Comparative Politics

Civil Society

A space in society outside of the organization of the state, in which citizens come together and organize themselves (not necessarily political). Not necessarily political (clubs, associations, special interests, even religious groups) States have differing degrees and types—differing habits of organizing, talking. Allows citizens to analyze politics and make claims/demands on the state. Civil society is stronger in democracies than in authoritarian regimes. Creates "social capital" (Robert Putnam): - Trust, value networks, associations that create good citizens - Chess Club, bowling together, Kiwanis - Putnam argues in the US, social capital is dying

Irredentism

A state advocates for the annexation of another state's territory on the grounds that there is a common ancestry abroad or that the state used to control certain territory. Examples: Germany Anschluss of Austria, and Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia; Italy wanting Dalmatia from Yugoslavia; China wanting Taiwan; India wanting Pakistan and Bangladesh; Israel and Palestine

Failed State

A state that cannot or does not perform its expected functions. A state so weak that its political structures collapse, leading to anarchy and violence No taxes, pay bribes, lawlessness, ransoms, no legal recourse for wrongdoings, low human capital (health, edu, skills), low economic development, inter-group conflict (religion, ethnicity) Examples: Somalia, Libya, Sudan, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Iraq, Haiti, Chad, etc.

Weak state

A state that has difficulty fulfilling basic tasks.

Rule of Law

A system that imposes regularized rules in a polity, with key criteria including equal rights, the regular enforcement of laws, and the relative independence of the judiciary. Law is consistently applied equally to all.

Strong State

Able to fulfill basic tasks, such as defending territory, making and enforcing rules, collecting taxes, and managing the economy.

Primordialists

All states have nationalism, and we should try to find why this is so. National identity is very similar to collective identity for survival. We have an inherent drive to participate in identities—we want to belong. ALL states have nationalism for survival

Mixed/Hybrid Electoral Systems

An attempt to get the best from District form (usually based on geography, using either SMD or MMD) and PR Ranking candidates: winners chosen based on how the public ranked them (see next) - Alternative vote - Single transferable vote (STV) - Mixed Member Proportional (MMP)

The role of Culture in Democratization

Asian values thesis—value stability and harmonious social relations over individual rights, and they are more respectful of authority. Order and hard work are valued. Islamic countries and democracy Catholic church accepting the ideas of personal rights lead to Latin American democracy explosion

Origins of Democracy

Athens and other early Greek city-states - Origin of the notion of popular sovereignty Roman Empire - Origin of legislative bodies Magna Carta: 1215 England - Laid foundation for an early form of legislature—land barons limited king's power by law and protected their rights - Set stage for idea of liberty Enlightenment: reason and individualism rather than tradition and faith

Alternative Vote

(AKA instant runoff) in SMD, all votes counted to see voters' first choices. If no one wins a majority, the person with lowest total is eliminated and votes for the last place person are redistributed. This keeps going until one person wins a majority.

Mixed Member Proportional (MMP)

Attempts to combine SMD and PR Half of leg are elected in SMD plurality, half are by party list vote, so each party has appropriate share of seats. Provides geographical representation from SMD with diversity of representation from PR. Allows two types of representatives, usually creates coalition govts, but gerrymandering can occur in the SMD elections. Originally in West Germany, now in Venezuela, Hungary, N Zealand, a few others. Not widely used but gaining notoriety.

Race

Biological categories of differences - Skin color - Nowadays we know there is great variation within racial groups, and many consider race to be socially constructed, as they can change over time (Irish used to be considered non-white)

Authoritarian and Democratic Constitutions

Constitutions are supposed to protect rights and limit state powers Even in states with constitutions, not all are legitimate, fair, and just, or enforced. Many regimes use/twist constitutions to fit their needs, either for a party (Communists) or person (Putin, Chavez) Thus constitution ≠ democracy Some countries base their constitutions and courts on religious law (typically seen in Islamic world) Theocracy: Vatican City, Iran, Somalia, Sudan, Yemen.

Defense

Coordinate military action to protect the citizenry against potential foreign threats Usually highly organized, bureaucratized, permanent organizations Citizen control - Fewer coups d'états

Types of legislative bodies

Different types give rise to different patterns of representation Bicameral: two chambers/houses. - Lower house: composition most closely reflects the population at large (House of Reps, House of Commons) - Upper house: usually smaller, composition less directly reflective of population, representing whole states/provinces (Senate, House of Lords) Unicameral: one house. - Usually in smaller populations. Scandinavia, sub-Saharan Africa, parts of Middle East. Usually in unitary, homogenous states. Also common in auth. regimes where a single party dominates (China). Congress/Assembly: typically in a system with a separately elected head of government (president). Parliament: system that chooses their OWN head of govt. The head of parliament depends on the parlia for their position. If the executive can control their party and maintain support, they can be very powerful.

Religion and Modernity

Differentiation - The process through which institutions become increasingly autonomous from one another, including the reduction or other change in the linkages between religion and the institutions of the state Privatization - (With regards to religion) Process of religious practice being confined to the private sphere—efforts of the church to influence policy are viewed negatively by the population

Semi-presidential system

Directly elected president as head of state and a prime minister chosen separately as the head of govt. The PM may/may not be appointed by the president, but they are still accountable to the parliament. The President here is mostly ceremonial, but does usually have significant foreign policy powers Best example: France In Iran, the President (Hassan Rouhani, Ahmadinejad) may have some power, but all actions/decisions are under the scrutiny of religious clerics (Ayatollah Khamenei=Supreme Leader) = theocracy

Electoral Systems: Districts

District based systems elect one or more representatives based on specific geographics, creating constituencies. More focused on candidate election than party.

Constitutions

Foundational charters and fundamental laws of modern states, that establish: - The political system (including electoral elements) - Laws - Separation of powers (horizontally) - Division of powers (vertically): federalism - Institutions (branches of government, parties, organization/bureaucracies) Usually created by a convention or assembly that brings together many leading political figures to decide on rules, laws, and structures -Can be at founding of country or when a new regime is established It is a contract: the people confer authority to political actors in exchange for order and rule of law. Constitutionalism: putting limits on government

Religion and Institutions

How and why do religious organizations become differentiated from others, particularly from the state? Look at society as complexes of interdependent institutions that function together systemically As societies modernize they generate an increasing number of interdependent institutions...so where does/will religion fall?

How about we reform the entire US system as Allen suggests?

How can we make our govt more effective, accountable, and functional? - Remove the impeachment process—it does not do what it was designed to do. Need a removable PM and steady head of state. - Divided govt from two-party rule should end. - Spending on constant elections—give free television time and require party dues for funding election campaigns - Low voter turnout—people think their vote won't count, especially in minimally contested districts.

Isomorphism

In institutional theory, the quality that two or more organizations have by virtue of being structurally very similar. Organizational forms spread when they work well (think of how all universities are set up the same, all retail stores, etc).

Informal Powers

Not official but based on custom, convention - Influence public debate and opinion through speeches and media. - Bully pulpit, power to persuade - Patronage/clientelism: give employment or benefits as payment for political support. - Patron=executive; client=recipient of benefit *See chart of powers in text

Types of Nationalism

Old: Western and Eastern nationalism Now: civic and ethnic nationalism - Civic: you are a member of the nation if you are a citizen of its state - Ethnic: you are a member of the nation because of your ancestry - Territorial: membership is determined by where one is born or resides

Dominant one party system

One large political party predominates politically, often controlling the legislative and executive branches Single party system: clearly there is a dominant party because others are banned. - China, N.Korea, Nazi Germany, Cuba Voting can ALSO be free and fair and civil liberties might be protected, just reelect same party continually.

Legislative decision making: Parties

Sometimes more important than individuals Members vote together (party line discipline); this doesn't happen all the time - You can be punished by your party if you don't vote in line. - You can vote against your party if you don't rely on them to get reelected. Party discipline is often needed to get legislation passed. =Decisions can be shaped by comms, parties, leaders, and rarely are determined solely by the preferences of "the people." (see also interest groups and bureaucracies, the Iron Triangle)

State

The most important form of political organization in modern politics, which, in its ideal form, is characterized by centralized control of the use of force, bureaucratic organization, and the provision of a number of public goods. or The central political institution that exerts a monopoly on the legitimate use of force within a given territory. (Max Weber)

Coalitions

The power of leaders also depends on whether a party governs alone or is part of a coalition of two or more parties. Common in parliamentary systems with PR—in order to get anything passed you need to form coalitions to get a majority of votes! If an exec can hold together a coalition, he is less likely to be voted out, and more likely to get his policy goals passed. - Aligning with the PM pays off: you can be a senior official in the cabinet who advises the PM. - If your party controls a certain ministry, you can reward their support with the ability to shape policy and increase their chances for reelection.

Democratization

The process of a regime becoming democratic. Democratic breakdown=opposite A state must transition first—taking on more and more democratic traits in time or all at once. Through consolidation the state becomes democratic, in that the democracy becomes institutionalized and accepted, thus more likely to endure.

Racialization and Race Formation

The process through which the ideas of race are constructed and change over time. One race has an interest in closing off competition for status or resources, so they construct differences - Think: slavery - A racial identity is when people in a society think that one group is significantly biologically different from other groups. This can lead to conflict.

Rotberg: "The New Nature of Nation-State Failure"

Thesis: Nation-states exist to provide political goods (security, education, health, economic growth, legal framework, infrastructure, etc). Failed/failing states cannot provide goods. What are the characteristics of state failure? - Violence permeates; horrible standards of living; no infrastructure; greedy leaders; conflict/fear of "others;" borders are not controlled; prey on own citizens What's the difference between a collapsed state and a failed state? - Total vacuum of authority; a black hole. Substate actors take over. Think Somalia. - Failed states: Afghanistan, Angola, Burundi, the DRC, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Sudan

Executives

They execute, implement, or administer policies and laws passed by legislatures. Can contribute to the making of law Budget requests/suggestions. Affordable Care Act Determines if laws actually become laws—can veto bills from becoming active. PMs shape the agenda and decide which initiatives will come to the floor, and pushes MPs (members of parlia) to pass certain bills. Head of government bureaucracy

What things exist inside states/compliment states/help states function?

- Civil Society - Bureaucracy - Impersonality of States - Sovereignty

Infrastructure et al.

- Civil engineering (roads!) - Ports and airports, railways - Not for convenience, but because commerce depends on it

What are the dangers of nationalism?

- Creating an "otherness" - Excluding some people/suppressing groups not like the national one - Imperialism

Diamond: Toward Democratic Consolidation

Civil Society requires: - Voluntary involvement - Autonomous from the state - Citizens act collectively in the public sphere - Express ideas, interests, exchange information - Make demands on the state - Stands between the public and the state—it is an intermediary

What democracies are not (necessarily)

- Economically more efficient - Administratively more efficient - In fact, often quite the opposite! - More orderly, consensual, stable, or governable - More open societies ≠ more open economies

Dahl: What political institutions does large-scale democracy require?

- Elected officials - Free, fair, and frequent elections - Freedom of expression - Alternative sources of information - Associational autonomy - Inclusive citizenship The US and other modern democracies are POLYARCHIES (since we cannot have direct democracies and electoral democracies are not enough). A polyarchy is a form of government in which power is invested in multiple people.

Advantages of the Modern State

- Encourage economic development - Encourage technological innovation - Domestic stability

How can we prevent state failure?

- Establish security - Create a bureaucracy/administrative structure - Create legal codes and train judges/lawyers - Restart schools, build roads, hospitals - Write a constitution, hold elections This all costs money, but it prevents death and may block terrorists/rogue actors from gaining control

Dahl: what comes from a democracy?

- Human development - Protecting essential personal interests - Political equality - Through democratic institutions - Peace-seeking - Prosperity - Avoiding tyranny - Essential rights - General freedom - Self-determination - Moral autonomy

What causes democratization?

- Modernization - Cultural theories - Systemic/structural theories - Domestic institutional theories - Agency-based theories

Why is civil society necessary for a democracy?

- Monitor the state - Limit state power - Democratize authoritarian states - Expose abuses, especially by mobilization - More essential for consolidating than initiating democracy - Helps ensure the regime won't slip backwards - Engages citizens - Promotes views, esp of minorities (pluralism) - Helps other democratic values develop (tolerance, voting, running for office)

Partisan Powers

- Often more important than formal powers - Often it is more important to have control over the party or the coalition of parties - If the exec can control the success/career of legs then they will be able to pass a great deal of legislation

Economic Management: How do states control the economy?

- Own key industries (especially natural resources) - Enforce contracts - Establish and enforce rules about the banking system - Structure ways in which capital is accumulated and invested - Determine how much money is available in the economy - Rules that govern labor, strikes, collective bargaining, safety. Sometimes wages as well - Regulate commercial products: advertising claims, food/chemicals, pollution

Types of executives

- Presidential: US - Parliamentary: UK - Mix as Semi-Presidential: France, Iran Power depends on formal and informal powers, including the ability of the exec to discipline and manage their party and other parties

Bureaucratic Functions

- Revenue collection - National defense - Service delivery - Income maintenance & redistribution - Regulation - Research - Specialized government functions - Management of state enterprise - Relatively stable regardless of administration (Ethridge & Handelman)

Functions of Modern States

- Taxation - Defense - Policing - Investments in Human Capital - Welfare State Functions - Infrastructure et. al - Economic Management

Why do states emerge?

1. As a result of conflict (within or outside) - Bellicist theory: interstate wars created modern states. The threat of death from war can lead people to join behind a cause and fight, pay more taxes, etc. 2. Economics: - Modernization - Elite coalitions responding to new economic circumstances - Marxists would say states formed due to capitalism and thus state growth/protectionism 3. Culture - Nationalism and identity - Religion - Neither of these cultural factors can alone explain state building

Modern State

A concept used to distinguish states in the modern world from earlier forms of political centralization; it includes features such as extensive bureaucracy, centralization of violence, and impersonality.

What factors influence political representation?

1. Civil society Social movement mobilization: - Create groups to empower and try to change minds (civil rights movement, LGBT movement) Political parties: have a party/member represent the discriminated. Institutions promoting rights: - Some states require seats be given to certain parties/ethnicities/women 2. Modernization Refers to a type of society, typically one experiencing economic growth and with a relatively strong state, among other characteristics. Industrialization and infrastructure Technical efficiency, education, literacy, health Modernization is the process through which a society becomes more modern

What are executive responsibilities?

1. Command the bureaucracy 2. Maintain the military 3. Responsible for spending the budget approved to it by the leg. - Have powers of pen and pistol, and some purse. 4. Make political appointments - Think how important our SC justices are! 5. Represent the state in the international realm

Why do welfare states emerge?

1. Cultural changes: changing values/norms, the state can solve social problems, not just religious institutions anymore 2. Capitalism creates large portions of impoverished people, so to prevent overthrow of the govt, the govt should provide programs for the poor (marxist) 3. Mobilization and political actors: some people (labor unions) may push for welfare reforms from businesses and the state. - All parties may be forced to compromise, and these compromises can help explain the variations between welfare states. - Again, the USA is abnormal

Types of democratization

1. Democratic transitions - Changes from one regime type to democracy. - Can be rapid or very slow -Some are controlled by the authoritarians leaving power (South Africa and Elizabeth Wood) while others come from the collapse of the previous power structure (think revolutions) 2. Democratic consolidation - Longer term than transition - When the democracy is accepted and considered legitimate by the population, no other type would be allowed - Its institutions are institutionalized - No country is perfect at maintaining this—even the US can't ensure free, fair elections or civil liberties 3. Representative democracy - Two types: Constitutional republic (no monarch, has const.) or constitutional monarchy (has both a monarch and const. limiting his powers). -We elect people to vote for us on legislation and make decisions -Delegate or trustee -Multiparty democracy: at least two parties compete for power, providing options for the citizenry. 4. Direct democracy - People directly vote on issues - Common today in referenda/plebiscites where the issue is put to popular vote - The closest thing we have to this today are community councils

Larry Diamond's 10 Criteria for Liberal Democracy

1. Elected officials 2. Constrained executive power 3. Uncertain electoral outcomes 4. Protection of minority rights 5. Multiple, ongoing channels of expression 6. Alternative sources of information 7. Substantial freedoms 8. Citizens are politically equal under the law 9. Individual and group liberties are protected 10. Rule of law These are substantive requirements for democracy, in that the state's success as a democracy is dependent on the satisfaction of many things. It is not a procedural/minimal definition that only requires rules and elections.

Why does conflict occur?

1. Primordial bonds: when pre-existing groups feel like their identity is under threat. Groups already exist, but conflicts can arise later (remember for perceived survival) 2. Cultural boundaries: constructed boundaries can make the likelihood of conflict worse—if you refuse some into your group or treat outsiders as threatening, you may be more apt to conflict with others. 3. Material interests: conflict can be used as an instrument in achieving goals like winning a resource. Groups will purposely increase ethnic/national tension to lead to conflict for goods. 4. Rational choice: people do what is in their best interest, whether it is for the material gains or constructed ideas, etc. You consider costs/benefits to either going with or against the dominant identity. Do you assimilate or not? 5. Social psychology: engage in conflict because collectively held or group feelings of resentment lead you to. Never just one of the reasons alone listed above, conflicts are initiated usually due to a combination of reasons.

Waves of Democracy

1st: 1800s-1922 (Mussolini): ebb left just 12 dems until 1945 2nd: 1945-1962 Huntington argued for 6 causes of the 3rd wave of democracy (1974 Portugal - approx. 1992): - Latin America, Asia Pacific, and collapse of Soviet bloc - Economic modernization - Declining legitimacy of auth regimes - Catholic church - Snowball effect - Greater international support 4th wave: Arab Spring??

Bureaucracy

A form of organization that is administered by office holders on the basis of rules Should be transparent Agencies/departments Clearly stipulated set of rules Bureaucracy is needed (imagine not having bureaucracy for welfare programs, waging a war, healthcare systems)

Democracy

A form of regime associated with rule by the people that signifies rights and liberties for citizens, including political rights to participate in elections and civil liberties such as freedom of speech. Minimalist democracy: - Holding elections

Secessionist Nationalism

A group of people wanting autonomy, and to secede from the state they belong to Examples: - Quebec in Canada - Palestinians in Israel - Tibetans - Scotland - Catalonia in Spain

Ethnic Groups

A group that identifies itself as having a strong cultural commonality and a shared sense of long-run history. Kinship groups. They share ancestry myths, historical memories, and usually shared territory. Korean/African/Whoever Americans may feel like an ethnic group, but they don't want to start their own country, so ethnicities can be part of a larger multicultural community, possessing other identities than just their ethnicity.

Ethnicity

A quality one has by identifying with or being ascribed membership.

Weber and Bureaucracy

Bureaucracy is monitored and controlled by executives Weber: concept of bureaucracy in 1922 as a form of organization: - Bureaucratic workers work in fixed jurisdictions - In a clear hierarchy - With written rules - And expert training (no 'patronage'). Bureaucrats are professional public officials in agencies/departments/ministries Issues: rigidity, resistance to change, growth.

Capacity vs. Autonomy

Capacity: - The ability of the state to wield power in order to carry out the basic tasks of providing security and reconciling freedom and equality. Autonomy: - The ability of the state to wield its power independently of the public or international actors.

Ideal State is Characterized by:

Centralized control over use of force, bureaucratic organization, and the provision of a number of public goods.

Corporatism

Certain major groups are designated as representatives of certain issues, and have more structured interaction with the government and bureaucracy. The groups can be incorporated into the decision-making structures of the state. - Is this bad? Not necessarily if the major groups of society are being represented. Linkages of govt and business organizations in Japan and S.Korea were able to turn the economy around. - Is it good? Not if the interests get so ingrained in the system that it makes for favorites and difficult to adapt to changing times.

Gender and Orientation

Culturally constructed roles or identities one has by virtue of being ascribed the status of being male or female (biological). - Transgendered identity: one's gender does not conform to conventional matching with biological sex. - Most agree gender is not biologically determined and can change over time - Sexual orientation: heteronormativity (when straight is considered normal and genders are stereotypical). Leads to sexual discrimination for homosexuals, even though historically homosexuality is present in all cultures.

Styles of Presidential Rule

Delegative democracy (O'Donnell): Exec governs how he sees fit—thinks he was delegated power instead of a representative of the people. - Still can be a democracy as President will respect certain limits, but there are few checks on power. - Latin America, Russia w Putin, developing world. Can influence economy: budgets, collecting taxes, regulating the economy, staffing key economic institutions like the bank to control money supply and interest rates. This can lead to Populism: leaders appeal to masses with government resources to gain power/popularity. Can hurt economy in long run. - Chavez in Venezuela, Perons in Argentina

What are legislatures?

Deliberative bodies composed of decision makers who represent the population at large. They make laws and debate values and preferences of voters. Lobbyists and interest groups try to influence them Most rose out of the desire to remove unaccountable kings/leaders But these were typically unelected rich, landowning males/clergy until very recently You can still have legislatures in non-dems: - Communist Party elections in China - Appointments instead of elections

So what are the pros and cons of Districts and PR?

Districts: - Cons: not all will be represented (if a dem wins 52% and a repub wins 48%, that means 48% may feel unrepresented). Even worse if a party is split (tea party/repub). Apportionment: dividing up legislative seats to geographic constituencies (districts). - Malapportionment: imbalances, some regions get a higher ratio of reps-to-voters than others (US Senate!) Why did we do this in the US? - Redistricting and gerrymandering: districts are irregular in order to achieve a desired political outcome. - In the US, each district is supposed to be 750,000 or so. - Pros: apportionment can help ensure smaller districts are not always run over by the majority. PR: - Pros: party centered, so you don't have randoms winning elections who have no idea how to create policy and are only elected based on personal appeal. - Parties winning means more people are represented. - PR supports multiple smaller parties which can increase the amount of people represented. - Cons: no single identifiable legislator—how do people know where to direct their demands? - They tend to respond to the overall national constituency rather than localities, and supporters of the losing party may have no where to turn.

Two-Party Systems

Duverger's law (in SMD) Winner-takes-all crowds out the smaller parties, voters gradually desert them since they have no real chance of winning Zero-sum system = every vote lost by your opponent is yours Can mean little incentive for parties to be attentive to demands of citizens

What types of Interest Groups are there?

Economic: - Productive and commercial associations, unions Cultural: - Religious, ethnic, communal associations Informational and educational: - Spread ideas, news, info Interest based: - Advance/defend members (veterans, workers, professionals, etc.) Developmental: - Improve infrastructure/quality of life for those within community Issue oriented: - Environmental, women's rights, land reform, consumer protection, etc. Civic: - Human rights monitoring, voter education and mobilization, poll watching, anti corruption efforts. Media: - Universities, thinktanks, press houses, entertainment

State Building

Economically underdeveloped and wracked by violence, but actors are working to make a functioning state with capacity. Examples: Iraq, Afghanistan

What can't executives do?

Elections: if they are voted out, they're gone. No indefinite terms without popular support. Term limits: Washington; FDR and the 22nd Amendment Constitutional limitations: cannot limit the rights of citizens guaranteed in the constitution Separation of powers: horizontal and vertical.

What factors determine the political party system?

Electoral Systems (district-focused or PR) -SMD = two party systems; PR = multipartyism Geographical - Spillover effect—neighbors have one system so you follow suit Social and other political factors - Party systems depend largely on ideology and beliefs of the citizenry (Communism, Christian Democratic parties (social conservatism), Ethnic/religious divisions might necessitate more parties)

How can we fix discrimination?

Empowerment of minorities and women Economic: prohibit wrongdoings on the basis of gender/race/ethnicity. - Microfinancing—offering special loans to women/minorities to help them start businesses. - Give $ to families who send their children to school - Provide health and childcare to low income families/women to relieve some costs Political: get women/minorities/those traditionally discriminated against engaged in voting, civic activities, and running for office.

Fearon and Laitin: Ethnicity or insurgency as fuel to civil wars?

End of the Cold War saw many civil wars break out, presumably over ethnic tensions. Is that true? - Authors argue for prolonged conflicts that just broke free after collapse of USSR - Holding for per capita income, ethnic/religiously diverse countries are no more prone to civil war So what is leading to civil wars? - Insurgency and rural guerilla warfare, allowable by poverty, political instability, rough terrain, newly independent states, reliance on oil, and large populations.

Functions of Political Parties

Establish the means by which the majority can rule Without them the political process would be too fragmented Electoral mobilization Create a responsibility mechanism for elites

Discrimination

Explicit or implicit - Segregation - Jim Crow Laws. Apartheid. - Housing policies in suburbs - Women earn $0.77 per $1 a man earns - Women still should be at home with kids (cultural pressures) - Gender pay gap: US is 23rd, right behind Burundi - Gay marriage/civil unions/death penalty

Party institutionalization

Extent to which a party system is stable and remains so over time. Do parties endure or are new parties constantly emerging? If so, it is less institutionalized. Are the party platforms stable? Meaning, are the parties cohesive? When you hear a party's name, do you know their ideas/platforms?

Separation of powers among levels of government

Federalism: there is power separated between the central government (federal) and subnational governments (states, provinces) Subnational governments can govern and establish their own laws The Supreme Court gets to decide if they overstep their limits (Supremacy Clause) The Federalist Papers 20 of nearly 200 states globally, but have large populations (US, China, India, Indonesia, Russia, Brazil)

Feudalism vs. Modern State

Feudalism: Hierarchical ties linked peasants to kings. Little standardized taxation, few standing armies, no public services. No real "rule of law" Authority was mostly random and based on who owned the lands.

Which type (district or PR) is more representative?

First: What do you mean by representative? - Represent citizens—are they representing every single person's views? - Type: are they representing a geography? Political party? Identity group? - Quota systems: specific amount of seats set aside for women, racial/ethnic groups, underrepresented castes/social groups - Should they act on behalf of public opinion (delegate) or on what they think is best for the whole (trustee)? Maybe they have information the public doesn't have and will vote against how the public wants?

Econ management: Fiscal and Monetary Policy

Fiscal: budget setting—taxing and spending. Stimulus spending in bad economy. Debt is ok until it is too much. Monetary: how much money is in circulation and the value of a state's currency. Central bank. Reducing the value of your currency in relation to others' will favor your exports. Inflation (rising prices) deflation (falling)

Types of Constitutions

Flexible or rigid: - US Amendments; 2/3 vote in each house of Congress, THEN approval by 3/4 of states. - 27 times total, only 17 times since 1791. - Bill of Rights (passed as a set): 10 amendments featuring negative powers Others: supermajorities of each chamber; approval by a certain # of states in the country UK: easy to change: parliament is sovereign, so if they pass a law, it is constitutional. But, they are an exception—no written constitution! - Magna Carta 1215; Bill of Rights 1689; others Constitutional courts (Supreme Court) are not in every country—but they act as a check on the other branches - Different from local courts that deal with marriage/divorce, traffic violations, property disputes, and some crimes - In the US, the Supreme Court has final determination on laws, through case decisions coming from district courts (94) to circuit courts (12) If not determined by a constitutional court, you have parliamentary sovereignty, like in the UK. - Parliament is highest legal authority

Globalization and How it Strengthens/Weakens Sovereignty

Globalization weakens sovereignty: - Citizenship - Monetary policy - Growing influence of IGOs Globalization does not weaken sovereignty - Increased governmental activity - IGOs don't possess adequate resources to deal with international problems - States can ignore IGOs and/or the meddling of other states

Marginal Nationalism

Groups of people living near borders that share identities with multiple countries/groups. Makes it harder to identify with one nation/state. Examples: Alsace-Lorraine (French, German) Sikhs in India (Hindu, Muslim) Diasporas

Head of state vs. Government

Head of state: person with executive functions that is a country's symbolic representative, including elected presidents and unelected monarchs (Elizabeth) - Monarchs: kings, queens, emperors. Usually hold only symbolic power. In India and Israel, a ceremonial president may be the head of state, and real power is for the PM as head of govt. Head of government: forming governments and implementing policies. - PMs are heads of government, Presidents are usually head of government and of state.

Diffusion Theory

Ideas/practices spread locally, nationally, and globally. Wonders why and how did all regions accept the state and basic state functions as a form of organization? Was it coincidence? Colonialism? International capitalist system (globalization, core and periphery states) diffuses statehood States are cultural phenomena and these ideas can be adopted by others (semi-constructivist) Isomorphism: organizational forms spread when they work well (think of how all universities are set up the same, all retail stores, etc).

Secularism

Ideological complex that favors non-religious culture How do we explain secularism? - Secularization: The process through which societies become less religious as they become more modern

Removal of an Executive

Impeachment: charges brought against the President, and if convicted, they are removed. Johnson & Clinton were only impeached, not removed. (House determines grounds to impeach, Senate follows through w trial requiring 2/3 vote for conviction, and then vote to remove from office) Vote of no confidence: vote taken by a leg that expresses a lack of support for the government/exec that may dissolve the government and call for new elections. - Doesn't happen often, last one in UK was 1979.

Single transferable vote

In MMD, voter ranks candidates, and someone will win enough votes to win a seat (based on a threshold decided by the const), with votes left over. This surplus of votes is then distributed to 2nd and 3rd (or however many) until the slate of candidates is selected. - Doesn't have to be majority, the threshold for winning is constitutionally defined, and can depend on the # of seats available in each district. - Think of this as the "communism" of voting...the person who exceeded the threshold (and is thus elected) will have the extra votes redistributed to the other candidates with fewer votes. Allows a greater chance for smaller parties to win. - Don't want to waste the votes from a candidate who has exceeded the threshold. Ranking systems (like AV & STV) have a major advantage: they allow people to choose their most preferred candidate reducing the need for strategic voting (=don't vote for your favorite because you don't think he'll win, so vote for the least bad option of those that may win).

Styles of Parliamentary Rule

Italy: new government 40-60 times since 1945. Unstable government but a stable regime Or can be more stable when all parties are cooperating. Consociational democracies (Lijphart): in countries that are divided ethnically, religiously, or linguistically (Belgium, Switzerland), they strive for consensus and share power among all major groups.

Lardeyret: Critiques of Parliamentarism

Not necessarily more inclined to power share: depends on how many parties end up being represented in parliament. - Britain: 2-3 main parties. - Other places have chance for radical parties Often it's too hard to get a coalition together, and lawmaking becomes ineffective Europe tends to have parliamentarism, Latin America and Africa have presedentialism and struggle—but, maybe this is due to wealth and not system type.

Ethno-National Conflict

Long run trend, not something new Most heterogeneous areas experience little conflict, but some always have conflict Conflict between groups of people with different identities Ethnic vs Civil Wars: civil are always intrastate Is violence carried out by the state or by actors independent of the state? - Holocaust vs organized conflict between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs in India

What do legislatures do?

Make laws by proposing legislation, then organizing votes/coalitions, and bringing them to the floor for full vote. Make compromises and concessions - Affordable Care Act - Log rolling (trade favors; quid pro quo) - Pork barrel (spending on localized projects) Process for getting legislation passed varies in each country USA: committees in two houses, then each house, then a conference committee to reconcile differences between the two versions, then Pres. Leg is usually the budget maker and determines agency funding (=iron triangle effect). Legs also act as a constituent service: help if you don't get your SS check, if you want to go to West Point, etc.

Executive-legislative relations

Many legs have responsibility for overseeing the exec branch - Ex: legs require testimony from military leaders on the conduct of a war, since the military is under authority of the exec but is required to report to leg. Cabinet members and executive officials required to submit reports/undergo questioning by leg Right to review exec appointees (Senate) Think of strong legs and strong execs: The Republican Revolution 1994; FDR Votes of no confidence: the leg votes to remove the exec from office (parliamentary systems) - Exec is responsible to the leg so if he doesn't follow suit or shows inability to govern, he may be ousted. - If this happens, usually new elections are required and you get a new govt. In presidential systems, impeachment and removal of exec. - Treason, bribery, other high crimes/misdemeanors. - House brings charges, Senate does trial. Andrew Johnson, Clinton, Nixon (but resigned first).

Indirect elections

Members of the lower chamber (which in most countries except US is more powerful) elect members of the upper chamber. Or members of upper may be chosen by state legislatures (US Senate 17th Amendment, 1913). The least democratic form of election

Multi-member Districts (MMD)

More than one representative is elected from each district. Results often depend on size of district and # of reps in each. - Imagine if US has MMD for House of Reps: if we had 2 reps per district, it would probably even out to one Dem and one Repub per district. But if we have 10 reps per district, the parties could win different amounts and even some smaller parties could win, changing the composition of the legislature. Can have an MMD plurality/FPTP system—known as Block Vote or At-Large Vote. If there are 5 seats open, voters get 5 votes. The top 5 earning candidates then win the seats (no majority required)

How parties try to get swing voter support

Most people will not be at the far left or far right of the spectrum, so parties try to appeal to the median voter, aka "swing voter." Strategic voting: people must vote in ways that don't reflect their ideal position in order to prevent outcomes they think are even worse. - Occurs often in SMD with two parties. But, if your party has lots of moderates and lots of radicals, if you go too moderate you'll lose the radicals and may lose seats/majority.

Modernists

National identity really only formed from the 18th century onward since populations (rather than elites) only recently attached to a larger system, and nations only recently became sovereign. Ethnic/cultural roots are irrelevant because not all nations have them. Can be either as a form of top-down control, created by elites, or by the masses in "imagined communities" where they believe they are connected to a larger united community. New phenomena, created by elites for control or the masses for belonging

John Green on Nationalism

Nationalism exists in democracies and non- democracies! Nationalism can help states gain independence from an oppressor Nationalism can help create state stability—something important for capacity and autonomy Nationalism can lead to modernization

Nationalism

Nations are the basic units of social and political life, and people within a nation are considered equal in a typically geographically bounded population. Nations are not always at the state level Think of tribes, clans, groups of people very distinct within a larger population Nationalism can mean supporting the state you are from/identify most with, but can also lead to restrictions on immigration, discriminatory behavior, or genocide.

Policing

Need to protect citizens within the country too. States will have effective and well-institutionalized rule of law and transparent judicial procedures. National guard, police, sheriff Incarceration, death penalty (the US is abnormal on both)

Religious Economies

New paradigm in social-scientific analysis of religion Rational Choice: people will choose the religion that best suits their needs—thus religions vie for followers Religion is the product being sold, followers are the consumers Variation in religiosity is the nature of the religious market in any given society -Focuses on attendance at religious services or on self-reported measures of religious belief—the higher the better for the producers

What was wrong with the Articles of Confederation?

No central government power, no raising taxes, and no way to protect themselves from outsiders since it couldn't raise an army. So our issue was state/federal powers = civil war

Perennialists

Not all states have nationalism. Much easier for homogenous states to have identity. Nationalism has existed forever, but the strength of it in certain places varies across time.

Impersonality of States

Not closely identified with the personality of an individual leader Partially due to bureaucracies Modern states treat their people as citizens: all are equal in terms of their political role and rights (you don't get more/less based on who you are...in theory anyway)

Single Member District (SMD)

One person is elected per district Get on the ballot by being chosen by your party or by winning a primary election against many members of your own party Elections in SMD: First-past-the-post/plurality/winner-take-all: candidate with the most votes wins (DOESN'T have to be a majority) - Leads to Duverger's law: SMD will always lead to a two party system - Spoiler effect: over time the disaffected 3rd party rallies and pulls enough votes from one or the other party—enough so to potentially change election results (think tea party pulling Republicans away). This could mean even fewer people are represented. Runoff: the top two candidates from the election results run against each other again, to ensure that the eventual winner will have received a "mandate" by winning a majority of the valid votes cast.

The the role of the Domestic Institutions in Democratization

Organizations, groups, rules/patterns, norms, values that shape the behaviors of actors. -Articles of confederation (1781) to the US Constitution (1788)—Why did we need a constitution? If institutions don't work, democracy can be threatened. - Unclear delineation between president and chancellor roles in Germany allowed Hitler an easier time of taking over - Elections in Chile in 1970 let leftists win the presidency with only 1/3 of country support since electoral rules split the center and right parties (which in 1973 lead to the government overthrow by military...Pinochet)

Juan Linz: Perils of Presidentialism

Parliamentary systems are better, why? - Presedentialism divides power between the leg and exec, which makes it unclear who is responsible for public action. - Terms make changing an unpopular government difficult in Presedentialism. - A single party leads the exec branch and doesn't have to include anyone else in decision making - President's are more authoritarian and non-negotiable - President's are outsiders and not in politics for decades = these may lead to authoritarians over time

Parties and stability

Party systems tend to remain stable ...Even if politics are not Party realignment - The balance of power between a country's political parties changes greatly. - Can occur when the electorate changes dramatically (Blacks, women, minorities allowed to vote) - Major historical events (Civil War in US, World Wars)

Westphalian Sovereignty

Peace of Westphalia (1648) Established the principle of territorial integrity No outside actor could meddle in a state's domestic affairs Three important aspects: -States are sovereign and have the right to self determination - Legal equality between states - Non-intervention

Political Parties

Political organizations that seek to influence policy, usually by getting candidates elected/appointed to office. Pragmatic and ideological goals Must be responsive to what the electorate wants and demands Try to coordinate many people around a common platform (set of ideas the party considers its basic principles)

Rights (Political and Civil)

Political: to participate in political life, including the right to political speech, voting, petition, and joining political associations; procedural fairness, rights when charged with a crime. Civil: participate in civic life including assembly, speech, access to information, equal access to institutions, religion, etc. Protection from discrimination based on anything; ensure life/safety.

Presidentialism

Populace at large votes for a chief executive Fixed term(s) of several years. Legislature or courts may remove them in serious cases of criminal behavior, unconstitutional action Most elected by direct election in a popular vote, with/without a majority. Some countries (France, Ecuador) there is a first round between all then a runoff between the top two in order to ensure a majority. And then there's the US and the electoral college...

The role of Agents in Democratization

Powerful individuals can help bring democracy along - Nelson Mandela - MLK Jr. - Founding Fathers - Gandhi Groups and coalitions matter—divisions in authoritarian leadership can lead to democratization. - El Salvador and S. Africa (Elizabeth Wood's counter-elite) - Hardline authoritarians can't maintain power once "softliners" leave their camp for democracy. They would lose less (in terms of economic influence) if they transitioned to democracy than if an overthrow occurred.

Which (presedentialism/parliamentarism) is better for democracy?

Presidentialism: allows citizens to clearly identify with a candidate and elect him, and the opportunity to vote for one party in leg and one as pres. Parliamentarism: governments more likely to reach compromise and share power (bc they have to, to form coalitions and get anything done since there is rarely one party in majority)

Parliamentarism

Prime Minister, Premier, Chancellor First, MPs are elected, either by party or specific individuals. These MPs then select the head of government as PM (=indirect election). If there is no clear majority winning party, coalitions and negotiations will have to occur. Can be voted out by a vote of no confidence, and a new government must be formed. (easier than impeaching in presidential system)

What causes nationalism to emerge?

Primordial Ties: Imagined kinship groups as a collective identity formed, especially because if you didn't conform to the group's identity you would be ostracized and maybe die. - Critique: this can't really explain the differences between types of identities (religious, national, etc.). We can identify with many groups. Cultural construction: Like race and ethnicity, it is an idea created by humans. We assign value/meaning to things that can classify/identify us. Political institutions and structures: The state creates nations to serve its needs/goals. Can also create legitimacy and induce citizens to pay taxes and fight in wars. - Constructed identities (can be intentional, but not always) Structural forces: national identity due to the economic and social orders to which it is linked. - Some think capitalism greatly increased nationalism. - Nationalism has a function/a purpose/a use that would help develop a state and the economy.

Views on national identity creation

Primordialists, Perennialists, and Modernists

Welfare State Functions

Provide social insurance or pensions that protect the elderly and disabled, unemployment insurance, and health care for citizens. States have varying degrees of welfare at different points in time (Scandinavian States vs. USA) Comes from tax revenue, so its success is dependent on the economy and budgeting of the govt. Baby boomers: USA, Japan

Investments in Human Capital

Public education and health Education is used to create members that will enhance economic competitiveness. Public health with vaccinations, food distribution and safety, and managing infectious diseases are needed to keep your society alive and able to work. It is costly for a state to have sick populations. USA high infant mortality, obesity, healthcare costs, insurance costs, etc.

Judiciaries

Responsible for interpreting laws according to the constitution Is a check on powers of other branches to make sure they are acting in accordance to the constitution Judicial power varies greatly from country to country - Judicial review: the power of constitutional courts to determine the legality of laws, make sure they are in line with the constitution - Judicial Review was not explicit in US constitution: judges decided themselves that they had power to overturn laws if they are unconstitutional = interpretation (Marbury v. Madison, 1803)

Party System

Some countries outlaw parties Some have one single party (either by choice, by outlawing others, or because one party has systematic advantage); some have 2+ =Patterns of party politics are characterized by the number of relevant parties in a country Involve both competition and co-operation between the different parties in that system Parties and society - Less incorporated party systems = easier for new parties to emerge - Greater incorporation = existing parties will seek to maintain loyalty

Identity

Sense of self Social identity—our own personal identities are constructed on the basis of social sources and labeling. - Student, american, white, woman, sister, wife, daughter. In politics, group identities draw boundaries between in-groups and out-groups. Identities are cultural, historical, and political. They are created by humans and can change, and they influence/influenced by the ways that power is distributed in society.

Modernization Theory

Social changes and the economic development that accompany them lead to democracy (Inglehart) End of feudalism The emergence of industries, a middle class, urbanization, and a literate population. Industrialize, gain some political liberties, have more time and interest (since you're educated and not working 80 hours a week to feed your kids) so you will push for democracy Democracies become more stable and secure when they are relatively wealthy, and poor countries that lack a middle class will tend toward authoritarianism.

Economic Management

State efforts to shape the economic performance of their societies Some intervene greatly in the economy, holding ownership of firms in key sectors (China, Norway, Venezuela). Some intervene less (USA) BUT—even the least interventionist states are considerably involved, as poor economics leads to declining legitimacy...and a declining state

Taxation

States don't usually produce goods for sale on the market so must tax economic activity to function and bring in revenue. People don't take kindly to taxation, which may lead weak states to not be successful in growing if their people don't pay taxes. Natural resources: The resource curse (also known as the paradox of plenty) refers to the paradox that countries and regions with an abundance of natural resources, specifically point-source non-renewable resources like minerals and fuels, tend to have less economic growth and worse development outcomes than countries with fewer natural resources. This is hypothesized to happen for many different reasons, including a decline in the competitiveness of other economic sectors (caused by appreciation of the real exchange rate as resource revenues enter an economy, a phenomenon known as Dutch disease), volatility of revenues from the natural resource sector due to exposure to global commodity market swings, government mismanagement of resources, or weak, ineffectual, unstable or corrupt institutions (possibly due to the easily diverted actual or anticipated revenue stream from extractive activities).

Sovereignty

States have control over given territory and are the source of legitimate authority States are seen by the their people and other countries as the ultimate authority There used to be permeable lines for state boundaries, but today are delineated.

Multi-Party Systems

System that consists of more than two significant parties that have opportunities to govern—i.e. most democracies Can be divisive, especially for ethnic/tribal divisions. Fragmentation: why's it bad for politics? Concentration - The extent to which political power is characterized by relatively small numbers of large parties. Just because we have the Green Party in US doesn't mean we are multiparty. Have to look at the effective number of parties—ones that have power and influence and pull enough votes away from other parties.

State Capacity

The ability of the state to achieve its objectives, especially the abilities to control violence, effectively tax the population, and maintain well-functioning institutions and the rule of law. Ability for a state to fulfill its goals (often through the collection of taxes) High capacity: established monopoly on use of force; properly functioning bureaucracy; low corruption; accomplish tasks such as coordinating defense, maintain infrastructure, and manage projects in education and public health; rule of law maintained.

Constitutional Design

The features that shape the powers of different political institutions - Separation of powers - Levels of government - Branches of government - Negative rights

Formal Powers of Executives

These are outlined in the constitution Veto power=major power Dissolve the legislature: usually done if elections will be advantageous to the governing party State of emergency: confers extraordinary powers to president/military to govern with less input from the legislature Decrees: have the force of law even though not approved by leg. Authoritarian regimes, especially to limit political mobilization (Venezuela); or used to halt an impending economic crisis (Brazil 1990s). Executive orders: tells bureaucracy how to enact/interpret laws...affects whether/how regulations are enforced. Succeeding president can overturn.

Legislative decision making: Committees

These smaller groups of parliamentarians or congressmen shape policy and then present it to the larger body. Legislators specialize in certain committees and defer to their colleagues' knowledge (esp those of the same party) in areas unfamiliar to them. Powerful comms can set the policy agenda "Legislative cartels": policymaking is determined in comms and is based on what comms want. Intra-party games and struggles for power/influence Comms determine procedural rules - Senate removed filibuster ability for lower appointees

The the role of the International System in Democratization

USSR and US wanted to secure and influence certain states/areas during the Cold War De-colonialism Huntington's idea of snowballing—other states in a region became democracies, providing examples for neighbors Globalization and the spread of ideas

Hegemonic Nationalism

Uniting large groups of people/territory, usually as a movement - Germany, Italy in early 1900s Territory, language, and culture are shared and promoted Irredentism

Electoral Systems: Proportional Representation

Voters choose a preferred party and seats are allocated to parties according to the percentage of the vote the party wins. Thresholds/quota: minimum requirement to win a seat, usually 5% or so. Party list PR: Turkey, Israel, S. Africa, Russia, many new democracies. You vote for a party and the candidates within that party are determined ahead of time (closed list, instead of open list on next slide). Most pure form possible. - This form incentivizes members behave in their party, then they move further up the list. Non-pure forms—open-list PR: Brazil, northern Euro. Voters choose individual candidates, and vote totals are combined with other members of their party and then seats are allocated based on the parties' performances. Candidates with the most votes have highest priority for earning a seat in each party.

Diaspora

When members of one's groups are living in other states' territories.

Stefan Wolff

Why have there been fewer casualties in last two decades? - Successful military actions - Peacekeepers and ceasefires - Aggressive leadership and follow-thru: protecting rights, listen, held accountable What makes these three things so hard to achieve? - Weak state capacity - Not sharing resources - Leaders don't compromise - Institutions aren't crafted that will address ethnic differences

Lijphart wants to reform the US House of Representatives

Why? What's wrong with it? - Elected by plurality, so minorities left out - Electorate is unrepresentative and small since no one votes - Small size of 435 members How should we fix it? - Use PR to elect Reps - Four-year terms - Increase House size to about 650 Reps

Interest groups

Within civil society, they make demands in the political system on behalf of their constituents/members. Advocate for a policy position or political perspective, not usually to support candidates. - But they can endorse/fund politicians to get support for their cause in return Labor unions, business owners.

Are federal constitutions good for the economy?

Yes: creates state competition and encourages good economic policies. No: can create significant differences in development and opportunities - Can lead to differences in spending on education, health, social services

Does judicial review affect democracy?

Yes: ensures legislators are not overstepping their constitutionally-allotted rights No: judges are supposed to protect the constitution by whatever means necessary Yes/No: judicial activism: judges use judicial review to "legislate from the bench" - This could be a way to ensure some rights are not determined based on location: gay rights, abortion, healthcare, etc.

Are federal constitutions good for social stability?

Yes: if certain regions/groups feel they have more autonomy, they may participate instead of demanding independence. No: could exacerbate differences in identities -Quebec, Nigeria, and others feel that ethnic minorities/regions are treated unfairly by the central government

Are federal constitutions good for democratic rights?

Yes: it allows states to express their views on issues/rights - Abortion - Gay rights - Guns No: these rights are then determined based on where you live—are you going to move? What about poor people who can't afford move? - Results in different degrees in rights afforded

Ethnicity/Ethno-Nationalism

You are a member of a group because of your ancestry This is a socially constructed concept, and not entirely visible A form of nationalism that says you are a member based on your ancestry

Pluralism

large numbers of competing groups that strive to affect policy. The government should listen to social interests and mediate between them. Collective action problem: people consider the benefits to acting and the costs of acting. If the benefit is too small, they won't take action. So, they let others do the work and hope to get a collective reward from doing nothing. - Example: if a group fights for clean water/air, you'll benefit from it no matter what even though you did nothing. (free rider)