keeps kelp forests from being destroyed. we need kelp forests because they provide biodiversity. Sea otters should be protected is because they are a creature that everyone loves, which generates millions of dollars a year from tourism in the coastal areas where the sea otters are found and because they are a keystone species, and without the sea otter, the kelp forests would most likely be destroyed. We need kelp forests because biodiversity is extremely important to the earth's natural capital.
R-selected species
Species that have a capacity for a high rate of population growth. They tend to have many, usually small, offspring and to give them little or no parental care of protection. Examples: algae, bacteria, and most insects
General patterns of variation in population size
Stable - fluctuates slightly above and below carrying capacity Irruptive - population may occasionally surge to a high peak and then crash to a more stable level, or to a very low unstable level Cyclic - boom and bust, top down population, bottom up population regulation Irregular - no recurring pattern.
Resilience
The ability of a living system to be restored through secondary succession after a more severe disturbance Example: Grasslands
Inertia (persistence)
The ability of living system such as a grassland or a forest to survive moderate disturbances Example: Tropical Rain Forests
Describe and compare the aging of the U. S. and Chinese populations.
The average age of China's population is increasing at one of the fastest rates ever recorded.
Total Fertility Rate (TFR)
The average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years.
Summarize the debate over whether and how long the human population can keep growing.
The different view points about the growth of human population are... • There are too many people, due to overpopulation or overconsumption. Slowing human population growth should be an important priority. • Advances in technology have allowed us to temporarily overcome environmental limits and increase the earth's carrying capacity for our species. • A growing population means more workers, consumers, and creative people. There is no need to slow the world's population growth. • Since we are currently failing to meet the basic needs for the people living today, we will be unable to meet the needs of a larger population. • If we do not sharply lower birth rates, then death rates may increase because of declining health and environmental conditions as well as increasing social disruption in some areas. • Resource use and degradation of normally renewable resources may intensify as more consumers increase their ecological footprints in more-developed countries and in rapidly developing countries.
Describe population growth in the United States and explain why it is high compared to growth rates in most other more-developed countries and in China.
The population of the United States grew from 76 million in 1900 to 306 million in 2009, despite oscillations in the country's TFR and birth rates. The U.S. has high and irregular immigration rates and less direct government population control.
Why is the recovery of southern sea otters a slow one, and what factors are threatening this recovery?
The recover of the sea otters is slow due to a low reproductive rate and human activities. Factors: *rise in population of killer whales *parasites in cat litter flushed into sewer systems * blooms of toxic algae that are fed by urea which is in fertilizers * oil spills from ships * HUMAN ACTIVITIES
5-2 What is the key concept for this section?
The structure and species composition of communities and ecosystems change in response to changing environmental conditions through a process called ecological succession
Describe the exploding white-tailed deer population problem in the United States and discuss options for dealing with it.
Their population numbers have soared, caused nonnative species to take over, and have help to spread Lyme disease. Options to deal with deer: 1.archors shooting arrows downward 2. spraying deer predator scent 3. move deer from one area to another 4. Deer birth control
Mutualism
Type of species interaction in which both participating species generally benefit Example: bacteria in human intestines or Oxpeckers and Impalas
List three ways to reduce dependence on motor vehicles.
Ways to reduce dependence on motor vehicles include a user-pays approach, full-cost, raise parking fees and charge tolls on roads leading into cities, promote car-sharing networks, and promote alternatives to cars.
Why we should preserve kelp forests?
We should conserve kelp forests because biodiversity is an important part of the earth's natural capital.
What is a baby bust
When population drops below 1.5 children per couple for extended period of time
Life expectancy
average number of years a newborn infant can be expected to live.
Optimum sustainable population
based on earths cultural carrying capacity, optimum level that would allow most people to live in reasonable comfort and freedom without impairing the ability of the planet to sustain future generations
Population overshoot
a lot of growth not a lot of death
When deaths and emigration exceed birth and immigration,
a population decreases
When births + immigration exceed death + emigration,
a population increases
Where does most of the worlds population growth take place?
already heavily populated areas that are not equipped to deal with such expansion
What is total fertility rate (TFR)?
average # of children born to women in a population during their reproductive years.
Replacement-level fertility rate
average number of a children a couple must bear to replace themselves. (2.1 in U.S. and 2.5 in developing countries).
What is replacement-level fertility rate
average number of children that couples in a population must bear to replace themselves
3 factors that control population growth
birth, death, and migration
List four variables that govern changes in population size.
births, deaths, immigration, and emigration
Age structure
distribution of individuals among various age groups. (this can have a strong effect on how rapidly it increases or decreases) - percentage of the population at each age level in a population. - Pre-reproductive stage: those not mature enough to reproduce - Reproductive stage: those capable of reproduction - Post-reproductive stage: those too old to reproduce - Size of a population will likely increase if a majority is of pre or reproductive stages. Size will likely decrease if a majority is post reproductive age.)
Most population growth over the last 100 years due to
drop in death rates
Taiwan, Cuba, and most of Europe have lower infant mortality rates than the U.S. in part because of
drug addiction among pregnant women
range of tolerance
each population in an ecosystem has a certain tolerance to variations in its physical and chemical environment. - Species within a certain population may have its own set of tolerances relating to temperature, or other physical or chemical factors. These are called limiting factors.
Reasons for population increase in the US
education, better medicine, illegalization of drugs, increase in transportation and communication abilities
One of the most important factors in helping to stabilize a developing country's population and reducing environmental degradation is to
empower and educate women
Total fertility rate
estimate of the average number children who will be born alive to a woman in her lifetime if she passes through all er child bearing years (15-44) conforming to age-specific fertility rates of a given year.
List three factors that can affect how ecological succession occurs.
facilitation inhibition tolerance
In 1798, Thomas Malthus hypothesized the collapse of the human population. What factor proved Malthus wrong and led to the continued increases in the human population?
food production increased at an exponential rate
3 factors that kept US a infant mortality rate high
inadequate health care for poor women during pregnancy and for their babies after birth, drug addiction among pregnant women, and a high birth rate among teenagers
In terms of stability of ecosystems, distinguish between inertia (persistence) and resilience and give an example of each.
inertia:the ability of a living system such as a grassland or a forest to survive moderate disturbances EX:Tropical rain forest has high inertia resilience:the ability of a living terrestrial system to be restored through secondary ecological succession after a more severe disturbance. EX: grasslands have high resilience
Density independent (not dependent on the size of the population)
natural disasters
Infant mortality rate
number of babies out of 1,000 each year that will die before their first birthday.
Fertility rate
number of children born to an average woman in a population during her lifetime.
What is death rate/crude death rate
number of deaths per 1000 people per year
Population density
number of individuals in a population found in a particular area or volume.
What is birth rate/crude birth rate
number of live births per 1000 people in a population in a given year
Age Structure
number of males and females of each age in a population Young = reproductive Middle = reproductive Old = post productive
Describe the major advantages and disadvantages of relying more on bicycles?
o Advantages - don't pollute and take up little space o Disadvantages - provide little to no protection in accidents & bad weather, cannot use on long trips
Describe the major advantages and disadvantages of relying more on rapid-rail systems between urban areas?
o Advantages - much more energy efficient, can reduce need for air travel, cars, roads and parking areas o Disadvantages - causes noise and vibration for nearby residents, requires large government subsidies to build and run
Describe the major advantages and disadvantages of relying more on mass transit rail systems?
o Advantages - use less land than roads & parking lots, causes fewer injuries and deaths due to accidents o Disadvantages - expensive to build, riders have to ride on a schedule
Describe the major advantages and disadvantages of relying more on bus rapid transit systems within urban areas?
o Advantages -reduce car use & air pollution, can be rerouted as needed o Disadvantages - can get caught in traffic and add to noise and air pollution, riders have to ride the bus on a schedule
Density dependent (dependent on the size of the population)
parasitism, disease, competition for resources
Define and give two examples of resource partitioning and explain how it can increase species diversity.
partitioning: process of dividing up resources in an ecosystem so that species with similar needs (overlapping ecological niches) use the same scarce resources at different times, in different ways, or in different places Examples: insect eating birds eating from different part of trees (blackburnian warbler, black-throated green warbler) Finch ancestor birds with different beaks to eat seed or insect Honeycreepers It increases diversity because by avoiding competition the birds physical traits change so the birds can eat different foods so the beaks purpose changes therefore causing diversity.
Define and give an example of a population crash. Explain why humans are not exempt from nature's population controls.
population suffers a sharp decline, called dieback that has used up its supply of resources, exceeding the carrying capacity of its environment. Humans are not exempt because there can be shortages in food ( ex: potato famine killing a million people), and diseases such as HIV and AIDS.
Define population. Why do most populations live in clumps?
population: is a group of interbreeding individuals of the same species * species tends to cluster where the resources are available *groups have a better chance of finding clumps of resources like water then they would searching for resources on their own * living in groups give some shelter from predators *may give some predators a better chance of getting a meal
Two types of fertility rates that affect country's population size and growth rate
replacement-level fertility rate and total fertility rate
difference between inertia and resilience
resilience: the ability of an ecosystem to maintain its normal patterns of nutrient cycling and biomass production after being subjected to damage caused by an ecological disturbance. Inertia: its ability to resist change when stressed
What is the replacement rate slightly higher than 2 children per couple
some children die before reaching reproductive years
Cultural carrying capacity
the limit on population growth that would allow most people in an area or the world to live in a reasonable comfort and freedom without impairing that ability of the planet to sustain future generations.
What are the major advantages and disadvantages of motor vehicles?
• Advantages of motor vehicles include mobility, convenience, comfort, and success symbol. Disadvantages include congestion and pollution.
What is the age structure of a population?
• Age structure refers to the number or percentage of males and females in young (pre-reproductive, ages 0-14), middle (reproductive, ages 15-44), and older (postreproductive, age 45 and older) age groups.
47. Describe the relationship between human population growth in China, and the three principles of sustainability.
• China is the most populous country in the world, and thus has a large ecological footprint. In the 1960's, China was exceeding its carrying capacity to the point where the population was facing mass starvation. The strict one-child family policy has helped China reduce population growth. However, the rapidly growing middle class will consume more resources per person, increasing China's ecological footprint within its own borders and in other parts of the world that provide it with resources. This will put a strain on the earth's natural capital unless China steers a course toward more sustainable economic development.
Summarize the efforts to make Curitiba, Brazil, a sustainable ecocity.
• City planners in Curitiba, Brazil focused on mass transit rather than on the car. High-rise apartment buildings are placed near major bus routes and have stores in the bottom two floors, reducing the need for residents to travel. Cars are banned from the downtown area, which has a network of pedestrian walkways connected to bus stations, parks, and bicycle paths running throughout most of the city. The city transformed flood-prone areas along its six rivers into a series of interconnected parks. Curitiba recycles roughly 70% of its paper and 60% of its metal, glass, and plastic. Recovered materials are sold mostly to the city's more than 500 major industries, which must meet strict pollution standards.
Five undesirable effects of urban sprawl:
• Decreases energy efficiency. • Increases traffic congestion. • Destroys prime cropland, forests, and wetlands.
Describe the roles of promoting economic development, elevating the status of women, and family planning in slowing population growth.
• Growth rates slow in a country when modern technology raises per capita incomes by bringing economic development. • Women tend to have fewer children if they are educated, have the ability to control their own fertility, hold a paying job outside the home, and live in societies that do not suppress their rights. • Family planning provides educational and clinical services that help couples choose how many children to have and when to have them.
Nine factors that affect birth rates and fertility rates:
• Importance of children as a part of the labor force. • Cost of raising and educating children. • Availability of, or lack of, private and public pension systems. • Urbanization. • Educational and employment opportunities available for women. • Average age at marriage. • Availability of legal abortions. • Availability of reliable birth control methods. • Religious beliefs, traditions, and cultural norms affect birth rate and fertility rate.
Summarize the story of population growth in China and the Chinese government's efforts to regulate it.
• In the 1960s, China's large population was growing so rapidly that there was a serious threat of mass starvation. • The government established the world's strictest family planning and birth control program, promoting one-child families and provides contraceptives, sterilizations, and abortions for married couples. • Married couples pledging to have no more than one child receive a number of benefits including better housing, more food, free health care, salary bonuses, and preferential job opportunities for their child. • Between 1972 and 2011, the country cut its birth rate in half and trimmed the average number of children born to its women from 5.7 to 1
Why is infant mortality rate considered a good indicator of quality of life?
• Infant mortality is a measure of a society's quality of life because it reflects the general level of nutrition and health care. o A high infant mortality rate results from insufficient food (undernutrition), poor nutrition (malnutrition), and a high amounts of infectious disease, which is making the situation worse by under- or malnutrition.
Describe immigration into the United States and the benefits and issues it raises.
• Legal and illegal immigration account for about 36% of annual population growth in the United States. Between 1820 and 1960, most immigrants were from Europe. Since 1960, most are from Latin America and Asia.
List five tools used to promote smart growth:
• Limits and regulations. • Zoning. • Planning. • Protection. • Taxes.
Summarize the urban problems of Mexico City, Mexico.
• Mexico City has severe air pollution, high unemployment, noise, overcrowding, traffic congestion, inadequate public transportation, and a soaring crime rate. More than one-third of its residents live in slums or squatter settlements that lack running water, electricity and sewage facilities.
What are some problems related to rapid population decline due to an aging population?
• Rapid population declines due to an aging population may cause a lack of support services such as health care.
What is smart growth?
• Smart growth encourages more environmentally sustainable development that requires less dependence on cars, controls and directs sprawl, and reduces wasteful resource use.
Issues raised by immigration:
• Some say reducing immigration would help stabilize population size and reduce the country's enormous environmental impact. • There were an estimated 11 million illegal immigrants in the United States in 2011. Some want to deport all illegal immigrants while others want to set up programs that allow illegal immigrants to remain in the country as long as they are working towards citizenship
Describe the American BABY BOOM and some of its economic and social effects.
• The American baby boom added 79 million people to the U.S. population between 1946 and 1964. • The large numbers of baby boomers first created a youth market and are now creating the late middle age and senior markets. • As the baby boomers turn 65, the number of seniors will grow sharply through 2030.
Why does the United States have a lower life expectancy and higher infant mortality rate than a number of other more-developed countries?
• The U.S. lower life expectancy may be due to more than 45 million Americans lacking health care insurance, while Canada and many European countries have universal health care; and adults in the United States have one of the world's highest obesity rates. Three factors helped to keep the U.S. infant mortality rate higher than it could be: inadequate health care for poor women during pregnancy and for their babies after birth, drug addiction among pregnant women, and a high birth rate among teenagers.
Distinguish between crude birth rate and crude death rate.
• The crude birth rate is the number of live births per 1,000 people in a population in a given year. The crude death rate is the number of deaths per 1,000 people in a population in a given year.
What is the demographic transition and what are its four stages?
• The demographic transition is a hypothesis explaining population change that occurs as countries become industrialized and their populations tend to grow more slowly. o Preindustrial. o Transitional. o Industrial. o Postindustrial.
Six disadvantages of urbanization:
• Unsustainable. • Lack vegetation. • Water problems. • Pollution and health problems. • Affect local climates. • Cause light pollution.
List eight goals of ecocity design:
• Use solar and other locally available, renewable energy resources and design buildings to be heated and cooled as much as possible by nature. • Build and redesign cities for people, not cars. • Use energy and matter resources efficiently. • Prevent pollution and reduce waste. • Recycle, reuse, and compost at least 60% of all municipal solid waste. • Protect and encourage biodiversity by preserving surrounding land and protecting and restoring natural systems and wetlands. • Promote urban gardens and farmers markets. • Use zoning and other tools
Describe the new urban village of Vauban, Germany.
• Vauban is an energy-efficient suburb in Germany that is almost free of cars. Most parking is forbidden. Homes are within walking distance of trains, stores, banks, restaurants, and schools. There are numerous bike paths and a car-sharing club. Mass transit allows residents to work or shop in a nearby city. There are no single-family homes, only energy-efficient row houses that use passive solar energy.