Chapter 1: Research methods

The Hawthorne effect

Hawthorne effect — that if participants are aware that they are members of an experimental group, performance may improve simply because of that fact (rather than because of the IV — or experimental treatment — to which they are exposed).

Standardised instructions and procedures

Means that instructions and procedures are the same for all participants (except for variations required for experimental group participants exposed to the IV).

Standardised instructions

Means that the directions and explanations given to all participants in each condition are predetermined and identical in terms of what they state and how they are administered. To reliably present instructions, researchers usually read from a pre-prepared script in a 'neutral' voice.

Replication

Refers the the reproducibility and repeatability of research and its results.

Mental processes

Refers to a person's thoughts and feelings, which are personal, or subjective, and cannot be directly observed.

Behaviour

Refers to any externally expressed action made by a living person (or animal) that can be directly observed. Involves doing something- active process

Free-response (or open-ended) questions

Require participants to describe their thoughts, feelings or behaviour 'freely' in their own words.

Fixed-response (or closed) questions

Typically require participants to select their response from a number of 'fixed' alternative responses.

Counterbalancing

Used to control or minimise order effects such as practice and carry-over. Involves systematically changing the order of treatments or tasks for participants in a 'balanced' way to 'counter' the unwanted effects on performance of any one order. By counterbalancing, the researcher recognises that an order effect is a potential confounding variable and cannot be controlled or eliminated through other means. The between-participants counterbalancing procedure involves alternating the order in which the experimental and control groups are exposed to each condition of the experiment. Each group is exposed to each condition in a different order.

Correlational research

Used to identify and describe the 'co-relationship' between two variables of interest. No attempt is made to manipulate any variable, such as in an experiment. The researcher simply assesses the degree of relationship between two variables.

Experiment

Used to test a cause-effect relationship between variables under controlled conditions.

Rating scale

Uses fixed-response questions or statements for which participants rank ('rate') each item by selecting from a number of choices. The best known and most commonly used rating scale is the Likert scale. This consists of about 20 questions or statements to which the participant responds, typically using a five-point scale. It is most commonly used to measure attitudes. When developing a Likert scale, half the attitude statements are worded in a positive way and half are worded negatively.

Steps in psychological research

1. Identify the research topic. 2. Formulate the research hypothesis. 3. Design the research. 4. Collect the data. 5. Analyse the data. 6 . Interpret and evaluate the results. 7. Report the research and findings.

Theory

A general explanation of a set of observations or findings about behaviour and/or mental processes which seem to be related.

Sample

A group that is a subset or part of a larger group chosen to be studied for research purposes. Always a subgroup of the population. Therefore, it is always smaller than a population.

Placebo

A harmless pill, medicine, or procedure prescribed more for the psychological benefit to the patient than for any physiological effect. In order to control this potential confounding variable, control groups can be given a placebo, or fake treatment, so that they form the same expectations and beliefs as the experimental group. Thus, the control group would be given a drink that smells and tastes like alcohol but is not alcohol. The control group would not be informed that their drink is not alcoholic and they would have no way of distinguishing it from a real alcoholic drink. When a placebo is given to a control group, the group is sometimes referred to as the placebo control group or the placebo condition.

Research method

A particular way of conducting an investigation to collect accurate and reliable information about mental processes and behaviour.

Representative sample

A sample that is approximately the same as the population from which it is drawn in every important participant variable.

Biased sample

A sample where everyone in a target population (population of research interest) doesn't have an equal chance of being selected as a participant.

Random sampling

A sampling procedure that ensures every member of the population of research interest has an equal chance of being selected to be part of the sample. This may be done by using a lottery method such as putting names or ID numbers of all members of the target population on equal-sized slips of paper, placing the slips in a container and mixing them thoroughly, then drawing out the required number of slips blindly. When a large number of participants are required, a table of randomly generated numbers can be used. Advantage: - helps ensure a highly representative sample, particularly when everyone who has been selected can be contacted and agrees to participate. This allows generalisations that are more likely to be considered to have external validity. Disadvantage: - need for a complete and up-to-date list of the target population.

Correlation

A statistical measure that indicates the extent to which two variables are related; for example, the relationship between stress and cancer, between level of anxiety and incidence of bedwetting, or between personality test scores and birth order.

Population

A term used in psychological research to describe the larger group from which a sample is selected and to which the researcher will seek to apply (generalise) the results. Can also be a measurement.

Research hypothesis

A testable prediction about the relationship between two or more variables (events or characteristics). Typically states the existence of a relationship between the variables of interest, the expected relationship between them and a possible explanation of the results. Often described as an educated guess. Think IPOD: -Independent variable -Population -Operationalise -Dependent variable

Questionnaire

A written set of questions designed to draw out self-report information from people on a topic of research interest. It has a structured format and the questions are usually answered by participants in writing, at their own pace and without supervision.

Advantages and limitations of experimental research

Advantages: - one advantage of the experiment is that the IV can be manipulated in order to observe and measure the effect on the DV, therefore making it possible to test if there is a cause and effect relationship between the IV and DV. - alternatively, the experimenter can report the conditions of an experiment in such a precise way that others can replicate it and test the results. Disadvantages: - the ability to more strictly control variables is an advantage of the laboratory setting; however, it is often artificial and too dissimilar to real life. - furthermore, some things cannot be measured in a laboratory.

Advantages and limitations of observational studies

Advantages: - the main advantage of observational studies, especially naturalistic observation, is that researchers can watch and record behaviour as it usually occurs, without the need for any manipulation or intervention. - thus, naturalistic observation often enables researchers to gain more accurate information about the typical behaviours of people (and animals), both immediately and over a longer period, than do other research methods - some types of human behaviour can only be studied as they naturally occur because it would be unethical or impractical to study them in a laboratory situation. - a practical advantage of naturalistic observation is that it does not require the cooperation of participants being observed. However, this raises the ethical issue of not obtaining informed consent, particularly if participant observation is required. Disadvantages: - it can be difficult to determine the causes of the behaviour of interest that is observed, because many factors may influence that behaviour. - a potential limitation of any observation procedure is observer bias, which is a type of experimenter bias.

Matched participants design

Also called matched groups, each participant in one condition 'matches' a participant in the other condition(s) on one or more participant variables of relevance to the experiment. This type of experiment usually involves selection of pairs of participants who are very similar in one or more personal characteristics that can influence the DV, then allocating each member of the pair to an experimental or control group. Advantages: - ensures that in every condition there is a participant with very similar or identical scores on the variable(s) the researcher seeks to control. - participant attrition is less common than with the repeated measures design and there is not often a need to spread out the time period between the different conditions. Disadvantages: - one potential problem is the difficulty of knowing which specific participant variables should be matched. - difficult and time-consuming. - as well as being time-consuming, pre-testing can create order effects. And the loss of one participant through attrition means the loss of a whole pair, triplet and so on.

Random allocation

Also called random assignment, is a procedure used to place participants in groups so that they are as likely to be in one group as the other. This means that every participant has an equal chance of being selected for any of the groups to be used. As with random selection, random allocation can be achieved using a lottery method in which chance alone will determine the group to which each participant is assigned. For example, drawing 'names out of a hat' or flipping a coin are also appropriate ways of randomly allocating participants to groups.

Case study

An intensive, in-depth investigation of some behaviour or event of interest in an individual, small group, organisation or situation. Case studies are most often used when large numbers of participants are not available for study; for example, to study individuals with a relatively rare or unusual disorder, problem, ability or characteristic. However, a case study is different from a single participant experiment because the method does not actually involve manipulation of any independent variable. For example: One of the earliest and best-known case studies of brain damage is that of Phineas Gage, which was reported by his doctor, John Harlow, in 1848. Advantages: - provide a useful way of obtaining detailed and valuable information on mental processes and behaviour, particularly in relation to rare or unusual disorders. There is no manipulation or control of variables, as with research conducted under strictly controlled experimental conditions (unless an experiment is used to provide some of the case study data). - consequently, case studies can avoid artificiality and provide a 'snapshot' of the actual or real-life experience of one or more individuals at a particular time in a particular situation. - they can be a valuable source of hypotheses for further research. Case studies, however, cannot be replicated to test the reliability of the results in the way that an experiment can. Nor can they be used to actually test hypotheses unless combined with the results of other case studies of similar participants or used with another research method that is suitable for testing hypotheses. Disadvantages: - analysing, summarising and reporting these data can be painstaking and time-consuming. - Generalising the results to others, particularly those without the rare disorder or ability, cannot be done with any certainty. - are susceptible to biased information from the participants or the researcher.

Interviews

An interview usually involves questions that are asked by the researcher with the aim of obtaining self-report information on a topic of research interest. The categories of response are focused but not necessarily predetermined. Unlike questionnaires, which are usually structured, interviews may be structured, unstructured or semi-structured. In a structured interview, the participant (or 'interviewee') is asked specific, predetermined questions in a controlled manner. In a structured interview, the participant (or 'interviewee') is asked specific, predetermined questions in a controlled manner. In a semi-structured interview, the researcher uses an interview guide listing a set of issues to be explored. The researcher aims to cover all issues but there are no set questions to be asked.

Repeated measures design

Each participant is in both the experimental and control groups (and therefore all conditions). The groups are identical so individual participant differences that may impact on the DV are controlled. When planning a repeated measures experiment, the researcher has to consider order effects that may arise from the design. Counterbalancing is used to overcome this. Advantages: - eliminates potential confounding variables arising from individual participant differences. - requires a relatively small number of participants when compared with other experimental designs because the same participants are in all conditions. Disadvantages: - doesn't necessarily control all participant variables that can influence the results. - can result in unwanted participant loss before the experiment is completed. - order effects are more likely with the repeated measures design and can become a confounding variable if uncontrolled.

Independent groups design

Each participant is randomly allocated to one of two (or more) entirely separate ('independent') groups (and therefore conditions). This experimental design is also called independent measures and between participants. The simplest independent groups design uses two groups — most often one group as the experimental group and the other as the control group. Random allocation is an essential feature of the independent groups design in order to control the influence of individual participant differences. Advantages: - the experiment can usually be completed on one occasion, which also helps ensure participant attrition (loss) is negligible. - there are no order effects between conditions to control. Disadvantage: - less control over participant variables.

Experimental settings

Experiments can be conducted in a laboratory setting (called a laboratory experiment) or outside the laboratory in a field setting (called the field experiment).

Control group

Exposed to the control condition in which the IV is absent. Provides a standard or 'baseline' against which the performance of an experimental group can be compared to determine whether the IV has caused some change in, or affected in some way the behaviour or event being measured (the DV).

Experimental group

Exposed to the experimental conditions in which the IV under investigation is present.

Confounding variables

If a variable that can affect the DV is not controlled, then its effect on the DV may not be able to be clearly distinguished from that of the IV. When this happens, the uncontrolled, extraneous variable is commonly referred to as a confounding variable. A confounding variable is a variable other than the IV that has had an unwanted effect on the DV, making it impossible to determine which of the variables has produced the change in the DV. A confounding variable is not manipulated or controlled by the researcher. Nor is it considered to be some kind of 'random error'. It systematically varies together with the IV (or DV) so its effects are 'confounded', confused or mixed up with those of the IV. Because its effects cannot be separated from those of the IV, the researcher cannot conclude that the change in the DV was caused by the IV alone. The presence of one or more confounding variables does not necessarily mean that the IV did not cause the change in the DV. However, the presence of a confounding variable suggests that there may be one or more alternative explanations for the results obtained in the experiment. A confounding variable is technically different from an extraneous variable. A confounding variable produces a measurable change in the DV.

Order effects

In some experiments, participants are exposed to more than one treatment condition (IV) and they may be required to perform the same type of task twice or even many times under different treatment conditions. An order effect occurs when performance, as measured by the DV, is influenced by the specific order in which the experimental tasks, treatments or conditions are presented rather than the IV. This essentially means that performing one task affects the performance of the next task. Order effects may change the results so that the impact of the IV may appear to be greater or less than it really is. Two types of order effects that illustrate how this can occur are called practice effects and carry-over effects. Practice effects are the influence on performance (the DV) that arises from practising a task. Carry-over effects are the influences that a particular task has on performance in a task that follows it.

Observational study

Involves collecting data by carefully watching and recording behaviour as it occurs. Psychologists use observational studies to collect data when the behaviour under investigation is clearly visible and can be easily recorded. Data collection may be: - structured — a pre-prepared system is used to guide and record observations e.g. checklist of items to look for. - unstructured — observations are made without a predetermined format. - semi-structured — data is collected using a partly predetermined format. Observations have become more accurate as new technologies permit increasingly precise measurements.

Operationalising

Involves defining and explaining the IV and DV in terms of the specific procedures (operations) used to measure them. Stating how the IV and DV will be measured is an important step because many of the behaviours and mental processes psychologists investigate can have different meanings and can therefore be defined and measured in more than one way. Operationalising the IV(s) and DV(s) ensures that these variables are precisely defined and explained. The resulting definitions are sometimes called operational definitions. The three important benefits of variables being defined precisely through operationalisation: 1. It helps ensure the independent and dependent variables are testable and therefore the research hypothesis is testable. 2. All researchers involved in conducting the experiment know exactly what is being observed and measured. This helps avoid experimenter bias which can occur when individual motives, expectations, interests and previous experiences lead to observations that are not necessarily accurate. 3. When the variables are defined in a very precise way, another researcher interested in the results, or perhaps even doubting them, will be ale to repeat the experiment in order to test ('check') the results obtained for accuracy or for relevance to other groups or situations.

Stratified sampling

Involves dividing the population to be sampled into distinct subgroups, or strata, then selecting a separate sample from each stratum in the same proportions as they occur in the target population. Age, sex, religion, cultural background, residential area, educational qualifications, IQ score, income level and income type (e.g. wages or pension) are examples of characteristics that may be used to divide a population into strata. Advantage: - ensures that the sample is highly representative of the population and therefore not biased in a way you consider to be important. Disadvantage: - can be carried out only if complete lists of the target populations (strata) are available and accessible.

Convenience sampling

Involves selecting participants who are readily available without any attempt to make the sample representative of a population. Advantage: - quick, easy, and inexpensive. - can also be of considerable value when conducting research to pilot, or 'test', procedures or to gain a preliminary indication of possible responses before conducting the actual study. Disadvantage: - in most cases, produces a biased response because only those people available at the time and location of the study will have a chance of being included in the sample.

Scientific research

Involves using an appropriate research method to collect data (information) relating to a question of interest, then summarising the data and drawing valid conclusions from the results in relation to the hypothesis that was created.

Model

Is used interchangeably with the term theory. Tends to focus more on representing how some behaviour and/or mental processes could, should or does occur. Can often be supported by one or more diagrams with boxes and arrows to organise and show relationships between different concepts.

Cohort effect

Occurs when the researcher measures characteristics in groups of people ('cohorts') born at significantly different times and members of each group share life experiences associated with the period and/or place in which they grew up. One or more of these experiences can impact on their development and how they think, feel and/or behave. These perceptions, characteristics and other changes are unique to the group in question.

Placebo effect

Occurs when there is a change in the responses of participants due to their belief that they are receiving some kind of experimental treatment and they respond in accordance with that belief, rather than to the effect of the IV. Essentially, the participants' behaviour is influenced by their expectations of how they should behave due to their belief that they have received some treatment.

Correlation

Often described by a number known as a correlation coefficient. A correlation coefficient is expressed as a decimal number, which can range from +1.00 to −1.00. This number indicates the strength and the direction of the correlation.

Extraneous variables

Other, or 'extra' , variables in an experiment. Any variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV and therefore effect the results of the experiment in an unwanted way. There are potentially many extraneous variables that can affect the DV of an experiment and it can be difficult for the researcher to predict and control all of them. Consequently, researchers tend to focus on controlling (or at least monitoring) those variables that are likely to have a significant effect on the DV.

Double-blind procedure

Participants and the researcher (or research assistant) directly involved with the participants are unaware of (are 'blind' to) the conditions to which the participants have been allocated. Only the researcher(s) removed from the actual research situation knows which participants are in which condition (or groups).

Single-blind procedure

Participants are not aware of (are 'blind' to) the condition of the experiment to which they have been allocated and therefore the experimental treatment (the IV).

Cross-sectional studies

Selects and compares different groups of participants on one or more variables of interest at a single point in time. It is most commonly used to study age-related differences. May also be used to study differences between groups in one or more other variables at a particular point in time. Uses an independent groups design and is sometimes called a quasi-experiment because of this resemblance to an experiment. Advantages: - can be used to study change over time. Compared to other research methods, it tends to be simpler to undertake, less time-consuming and less expensive. - provides a means of conducting research on certain topics that are unethical and/or impractical to conduct through experimentation. Disadvantages: - a cause-effect relationship between different variables cannot be tested or determined. - one variable that can't be controlled in some of these studies is called a cohort effect.

Variable

Something than can change (vary) in amount or type and is measurable.

Law of large numbers

States that as sample size increases, the attributes (characteristics) of the sample more closely reflect the attributes of the population from which it was drawn.

Use of non-standardised instructions and procedures

The instructions and procedures used by the researcher can also impact on how participants respond and therefore on the results. Generally, procedures involve everything the researcher does in conducting their research study, including: - selection of participants - instructions for participants in different groups - interaction with participants - use of materials or apparatus - use of rooms or other experimental settings - observation and measurement of variables - data-recording techniques When the research procedures (including instructions) are non-standardised, this means that they are not uniform, or the same, for all participants.

Self-reports

The participant's written or spoken responses to questions, statements or instructions presented by the researcher. Questionnaires, interviews and rating scales are the most commonly used self-report tools.

Sampling

The process of selecting participants for a research study. It is usually undertaken with the goal of being able to use the participants in the sample to draw conclusions about the larger group who form the population. A sample has to be selected in a scientific way to ensure that the results obtained for the sample can be legitimately applied to the population from which it was selected. A key goal of sampling is to ensure that the sample closely represents the population.

Naturalistic observation

The researcher views behaviour in the natural, 'real-life' environment where it would ordinarily occur. This is a situation where behaviour in its genuine form would be most likely to be observed. In addition, the researcher conducts their observations in an inconspicuous or 'unnoticeable' manner so that their presence does not influence the behaviour of interest.

Psychology

The scientific study of human thoughts, feelings and behaviour.

Standardised procedures

The techniques used for making observations and measuring responses should be identical for all individual participants. Using standardised procedures: - all participants would interact with the same researcher in the same environment - the experiment would be run at the same time of day for all participants - all participants would have the same amount of time, learn the same amount of information and complete the same activities (except for variations required for IV exposure). The use of standardised instructions and procedures can help control unwanted participant variables and the placebo effect, because all participants will have the same experience.

Individual participant variables

The unique combination of personal characteristics, abilities and backgrounds each participant brings to an experiment are commonly referred to as individual participant differences. These participant variables, as they are sometimes called, make one individual different from another, are expected by the researcher and may be biological, psychological or social in nature. They include age, gender, athletic ability, intelligence, personality, memory, educational background, family environment, social relationships, work experience, ethnicity, cultural background, religious beliefs, motivation, emotional state, mood, problem-solving ability, self-esteem, social skills, physical health, mental health, strength, eye-hand coordination, prior experience with materials or tasks to which they will be exposed in the experiment, and so on. Consequently, the researcher will try to ensure that the influence of these other participant variables is controlled or minimised and will do so before the experiment is conducted.

Independent variable (IV)

The variable that is systematically manipulated or changed in some way by the researcher in order to measure its effect on the dependent variable. Sometimes referred to as the 'treatment' variable or condition to which participants in an experiment to be exposed. Assumed to have a direct effect on the DV so it is also assumed that any measurable change in the DV will be due to the effect of the IV. In the simplest type of experiment, it has two levels, such as exposure or non-exposure to violence in a television program. More complex experiments have three or more levels of the IV.

Dependent variable (DV)

The variable that is used to observe and measure the effects of the independent variable. It is the aspect of a participant's behaviour or experience that is assumed and expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the IV.

Experimenter effect

he experimenter effect is an unwanted influence(s) on the results which is produced consciously or unconsciously by a person carrying out the research. In an experiment, the effect occurs when there is a change in a participant's response because of the experimenter's expectations, biases or actions, rather than the effect of the IV. A common type of experimenter effect is called experimenter expectancy. Experimenter expectancy involves cues ('hints' or 'signals') the experimenter provides about the responses participants should make in the experiment. In particular, the experimenter's non-verbal communication ('body language') can produce a self-fulfilling prophecy — the experimenter obtains results that they expect to obtain. The results may therefore be attributable to behaviour associated with their expectations rather than the IV. Actions that can promote a self-fulfilling prophecy include: - facial expressions, such as smiling at participants in the experimental or control group but not at those in another - mannerisms, such as shaking hands with participants in one group but not with those in another - tone of voice, such as speaking in a monotone voice to participants in one group and in a more lively way to those in another. The experimenter effect involves not only the expectations and cues or actions of the researcher that influence participant responses in research settings, but also unintentional biases in the collection and/or treatment of data. This kind of experimenter effect is commonly referred to as experimenter bias.