Chemistry 1210: Final Exam

ions are strongly attracted to one another

Large, positive lattice energy indicates what?

acids

Most nonmetal oxides form ____________ in water

protons/positive charges

alpha particles

120

bond angle for trigonal planar

organic

contains carbon

amorphous

distinct lack of order in the arrangement of atoms; typically brittle and transparent (e.g. SiO2 in glass)

packing density

how close the atoms are inside a cube; how much space is filled

bonding MO

in phase atomic orbitals; electron density is between the nuclei; bond forms along the axis; lower in energy; favored

melting point

temperature at which a solid turns into a liquid; solids must overcome their attractive forces in order to separate and form a liquid; stronger forces = higher ____________

AB4 electron geometry

tetrahedral

AB3 electron geometry

trigonal planar

single bond

1 sigma bond

triple bond

1 sigma bond and 2 pi bonds

double bond

1 sigma bond, 1 pi bond

rules for MOs

1) The number of MOs formed equals the number of atomic orbitals, 2) atomic orbitals combine most effectively with other atomic orbitals of similar energy, 3) the effectiveness with which 2 atomic orbitals combine is proportional to their overlap. That is, as the overlap increases, the energy of the bonding MO is lowered and the energy of the antibonding MO is raised, 4) each MO can accommodate, at most 2 electrons, with their spins paired, 5) when MOs of the same energy are populated, one electron enters each orbital (with the same spin) before spin pairing occurs

Dalton's postulates

1) all matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms, 2) all atoms of a specific (the same) element are identical in mass, size, and other properties, 3) atoms can neither be created nor destroyed and atoms cannot be divided into smaller particles, 4) atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed whole-number ratios in order to form compounds, 5) atoms can be rearranged, combined, or separated in chemical reactions

formal charge

1) all unshared (nonbonding) electrons are assigned to the atom on which they are found, 2) for any bond (single, double, or triple), half of the bonding electrons are assigned to each atom in the bond, 3) the ____________ of each atom is calculated by subtracting the number of electrons assigned to the atom from the number of valence electrons in the neutral atom; 0 is better, adds up to the overall charge on the molecule/ion, if there is a nonzero ____________, better to have it on a more electronegative atom; helps determine structure when there are several possibilites

rules for oxidation numbers

1) an element in its elemental form has an oxidation number of 0, 2) an ion's oxidation number is its charge, 3) hydrogen has an oxidation number of +1, except when it is a metal hydride (e.g. NaH), 4) oxygen has an oxidation number of -2, except elemental oxygen gas, O2 (oxidation number of -1), and peroxides (O2 -2), 5) halogens have oxidation numbers of -1, unless bonded to oxygen (then they vary), 6) use algebra to find others

VSEPR theory

1) each nonbonding pair, single bond, or multiple bond produces an electron domain around the central atom, 2) the best arrangement for a given number of electron domains is the one that minimizes the repulsions among electron domains, 3) the geometry of the electron domain affects the resulting molecular geometry

kinetic molecular theory

1) gases consist of a large number of molecules that are in continuous, random motion (particles travel in a straight line until they bump into something), 2) the combined volume of the gas is small relative to the volume of the container (molecular volume is negligible), 3) attractive and repulsive forces are negligible; gas molecules exert no force on each other unless they collide (negligible forces-- particles travel in a straight line), 4) energy can be transferred between molecules during collisions, but the collisions are perfectly elastic (energy is not lost); there is a constant average KE; motion changes when particles collide; there is a transfer of energy from one particle to another, 5) the pressure exerted by a gas is caused by collisions of the gas molecules with the walls of their container-- gas particles move faster at higher temperatures and average KE increases when temperature increases

bond order

1/2 (bonding electrons - antibonding electrons) =

bonding radius

1/2 the distance of a bond (distance between nuclei); slightly smaller than a non-bonding radius (radius of the atom); nuclei cannot get any closer to each other due to repulsion between core electrons on neighboring atoms

linear (electron geometry and molecular geometry)

2 electron groups, 2 bonding groups, 0 lone pairs

double bond

2 electron pairs (4 electrons) shared by 2 atoms

crystalline and amorphous

2 main categories for the arrangement of solids

ionic, acids, and binary molecular compounds

3 categories of inorganic compounds

bent (molecular geometry)

3 electron groups, 2 bonding groups, 1 lone pair

trigonal planar (electron geometry and molecular geometry

3 electron groups, 3 bonding groups, 0 lone pairs

triple bond

3 electron pairs (6 electrons) shared by 2 atoms; shortest, strongest bond

bent (molecular geometry)

4 electron groups, 2 bonding groups, 2 lone pairs

trigonal pyramidal (molecular geometry)

4 electron groups, 3 bonding groups, 1 lone pair

tetrahedral (electron geometry and molecular geometry

4 electron groups, 4 bonding groups, 0 lone pairs

linear (molecular geometry)

5 electron groups, 2 bonding groups, 3 lone pairs

T-shaped (molecular geometry)

5 electron groups, 3 bonding groups, 2 lone pairs

seesaw (molecular geometry)

5 electron groups, 4 bonding groups, 1 lone pair

trigonal bipyramidal (electron geometry and molecular geometry

5 electron groups, 5 bonding groups, 0 lone pairs

linear, trigonal planar, tetrahedral, trigonal bipyramidal, octahedral

5 geometric arrangements (electron geometries)

square planar (molecular geometry)

6 electron groups, 4 bonding groups, 2 lone pairs

square pyramidal (molecular geometry)

6 electron groups, 5 bonding groups, 1 lone pair

octahedral (electron geometry and molecular geometry

6 electron groups, 6 bonding groups, 0 lone pairs

length, mass, temp, time, amount, electric current, luminous intensity

7 base units

6.022 x 10^23 particles

Avogadro's number

mole

BU: amount

ampere

BU: electric current

meter

BU: length

kilogram

BU: mass

Kelvin

BU: temp

second

BU: time

broken, formed

For bond enthalpies, ignoring bonds on both sides, every bond on the reactants side = ____________, every bond on the products side = ____________

screening

For elements with more than one electron, each electron experiences repulsion due to other electrons nearby; this cancels some electron/proton attraction; approximately the number of core electrons

strong acids (all others are weak)

HCl, HBr, HI, HNO3, H2SO4, HClO3, HClO4

lose electrons; be oxidized

In a redox reaction, a metal will...

gain electrons; be reduced

In a redox reaction, an ion will...

Ca2+, Cl-, Mg2+, K+, and Na+

Ions required by all organisms

reactants, not products

LEO says GER and OIL RIG applies to what?

distance between ions increases, as you go down a group

Lattice energy decreases when?

strong bases (completely break up)

LiOH, KOH, NaOH, RbOH, CsOH, Ca(OH)2, Sr(OH)2, Ba(OH)2

ions below them on the activity series

Metals can be oxidized by...

break, increases, increases

Must ____________ bonds to pull 2 ions apart. As distance ____________, their PE ____________

top, bottom

On the activity series, elements are most reactive at the ____________ and least reactive at the ____________

O, C, H, N, P, and S

Over 97% of mass of most organisms are made of what elements?

Boyle's Law

P1V1=P2V2; at ground level: high pressure and low volume; at higher level: low pressure and high volume; assuming moles and temperature remain constant, V is inversely proportional to P

Ideal Gas Law

PV=nRT; comes from a combination of the ideas of Boyle, Charles, and Avogadro

H, N, O, F, Cl, and noble gases

Standard conditions: gases

Br and Hg

Standard conditions: liquids

everything else

Standard conditions: solids

shape; can be 0...n-1

The angular momentum quantum number (l) indicates what property of an electron?

charges are large, charges are close together

The electrostatic attraction is large when?

orientation; can be -l,...,0,...l

The magnetic quantum number (m(sub l)) indicates what property of an electron?

size (larger n = further from the nucleus)

The principle quantum number (n) indicates what property of an electron?

spin; only 2 options per orbital; spin one way = 1/2, spin opposite way = -1/2

The spin magnetic quantum number (m(sub s)) indicates what property of an electron?

Charles's Law

V1/T1=V2/T2; assuming moles and pressure remain constant, V is directly proportional to T

noble gases

What are the only elements that are normally found in nature as isolated atoms?

hydrogen

What is the only atom that can form both an anion and cation

electrolyte

What kind of solutions conduct electricity?

emitted

When an electron falls to a lower energy level, a photon is ____________; -delta E

absorbed

When an electron jumps to a higher energy level, a photon is ____________; +delta E

when the series extends to 4 members

When are prefixes used?

(M1)(V1)=(M2)(V2)

When you see words like "stock solution", think...

phase diagram

a graphic way to summarize the conditions under which equilibria exist between the different states of matter

effect of nonbonding electrons and multiple bonds on bond angles

a lone pair takes up more space and leads to a decreased bond angle; multiple bonds represent enlarged electron domains; electron domains for multiple bonds exert greater repulsive force than single bonds; nonbonding electron domains will occupy equatorial positions to minimize repulsions

bond polarity

a measure of how equally or unequally the electrons in a covalent bond are shared

dipole moment

a measure of the separation and magnitude of the positive and negative charges in polar molecules

valence bond theory

a model for bonding that looks at atomic orbitals overlapping in bonding; overlap allows for 2 electrons of opposite spins to share space between nuclei (or make a bond)

combustion reaction

a reaction in air that produces carbon dioxide in water

synthesis reaction

a reaction in which two or more substances combine to form a new compound

acid

a substance whose molecules yield hydrogen ions when dissolved in water; may be organic or inorganic

5 electron geometries

allow for maximum distance between A and B atoms (AB2, AB3, etc.); bond angles and bond lengths define the shape of the molecule

bond enthalpy

always positive (energy required to break a bond), the ____________ for a double bond between 2 atoms is larger than for a single bond between the same 2 atoms; the larger the ____________, the stronger the bond

heat capacity

amount of energy required to raise the temp of an object by 1 degree C; an extensive property

diprotic acid

an acid that can donate 2 protons

monoprotic acid

an acid that only donates one proton per molecule

molecular geometry

arrangement of just the atoms of a molecule; the shape of the molecule; looks at only bonded atoms

negative

arrow on a dipole indicates more ____________ side and that the bond is polar; there is more electron density at the more electronegative atom

increases

as distance between charged particles decreases, energy ____________

decreases

as distance between charged particles increases, energy ____________

bond enthalpy

as you increase in bond order, your ____________ gets larger

gold foil experiment

atom is mostly empty space; small, but highly charged, nucleus

ion

atom that has lost or gained electrons

crystalline

atoms are arranged in a regular, repeating pattern (e.g. SiO2 in quartz)

octet rule

atoms gain, lose, or share electrons until their valence shells have 8 electrons (until they are surrounded by 8 electrons)

increases

attraction between electrons and the nucleus ____________ as nuclear charge increases

further away (when "d" in equation gets bigger)

attraction between electrons and the nucleus increases as electrons move ____________

electrons/negative charges

beta particles

normal boiling point

boiling point of a liquid at 1 atm

180

bond angle for linear

90

bond angle for octahedral

109.5

bond angle for tetrahedral

90, 120

bond angles for trigonal bipyramidal

delta H of reaction (or bond enthalpy) = bonds broken - bonds formed

bond enthalpy equation

no bond exists

bond order of 0 means...

dynamic equilibrium

both vapor and liquid are present

nonmetals

can be solids, liquids, or gases; most have lower melting points than metals; tend to gain electrons when reacted with a metal-- have a large negative electron affinity; form anions; do not have luster; solids are usually brittle; some are hard, some are soft; poor conductors of heat and electricity

ionic solids

cation and anion attraction; tend to be brittle and have high melting points

Lewis symbol

chemical symbol and dot for each valence electron; spread out dots as much as possible; no more than 2 dots per side, 4 sides total; show valence electrons, lone pair electrons (not in a bond), unpaired electrons (involved in a bond)

core electrons

closed shell electrons; electrons closest to the nucleus

acids

composed of an anion connected to enough H+ ions to neutralize, or balance, the anion's charge

molecular

compounds of just nonmetals are usually ____________

extensive properties

depend on/relate to the amount of substance present

quantum numbers

describe the size, shape, orientation, and spin of atomic orbitals an element possesses

Br, I, N, Cl, H, O, F

diatomic elements

isoelectronic

different atoms and ions with the same number of electrons and have the same electron configurations

Becquerel/Curies

discovered radioactivity; uranium atom spontaneously emits high energy radiation

Thomson

discovered the electron and the mass:charge ratio; plum pudding model; cathode ray experiment

Millikan

discovered the mass and charge of the electron; oil drop experiment

intensive properties

do NOT depend on the amount of sample being examined; can be used to identify substances

increases, up

ease of oxidation ____________ as you go ____________ the activity series

Zeff = Z - S

effective nuclear charge equation

Gamma, X-rays, UV, visible, infrared, microwave, TV, radio

electromagnetic spectrum (left >> right)

many properties depend on

electron configuration and how strongly outer electrons in the atom are attracted to the nucleus

sigma bond

electron density overlap is along the internuclear axis; stronger overlap; end-to-end; electrons are localized between nuclei

pi bond

electron density overlap is off-axis; p orbitals are parallel to each other; side on overlap; 2 lobes-- the electron density lies above and below the axis; weaker overlap; electrons are delocalized

electron configurations for anions

electrons are always added to the energy level that is lowest in energy

electron configurations for cations

electrons are always removed from the energy level highest in energy based on the principle quantum number (some exceptions with transition metals)

plum pudding model

electrons are randomly distributed within a positively charged blob of matter; Thomson's model of an atom

metalloids

elements that have properties between metals and nonmetals

exception to electron configurations

energetically more favorable to have 1/2 filled or fully filled d-orbital due to the closeness of 4s and 3d orbitals in E

inverse

energy and distance between charged particles are ____________ values

inversely

energy and wavelength are ____________ related

endothermic

energy is consumed when bonds are broken; +delta H; absorbs heat; feels cold; e.g. ice melting; if temp increases, heat is given off by the system and the reaction is ____________

exothermic

energy is released when chemical bonds are formed; -delta H; releases heat; feels hot

1st ionization energy

energy required to remove the first electron

2nd ionization energy

energy required to remove the second electron

lattice energy

energy required to separate one mole of ionic solid into gas ions (endothermic); reverse process is very exothermic

delta H of reaction = (sum of change of H of formation of products) - (sum of change of H of formation of reactants)

enthalpy of formation equation

enthalpy of formation

enthalpy of forming 1 mole of something from elements in standard state; of elements = 0

Avogadro's law

equal volume of gases at the same temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules

covalent-network solids

extensive network of covalent bonds; very hard

Hund's Rule

fill electrons of the same spin first in degenerate (the same) orbitals

aufbau

fill from the lowest energy level up

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures

for a mixture of gases, the total pressure equals the sum of the pressures that each would exert if it were present alone

attractive forces between molecules and the size/volume that molecules occupy

for real gases, the Van der Waals equation accounts for...

bonds

forces between atoms in molecules; intramolecular forces

dipole-dipole forces

forces of attraction between polar molecules; molecules that have a permanent dipole have ____________; partially negative of one side interacts with partially positive of other side

intermolecular forces

forces that exist between molecules

dispersion forces

forces that hold molecules next to each other; an instantaneous dipole can occur on an atom (can affect nearby atoms by attracting their valence electrons to the partially positive end of the atom with the dipole, thereby making all atoms have an induced dipole; all molecules have these forces; increase with increasing molecular size/weight

reduction

gain of electrons

neutrons/neutral charges

gamma particles

low

gases are ideal at ____________ pressures

pressure

gases exert a ____________ on any surface they come in contact with

ressonance

happens when bonding cannot be represented by just one Lewis structure; atom arrangement stays the same, electron placement is different; all possible structures are equally dominant and are needed to adequately describe the molecule; all bonds in the structure are equal in length (an average is taken to determine length

hypervalent molecules

have more than an octet of electrons around the central atom; cannot use hybrid orbitals to model these

specific heat (C(sub s))

heat capacity of 1g experimentally determined; an intensive property; = q/m*change in T

stronger/shorter bonds

higher bond orders indicate...

characteristics of gases

homogenous mixture; weak attractions; mostly empty space-- molecules are far apart; easily compressed; unrestricted motion; molecules remain intact (no bonds broken)

metal oxides

ionic solids that are basic and form OH- in water

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

it is impossible to know the exact location and the exact momentum of an electron simultaneously

face-centered cubic lattice

lattice points at the corners plus one at each face; 4 atoms per unit cell

body-centered cubic lattice

lattice points at the corners, plus one in the center; 2 atoms per unit cell

primitive cubic lattice

lattice points only at corners; 1 atom per unit cell

AB2 electron geometry

linear

heat of vaporization

liquid >> gas

volatile

liquids that evaporate easily; substances with high vapor pressures are more ____________ that substances with low vapor pressures; weaker forces = more vapor = more ____________; stronger forces = less vapor = less ____________; tend to be smelly

single bond

longest, weakest bond

oxidization

loss of electrons

weaker/longer bonds

lower bond orders indicate...

metals

lower ionization energies; form cations; can be oxidized; have a shiny luster; malleable and ductile; good conductors of heat and electricity

liquid crystals

material arranged in an organized order in the liquid phase; has properties of a liquid; has a regular repeating pattern like a crystal; different arrangements ("phases"): liquid phase, nematic liquid crystalline phase, smectic A liquid crystalline phase, smectic C liquid crystalline phase, and cholersteric liquid crystalline phase

ionization energy

minimum energy needed to remove an electron; always positive/endothermic; energy is put in to remove the electron

sp orbitals

mixing the s and p orbitals; yields two degenerate orbitals that are hybrids of the two orbitals; each hold 2 electrons and can overlap with another orbital; linear; explains 2 electron domains; one large lobe and one small lobe on each orbital

real gas

molecular attraction between gas particles; at high pressure, the attractive forces between molecules come into play; molecular attraction lessens the force of the gas molecule when it collides with the wall

solids

molecules close together and remain intact (no bonds broken)

equilibrium vapor pressure

molecules leave and enter liquid at equal rates, pressure reaches steady state value

paramagnetism

molecules with one or more unpaired electrons; attracted to a magnetic field (ex: B2, O2)

molecular orbital (MO) theory

more sophisticated bonding model; describes electrons in a molecule by using specific wave functions called molecular orbitals

stronger forces

more surface area to interact >> more contact with each other >> ____________; higher boiling point >> largest dipole moment>> ____________

water

most common compound in living organisms

fluorine

most electronegative element

combination reaction

multiple things >> one type of thing

trace elements

necessary elements needed only in very small quantities

ion-dipole forces

need an ion and a polar molecule/something with a dipole; positive ends of polar molecules are oriented toward negatively charged anion(s); negative ends of polar molecules are oriented toward positively charged cation(s)

anions

negatively charged ions; bigger than their atoms; electrons added; increased electron/electron repulsion

Pauli Exclusion Principle

no 2 electrons can have the same QN (maximum of 2 electrons per orbital with different spins)

ideal gas

no attraction between neighboring particles; particles move in a random motion/in a straight line; will change path when they collide with a wall or other particle

diamagnetism

no unpaired electrons; weakly repelled by magnetic field (ex: C2, N2, F2)

binary molecular compounds

nonmetal + nonmetal; covalent bonds; uses Greek prefixes; name of element farther to the left is usually written first (exception: oxygen and Cl/Br/I, then oxygen is written last); if both elements are in the same group, one closer to the bottom is named first; name of second element is given "ide" ending

frequency

number of complete waves per second; measured in Hz or inverse second

nuclear charge

number of protons in the nucleus

group number

number of valence electrons matches ____________

hydrogen bonding

occurs between the H atom in a polar bond and a nonbonding electron pair on a nearby small electronegative atom or ion (in another molecule); a force, not a bond

AB6 electron geometry

octahedral

decomposition reaction

one type of thing >> multiple things

3-D lattices

only 7 to describe any ____________

antibonding MO

out of phase atomic orbitals; no electron density between the nuclei (node); electrons in ____________ "destroys" bonds; high in energy; unfavored

less

outer electrons have ____________ attraction to the nucleus than inner electrons

Bohr

planetary model of the atom, energy levels; said: 1) electrons only lie in certain orbitals (place for electrons), 2) electrons do not spiral to the nucleus, 3) energy is emitted or absorbed as electrons move from one orbit to another, 4) only certain orbits where electrons are found, 5) energy is involved in moving an electron from one orbit to another

Rutherford

planetary model; found protons in the nucleus of the atom (rest of space is full of electrons); found 3 types of radiation (alpha, beta, gamma); gold foil experiment

triple point

point where all three lines on a phase diagram meet up; when a solid, liquid, and gas are in equilibrium with each other

nodes

points where probability of finding an electron is 0; number = n-l-1

oxyanions

polyatomic anions containing oxygen that have names ending in either "-ate" (most common) or "-ite" (has same charge as "ate" anion, but 1 oxygen fewer)

P4 and S8

polyatomic elements

cations

positively charged ions; smaller than their atoms; outer electrons removed; reduced electron/electron repulsion

bases

proton acceptors

acids

proton donors

deBroglie

radiation (light) is wave-like and particle-like; electrons have wavelengths; electrons have mass and velocity

metathesis reactions

reactions in which cations and anions appear to exchange partners

models

representations of objects or systems; explain things; can be used to inform decisions; take time to develop; can change with new data

atmospheric pressure

representative fo the outside pressure exerted by the atmosphere

viscosity

resistance of a liquid to flow; related to the ease with which molecules of a liquid can move relative to one another; depends on: the intermolecular forces of the molecules, the shapes of the molecules, and temperature; stronger forces/if molecules can be tangled/higher temperature = higher ____________

aufbau, Hund's rule, Pauli exclusion principle

rules for filling electrons

isotopes

same atom with different numbers of neutrons

same KE

same temp >>

lowers

separated ions allowed to come together ____________ their PE; energy has to go somewhere, so it is released

metallic solids

share a network of delocalized electrons; held together by metallic bonding; good conductors of heat and electricity, malleable, and ductile (results of unique bonding properties)

net gain of energy by the system

sign conventions for change in E: + means

net loss of energy by the system

sign conventions for change in E: - means

gains heat/heat flows into the system

sign conventions for q: + means

loses heat/heat flows out of the system, into the surroundings

sign conventions for q: - means

work done on the system

sign conventions for w: + means

work done by the system

sign conventions for w: - means

molecular orbitals

similar to atomic orbitals: hold 2 electrons with opposite spins, can visualize electron density distribution; describe electrons in a molecule by using specific wave functions

heat of sublimation

solid >> gas; heat of fusion + heat of vaporization = ____________

heat of fusion

solid >> liquid

Dalton

solid sphere model; postulates

non-electrolyte

solution has no ions, but still dissolves; sugars, alcohols

strong electrolytes

solution is made up of all ions; soluble ionics, strong acids, and strong bases

weak electrolytes

solution is only made up of some ions; weak acids and weak base NH3

wavelength x frequency

speed of light =

diffusion

spreading of gas molecules throughout space from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration to reach an equilibrium

shorter bond length, stronger attraction, and larger bond enthalpy due to a lower (more negative PE)

strong bonds have...

boiling point

temperature at which a liquid turns into a gas and at which vapor pressure equals opposing atmospheric pressure; liquid molecules must overcome their attractive forces in order to separate and form a vapor; stronger forces = higher ____________

2-D lattices

the 5 shapes that can tile all space; can be repeated in both dimensions

electronegativity

the ability of an atom to attract electrons to itself when it is part of a compound; larger ____________ = greater ability to attract electrons to itself; the greater the difference in ____________, the more polar the bond

mean free path

the average distance traveled before the molecule changes its path; higher pressure = shorter ____________; lower pressure = longer ____________

equal, difference

the energy of an emitted photon is ____________ to the ____________ of the two states involved in the emission

electron affinity

the energy required to add an electron or electrons; the greater the attraction between the atom and the electron, the more negative the energy

surface tension

the energy required to increase the surface area of a liquid by a unit amount; stronger forces = higher ____________; on any surface molecule, there is no upward force to cancel the downward force, which means each surface molecule "feels" a net downward pull; on any interior molecule, each force is balanced by a force pulling it in the opposite direction which means that interior molecules "feel" no net pull in any direction

effusion

the escape of a gas through a small hole; faster (smaller/lighter) gas particles will hit the right place more often

mass spectrometer

the most accurate means for determining atomic weights; an experiment to determine each isotope mass and its abundance

effective nuclear charge

the positive charge that an electron experiences from the nucleus, equal to the nuclear charge but reduced by any shielding or screening from any intervening electron distribution

mole fraction

the ratio of the number of moles of solute in solution to the total number of moles of solute and solvent; X1 = moles of one thing/total moles; a measure of how much "stuff" is present relative to the total

capillary action

the rise of liquids up very narrow tubes; liquid flows up the tube due to adhesive forces between the liquid and wall of the tube

covalent bonding

the sharing of electrons between atoms; protons of one atom are attracted to the electrons of another; when you bring 2 atoms together, you are bringing their nuclei closer to each other and their is proton/proton and electron/electron repulsion between electron clouds

polarizability

the tendency of an electron cloud to distort; as the number of electrons increases, the ____________ increases (more charge separation)

ionic

transfer of electrons produces cations and anions; ____________ substances are usually brittle with high melting points (indicates bonding is strong); usually crystalline

AB5 electron geometry

trigonal bipyramidal

molecules

two or more atoms joined together by chemical bonds; use molecular formula; end in "ide"; use prefixes

dispersion, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonding, ion-dipole

types of intermolecular forces

perspective drawings, ball-and-stick models, space-filling models

types of models

ionic compounds

use empirical formula with charge balance; cation + anion

hybrid orbitals

used to explain VSEPR geometries, often assume that the atomic orbitals of an atom mix to form new orbitals

metallic bonding

valence electrons are delocalized; a "sea" of mobile valence electrons that are uniformly distributed

temperature, pressure, volume, and amount

variables to describe the physical condition of a gas

violet, blue, green, yellow, orange, red

visible light spectrum (left >> right)

molecular solids

weakly linked by IMFs; tend to be soft with low melting points

soluble

will dissolve

insoluble

won't dissolve; forms a precipitate