intro to black studies quiz one study guide

Emmet Till 1955

(August, 1955) -Chicago black teenager who was murdered in Mississippi at the age of 14 after reportedly flirting with a white woman. -Emmet was brutally murdered by 2 brothers, who confess to the crime and are acquitted.

Black UT History

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I. Early History

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II. The Peculiar Institution - Slavery

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III. Civil War and Reconstruction

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IV. Jim Crow

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V. Resistance and Survival (1900s-1940s)

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VI. Civil Rights

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VII. Black Power Movement

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First Black Graduates of UT

- first admitted in 1950 -Sweatt, Brewer, W.D. McClenon, Lemina Perry, Mabel Valengrum, John Chase, Emma Harrison, Randel and Lincoln Heath; Chase and Health first to come to UT -Oxford Thompson first black man to graduate with a degree from UT in 1952 with their masters -JOHN CHASE FIRST BLACK TO GRADUATE FROM UT- architecture -Clastie Scarcy first black to receive MA from UT

African American Undergraduates and their arrival and conditions at UT

- first admitted in fall 1956 -105 accepted; 30 freshmen, 55 grads, 19 transfers -couldn't participate in public drama, marching band, varsity teams -could attend UT functions without discrimination; intramural sports, dining facilities, YMCA, banquets - black men stay in San Jacinto (WWII surplus shacks as housing) - black women couldn't stay on campus; stayed at Eliza Dee Dorm then Almetris Duren Co-op (by Littlefield) -sit in at kinsolving

Missouri Compromise of 1820

-"Compromise of 1820" over the issue of slavery in Missouri. -Missouri entered as a slave state -Maine entered as a free state -all states North of the 36th parallel were free states and all South were slave states.

What is the approximate number of Africans who were brought to the West through the transatlantic Slave Trade?

-12.5 million Africans were shipped to the new world -10.7 million survived -It is estimated that approximately 12 million Africans were brought to the West during the course of the transatlantic slave trade.

Great Migration (of the 20th century)

-1910-1970; the movement of 6 million African Americans out of the rural Southern US to the urban Northeast, Midwest, and West -movement of over 300,000 African American from the rural south into Northern cities between 1914 and 1920

Malcolm X (1925-1965)

-1952; renamed himself X to signify the loss of his African heritage -converted to Nation of Islam in jail in the 50s, became Black Muslims' most dynamic street orator and recruiter -his beliefs were the basis of a lot of the Black Power movement built on seperationist and nationalist impulsesto achieve true independence and equality -This noted civil rights leader was best known as the outspoken spokesman for The Nation of Islam & was assassinated in 1965

Black Panther Party (1966)

-A group formed in 1966, inspired by the idea of Black Power, that provided aid to black neighborhoods; often thought of as radical or violent. -Organization of armed black militants formed in Oakland, California, in 1966 to protect black rights. The Panthers represented a growing dissatisfaction with the non-violent wing of the civil rights movement, and signaled a new direction to that movement after the legislative victories of 1964 and 1965. -a militant Black political party founded in 1965 to end political dominance by Whites -One of the most prominent organizations of the Black Power Movement of the late 1960's and 1970's (black panther party)

Ida B. Wells (1862-1931)

-African American journalist -published statistics about lynching, urged African Americans to protest by refusing to ride streetcars or shop in white owned stores -journalist, newspaper editor, suffragist, sociologist, and an early leader in the civil rights movement -One of the most well-known anti-lynching activists of the early 20th century

Booker T. Washington (1856-1915)

-African American progressive who supported segregation and demanded that African American better themselves individually to achieve equality. -Prominent black American, born into slavery, who believed that racism would end once blacks acquired useful labor skills and proved their economic value to society, was head of the Tuskegee Institute in 1881. His book "Up from Slavery." -African American educator, author, orator, and advisor to presidents of the United States

Frederick Douglass (1817-1895)

-American abolitionist and writer -he escaped slavery and became a leading African American spokesman and writer. -published his biography, The Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass -founded the abolitionist newspaper, the North Star -this former enslaved African American is known as one of the leading abolitionists of the 19th century:

Huey Newton (1942-1989)

-An American political and urban activist who along with Bobby Seale, co-founded the Black Panther Party for Self Defense in 1966. -The Black Panther Party worked for the right of self-defense for African-Americans in the United States.

COINTELPRO (counter intelligence program) (1956-1971)

-An FBI program begun in 1956 and continued until 1971 that sought to expose, disrupt, and discredit groups considered to be radical political organizations: Targeted antiwar groups during the Vietnam War. -series of covert, and at times illegal, projects conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation aimed at surveying, infiltrating, discrediting, and disrupting domestic political organizations -This FBI program was developed as a method of countering revolutionary social movements of the 1960s and 1970s

Angela Davis (1944-)

-Black Communist college professor affiliated with the Black Panthers -she was accused of having been involved in a murderous jail-break attempt by that organization. -an American political activist, scholar, and author. She emerged as a nationally prominent activist and radical in the 1960s

Harlem Renaissance (1920s)

-Black literary and artistic movement centered in Harlem that lasted from the 1920s (end of WWI) into the early 1930s that both celebrated and lamented black life in America -Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston were two famous writers of this movement. -A period in the 1920s and 30s considered to be an explosive period of Black art and intellectual thought:

Zora Neale Hurston (1891-1960)

-Black writer who wanted to save African American folklore. -traveled all across the South collecting folk tales, songs & prayers of Black southerners. -Her book was called Mules and Men. -author of Their Eyes Were Watching God -The author of Their Eyes Were Watching God, she is considered to be one of the most important Black writers of the 20th century

A. Philip Randolph and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (1925)

-Founded in August 1925 by labour organizer and civil rights activist A. Philip Randolph -aimed to improve the working conditions and treatment of African American railroad porters and maids employed by the Pullman Company, a manufacturer and operator of railroad cars. -the first predominantly African American labor union; led march on Washington -This progressive Black labor activist organized the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters in the 1940s

Montgomery bus boycott (1956)

-In 1955, after Rosa Parks was arrested for refusing to give up her seat on a city bus, Dr. Martin L. King led a boycott of city busses. -After 11 months the Supreme Court ruled that segregation of public transportation was illegal.

Jim Crow (post civil war- 1968)

-Many Southern states adopted these laws which sought to disenfranchise and suppress the aspirations of freed Blacks following the end of the Civil War

Rosa Parks (1913-2005)

-Secretary of NAACP, spurred the Montgomery Bus Boycott -refused to sit in back of bus/give her seat to a white man -This women's refusal to move to the back of a segregated bus led to the beginning of the Montgomery bus boycot

Heman Sweatt and his historic Lawsuit (1950)

-Sweatt filed a lawsuit on May 16, 1946 -Sweatt applied to UT law Feb. 16 1945 -lawsuit: Sweatt v Painter -Sweat admitted to UT in 1950 for law school -Painter is the president of the university -Sweat wins! in 1950 with the help of the NAACP -Ut became the first institution of higher ed in the South required by law to admit Black people into its grad programs

Abolition (1830-1870)

-The movement to make slavery and the slave trade illegal. -Begun by Quakers in England in the 1780s. -A group of people in the 1800's who lobbied for an end to slavery

Martin Luther King, Jr. (1929-1968)

-U.S. Baptist minister and civil rights leader. -A noted orator, he opposed discrimination against blacks by organizing nonviolent resistance and peaceful mass demonstrations. -He was assassinated in Memphis, Tennessee. Nobel Peace Prize (1964)

Harriet Tubman (1820-1913)

-United States abolitionist -born a slave on a plantation in Maryland -became a famous conductor on the Underground Railroad leading other slaves to freedom in the North

What is a sit-in?

-a form of protest in which demonstrators occupy a place, refusing to leave until their demands are met. -a form of direct action that involves one or more people occupying an area for a protest; often to promote political, social, or economic change

Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) (1960)

-a group established in 1960 to promote and use non-violent means to protest racial discrimination; they were the ones primarily responsible for creating the sit-in movement -remained nonviolent during civil rights movements of harsh environments

March on Washington (1963)

-a large political rally that took place in Washington, D.C. on August 28, 1963. -Martin Luther King, Jr. delivered his historic "I Have a Dream" speech advocating racial harmony at the Lincoln Memorial during the march. -Widely credited as helping lead to the Civil Rights Act (1964) and the National Voting Rights Act (1965). -80% of the marchers were black. -Organized by union leader A. Philip Randolph. -one of the largest political rallies for human rights in US history; called for civil and economic rights for African Americans -Considered by many to be the most prominent leader of the Civil Rights Movement, this leader was assassinated in Tennessee in 1968

Uncle Tom's Cabin (1852)

-a novel published by harriet beecher stowe in 1852 which portrayed slavery as brutal and immoral -credited with helping fuel the abolitionist cause in the 1850s

Niagara Convention (1905)

-led by W.E.B DuBois at Niagara Falls -established rights through the court -July 11- 14 1905

Black Arts Movement (BAM)

-name given to a group of politically motivated black poets, artists, dramatists, musicians, and writers who emerged in the wake of the Black Power Movement. -artistic branch of the Black Power movement. It was started in Harlem by writer and activist Amiri Baraka

W.E.B. DuBois (1868-1963)

-opposed Booker T. Washington. -Wanted social and political integration as well as higher education for 10% of African Americans-what he called a "Talented Tenth". -Founder of the Niagara Movement which led to the creation of the NAACP. -co-founder of the NAACP -This prominent Black intellectual was one of the founders of the NAACP and strong human rights activist. He died in Ghana in 1963

Civil Rights Acts of 1964 and 1965

-prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or national origin. -Voting Rights Act of 1965, signed into law by President Lyndon B. Johnson, aimed to overcome legal barriers at the state and local levels that prevented African Americans from exercising their right to vote as guaranteed under the 15th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution

Creation of African American studies at UT

-the African and African Diaspora Studies Department (AADS) was established in 2010 -1968: first black history course was taught -1968 Henry Bullock hired, 1970 started ethnic studies program at UT -Year Ethnic studies department opens: 1969 -Separate Studies: 1971-72 -Separate Black Studies and Mexican American Studies Programs started BLACK STUDIES STARTED BY DR BULLOCK IN 1970 AS ETHNIC STUDIES

Karenga

1. What is Black Studies? -the critical and systematic study of the thoughts and practice of people of African descent in their history and as the current is unfolding 2. What were the four thrusts of the Student Movement of the 60's and the focus of each? 1) The Civil Rights Movement -sought to break down the barriers of legal segregation in public accommodations; achieve equality and justice for Black people; organize Blacks into a self-conscious social force capable of defining, defending, and advancing their interests 2) The Free Speech Movement - white student protest demanding for Civil Rights on campus 3) The Anti-War Movement -against the Vietnam war and university complicity 4) The Black Studies Movement -began by San Fran State College with student demands of the first department of Black Studies 3. How was the Black Studies Movement a basic component of the Black liberation struggle? -the black studies movement inspired many students to be more politically and racially conscious, and they organized with other minority groups to push for black liberation 4. What were the early academic and political concerns of the advocates of Black Studies? -ACADEMIC: the quality and usefulness or reference of traditional white studies; black studies saw white studies as propaganda and discouraged study and development of Third World models; white studies as resistant to social change -POLITICAL: the questions of exclusion, treatment on campus, academic conversions, and production of conscious intelligence on what it meant to the Black community; concerned with low # of Black students on campus; treatment of Black students on campus; white academic conversion and that black students would become obscene caricatures; the social problems of the Black community and how Black students and BS would address them 5. What were the early objectives of Black Studies? -teach the black experience in its historical unfolding -assemble and create a body of knowledge which was contributing to intellectual and political emancipation -creating a body of Black intellectuals who were dedicated to community service and development -the cultivation, maintenance, and continuous expansion of a mutually beneficial relationship between the campus and the community -establish Black Studies as a legit, respected, and permanent discipline 6. What are the seven major contributions of Black Studies which establish its academic and social relevance? -1. it is a definitive contribution to humanity's understanding itself. -2. its contribution to U.S. society's understanding of itself. -3. Black Studies has established its relevance as a contribution to the university's realization of its claim and challenge to teach the whole truth, or something as close to it as humanly possible -4. a contribution to the rescue and reconstruction of Black history and humanity. -5. it is a critical contribution to new social science and humanities which will not only benefit Blacks but also the U.S. and the world -6. contribution to the development of a Black intelligentsia and professional stratum whose knowledge, social competence, and commitment translate as a vital contribution to the liberation and development of the Black community and thus as a contribution to society as a whole. -7. a vital contribution to the critique, resistance, and reversal of the progressive Europeanization of human consciousness and culture which is one of the major problems of our times. 7. What are some concerns Black Studies shares with other social sciences and humanities disciplines? -political science: the concern with the problems of gaining, maintaining and using power, especially as it relates to Blacks, and with economics, the concern of the relationship of race, class, and gender to economic opportunities and distributive inequalities. -psychology: a critical concern with questions of identity, alienation, self-concept and mental health and development from a Black perspective, and with sociology, concern with social problems which range from crime, educational opportunities and race, class, and gender relations to interest group organization, family and male/female relations -history: a profound concern for critical interpretation of events, issues, important personages and social units of the past which illuminate understanding of current thought and practice and its concern for heritage and contribution to human advancement. -humanities disciplines: a concern for and commitment to creative production. It shares with literature, art, music, and dance a definite concern with ongoing issues of aesthetics, i.e., the nature of the artistic enterprise, art as social and personal message and meaning, standards of creativity, issues of artistic freedom and social responsibility, questions of critique, of deconstruction, dislocation, cultural hegemony, representation, transcendence, border crossing, text, subtext, marginality and centrality, recovery and reconstruction. -shares concern about the race, class and gender articulation, language use and misuse, and its ability to reveal the nature and structure of social relations, and with signs, literature and other art forms as contested terrains. . 8. How does Black Studies handle the question of specialized and integrative approaches to the subject area? -allows for and encourages it 9. What are the seven core subject areas of Black Studies? -1) Black History 2) Black Religion 3) Black Economics 4) Black Social Organization 5) Black Politics 6) Black Psychology 7) Black Creative Production 10. What are four fundamental integrative principles and assumptions which serve as thematic glue to hold the subject areas together? -each subject area of Black Studies is a vital aspect and area of the Black experience and, therefore, contributive to the understanding and appreciation of its wholeness. -the truth of the Black experience is whole and thus, any partial and compartmentalized approach to it can only yield a partial and incomplete image and understanding of it -effectively integrated into the pattern of the discipline as a whole, each subject area becomes a microcosm of the macrocosm, the Black experience, which not only enriches our knowledge of the Black experience, but also enhances the analytical process and products of the discipline itseif -all the subject areas mesh and intersect not only at the point of their primary focus, 11. Discuss the history and goals of AHSA and NCBS. AHSA: American Heritage Studies Association -evolved in thrust of the Freedom Movement in the 60s; was around for 23 years -has served as ground and context for scholarly encounter and exchange; AHSA has served through its individual members, an organizational role for other professional organizations; AHSA has been an advocacy organization for Black interests in education in general as well as on larger social issues organizing forums, engaging in demonstrations and participating in governmental and institutional policy discussions; several other ongoing projects to which AHSA is committed NCBS: National Council for Black Studies -founded in 1976 became the predominant discipline org -1) continued production of discipline literature and organizational documents; 2) ongoing and expanded grant and research proposals for development of the discipline, faculty, students and community- NCBS projects; 3) continuing organizational professionalization and reorganization for improved performance and service; and 4) increasing and enriching contexts for discourse and exchange, i.e., conferences, symposia, workshops 12. What is Afrocentricity? Discuss its development and contentions. -a quality of thought and practice rooted in the cultural image and human interests of African people -it is based on the assumption that African culture is not only worthy of study, but critical to understanding society and the human experience given its key role in each; Afrocentricity or African-centeredness as a methodological orientation, contends that the most effective and fruitful way of studying and understanding African people is from their own perspective; Afrocentric theory argues that Black Studies is not simply a body of data but also a way of approaching and interpreting data; Afrocentric theory is based on the assumption that if an African-centered approach is incorrect or of little value, then so is the discipline of Black Studies which is based on an equally important assumption that the African experience is both a valid and valuable subject of study. 13. Discuss the history and goals of Black women studies. -intellectual and practical struggles waged by Black women in the discipline itself.; role Black women played in building and developing the two major professional organizations of the discipline, the African Heritage Studies Association (AHSA) and the National Council for Black Studies (NCBS); the creative tension and discourse between Black feminists (womanists) and white feminists; ongoing inquiry into and criticism of relations in the Black Freedom Movement -1) continued and expanded scholarship by and about Black women "with increased focus in the social and behavioral sciences, the natural sciences, professions and policy studies;" 2) "increased contributions by women to conceptualization of the theoretical and empirical issues of the field in general;" 3) "continued involvement of Africana women with womanist perspectives in leadership positions in the professional bodies for Africana Studies so that programs and policies reflect their perspectives;" 4) "increased attention to developing new and restructuring old curricula to reflect a balance that is inclusive of Africana women;" 5) "increased balancing of speakers and cultural activities on campuses that draw upon both men and women not only from the literary tradition but other orientations;" and 6) "concentrated efforts to search out and quote works of both Africana women and men in the field 14. Discuss the relevance of classical African studies and the centrality of Egypt -Egypt is known for being racially ambigious, with many eurocentric perspectives claiming egypt as white or asian, while it is truly African in history and nature, as shown through scientific, biblical and cultural studies. Therefore it is important to African Studies to reclaim Egypt and its legacy as their own. 15. Discuss the definition and goals of multiculturalism -1) mutual respect for each people and culture; 2) common recognition that human diversity is human richness and that the challenge is not simply to tolerate it but to embrace and build on it; 3) mutual recognition that neither U.S. society nor the world is a finished white product, but rather an ongoing multicultural project and that each people has both the right and responsibility to speak its own special truth and make its own unique contribution to the forward flow of social and human history; and 4) mutual commitment to an ongoing search for common ground in the midst of diversity necessary to build a just and good society and a peaceful and freedom-respecting world..

First arrival of Africans to what is now known as the United States (know the place and date)

19 Africans in Jamestown, Virginia in 1619

Brown v. the Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas (1954)

1954 - The Supreme Court overruled Plessy v. Ferguson, declared that racially segregated facilities are inherently unequal and ordered all public schools desegregated. -In 1954, this landmark Supreme Court case declared "separate but equal" unconstitutional and ended de jure segregation in the US

African Americans hired as tenure track and tenured faculty members

1964 -Dr. Ervin S. Perry is first tenured track black professor -first PH.D and black faculty member as engineering prof 1969 -Henry Bullock first tenure black faculty as ethnic studies professor

Integration of UT dorms

1964 -Nov 1961: 3 students filed suit against UT seeking court order to abolish dorm segregation (first negro case since Sweatt in 1946) -May 1964 regents voted to remove all racial barriers on housing, bc of Brown v Board -bombings

United Negro Improvement Association (1914)

A black nationalist fraternal organization founded in 1914 by the Jamaican-born Marcus Garvey in order to promote resettlement of African Americans to their "African homeland" and to stimulate a vigorous separate black economy within the United States.

Underground Railroad (1800s)

A system that helped enslaved African Americans follow a network of escape routes with safe houses out of the South to freedom in the North

The Middle Passage (1518-mid 19th century)

A voyage that brought enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to North America and the West Indies (part of triangular trade)

Marcus Garvey (1887-1940)

African American leader during the 1920s who founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association and advocated mass migration of African Americans back to Africa. Was deported to Jamaica in 1927. -This Jamaican political figure led a major "Back to Africa" movement in the 1930's

Integration firsts: Athletics, Band, Student Council, etc.

Athletics: 1964 -James Means integrates track team -first black person to get academic scholarship -Carl Johnsons first black member on track teams -first school in SW conference to allow blacks to letter in any sport In 1967 UT's athletic director claimed there were no Blacks on UT's basketball and football teams because there was not enough black talent available Football: 1970 -first black student on UT football team on scholarship 1969 Julius Whittier -1969 first AA played on a UT national championship football team -1968 UT last all white football team in the country Band: 1964 -Edmund Guinn Student Assembly Member: 1962 -Gwen Jordan as Arts & Sciences rep. Student Council: 1990 -Tony Luckett first queer black woman study body president

Dred Scott Supreme Court Decision (1857)

Dred Scott, a slave, was taken to several free states while his owner was alive. After his owner died, Dred Scott sued and said he was free because he had lived in a free state. Supreme Court ruled against Dred Scott and said: a) He had no rights as a citizen to petition in court b) the government does not have the right to ban slavery anywhere. -1857: slaves aren't allowed to be citizens whether freed or enslaved, march 6

NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) (1909)

Interracial organization founded in 1909 to abolish segregation and discrimination and to achieve political and civil rights for African Americans. -nations oldest and largest civil rights org -This organization was founded in 1909 to defend the rights of colored people in the US:

Freedmen's Bureau (1865-1872)

Organization run by the army to care for and protect southern Blacks after the Civil War -formally known as the Bureau of Refugees -est. by congress on March 3 1865 -enacted by Lincoln -This institution was designed to assist freed Blacks following the Civil War

Emancipation Proclamation (1863)

Proclamation issued by Lincoln, freeing all slaves in areas still at war with the Union -January 1, 1863 -On January 1, 1863 then President Lincoln signed this into law, granting freedom to enslaved Blacks:

Plessey v. Ferguson (1896)

Supreme Court decision that permitted segregation under the "separate but equal" concept. -This 1896 Supreme Court decision ruled that segregation was constitutional

Black Student activism at UT, organizations and issues

Texas Cowboys: 1964 -The UT student organization that sponsored the blackface minstrel shows was -That last blackface minstrel show at UT was held in what year AABL -organization dedicated to the advancement of Black issues at UT -demanded anti-apartheid shanties, a Minority Information Center, the Malcom X Lounge, PRIDE, Hopwood decision -demanded a black studies department Ethnic Studies: 1969 -first director of the Ethnic Studies Program claimed that the courses were for everyone

Marsh Duren

Texas Southern was created to provide separate but equal facilities for Black students Separate Black Studies and Mexican American Studies Programs started in what year? 1971-1972 1946: Dr. Everett H. Givens a black austin dentist was denied from UT 1947: W. Astor Kirk, faculty at Sam Houston was denied from UT doctoral polisci program -1949: Kirk admitted to TXST Uni for Negroes 1949: 35 blacks applied to UTs dental and medical branches -Barnett becomes first black to receive a MD degree from UT medical branch in Galveston 1950: Kirk and another black admitted to UT in Jan but dropped out in protest 1954: UT said blacks only admitted when work not at state negro schools; black UGs were refused admission May 1954: Brown V Board -July 1955: 5 years after grad students allowed, BoR declared complete integration effective Sep 1956 UT was first major institution in south to admit blacks as undergrads 1971-1972: 300 blacks out of 20,000 students -Ida Powell first black and women in LBJ school of Public Affairs Anitha Mitchell first black member of Mortour Board and medical degree

Transatlantic slave trade (16th-19th century)

The brutal system of trading African Slaves from Africa to the Americas. It changed the economy, politics, and environment. -It affected Africa, Europe, and America. -It implies that slaves were used for cash crops and created a whole new economy.

13th, 14th, 15th Amendments (1865, 1866, 1869)

The three amendments to the Constitution that resulted from the Civil War 13. abolished slavery 14. Declares that all persons born in the U.S. are citizens and are guaranteed equal protection of the laws, 15. citizens cannot be denied the right to vote because of race, color , or previous condition of servitude; gave black people the right to vote -In 1870, this amendment was passed granting African Americans the right to vote (15)

US Civil War (1861-1865)

War fought between the North and South from 1861-1865 over slavery

Littlerock Nine (1957)

first group of 9 blacks entered the previously all white Little Rock Central high school in 1957

Ku Klux Klan (1865/1915)

founded in the 1860s in the south; meant to control newly freed slaves through threats and violence; other targets: Catholics, Jews, immigrants and others thought to be un-American

Tuskegee Syphilis Experiment (1932-1972)

infamous clinical study conducted by the U.S.public health services to study the natural progression of untreated syphilis in rural african american men who thought they were receiving free health care from the US government -Between 1932 and 1972, the U.S. Public Health Service (PHS) conducted an experiment on 399 black men in the late stages of syphilis in this study.

Black Codes (1865-1866)

laws passed in the south just after the civil war aimed at controlling freedmen and enabling plantation owners to exploit african american workers

Lynching

putting a person to death by mob action without due process of law -extra-legal trail and punishment by and informal group -More than 3,446 African Americans were killed during the first half of the 20th century because of this horrific practice of racial terror.

What part of Africa did most enslaved Africans come from?

west africa