Intro to Pysch exam terms

Punishment

Discourages behavior when applied

Psychological theories

Discuss principles that govern behavior and mental processes + biological processes

Social psychologists

Concerned with people's behavior in social situations

Corpus callosum

Connects the two cerebral hemispheres

4 levels of consciousness

Conscious, preconscious, unconscious, non-conscious

The humanistic perspective

Consciousness is the force that shapes people's personalities

Sensory awareness

Consists of being aware of the environment and stimuli outside of yourself

Perceptual constancies

Consists of brightness, size, color, and shape

Endocrine system

Consists of glands that secrete substances called hormones

Depth perception

Consists of monocular and binocular cues

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Consists of nerve cells that send messages between the CNS and all other parts of the body

Central nervous system (CNS)

Consists of the brain and spinal cord

Temporal lobe

Contains the auditory area of the brain

Question

Creating questions on the subject matter using things like headers, beginning of sentences in a section, etc

Treatment for drug abuse

Detoxification, maintenance programs, counciling, and support groups

Review

Go over the material again in order to fully process the material

Taste

Sensed through receptor neurons located on taste buds on the tongue.

Your body is covered with hairs that have ____________

Sensory receptors

Mary Whiton Calkins

Set up the first psychology lab at Wellesley, first female president of the APA

Beta

Short and quick brain waves produced while we are awake

Objective sensations

Sight and taste

Alpha

Slower, emitted while falling asleep

Delta

Slowest and hardest waves to wake up from

How do we sense molecules of substances?

Smell and taste

"Know Thyself"

Socrates, introspection

Stimulus

Something that produces a reaction, or response from a person or animal

Theta

Stage 1 of sleep, lightest stage

Proximity

The nearness of objects & their influence on our perception

Figure-ground perception

The perception of figures against a background. whichever we perceive as such influences our perception

Common fate

The perception that things that move in the same direction belong together

The blindspot

The point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye

Sensory adaptation

The process by which we become more sensitive to weak stimuli and less sensitive to unchanging stimuli

Perception

The psychological process through which we interpret sensory stimulation

Tolerance

The quality of requiring a larger dose of a certain drug every time to reach the same effects (If you smoke marijuana daily, you'll start requiring more hits to reach the same high)

variable ratio scheduling

The reward may come at any time

What is psychology?

The scientific study of behavior and processes

Kinesthesis

The sense that informs people about the position and motion of parts of their bodies

Sensation

The stimulation of sensory receptors and the transmission of sensory information to the CNS.

Sense of self

Understanding that you are a unique individual, separate from others and the surroundings (awareness of our existence)

Positive correlation

When 1 variable goes up, the other variable does too

Negative correlation

When 1 variable goes up, the other variable goes down

Controlled experiment

When an experiment uses control groups as well as experimental groups

Spontaneous recovery

When previously extinct responses come back

Nonconscious

Where most of our bodily functions exist

Decibels

Measures loudness

Rules of Perceptual Organization

Closure, figure-ground perception, proximity, similarity, continuity, and common fate

Neurotransmitter

Chemicals that are stored in sacs in the axon terminals, which are released in order to send a message across synapses

The ear

An instrument for sensing all of the sounds around us

Parasympathetic system

(ANS) Calms the body after action, restoring energy and stabilizing heart and lung functions

Sympathetic system

(ANS) Fight or flight reaction, prepares the body for action by slowing down digestion, increasing heartbeat and lung function, etc

Electromagnetic energy

Described as wavelengths, is light

Reinforcement

(B.F Skinner) A stimulus increases the chances that the preceding behavior will occur again

Observational learning

(Bandura, bobo) Acquiring knowledge and skills by observing and imitating others

Autonomic nervous system (ANS)

(PNS) Regulates involuntary body functions such as heartbeat, breathing, digestion

Somatic nervous system (SNS)

(PNS) Transmits sensory images to the CNS, allows us to feel sensations such as hot, cold, pain, and pleasure

Classical conditioning

(Pavlov) A simple form of learning in which one stimulus calls forth a response

Latent learning

(Tolman) Learning that remains hidden until it is needed

Convergence

(binocular) Associated with the feelings of tension in the eye muscles

Retinal disparity

(binocular) The difference between the images projected by each retina

Clinical psychologists

(largest group) help people with psychological problems by teaching/learning how to overcome them

Shaping

(operant) Teaching complex behaviors by reinforcing small steps in the right direction

5 steps to conducting research

1) Forming research Question 2) Forming A Hypothesis 3) Testing the Hypothesis 4) Analyzing the Results 5) Drawing Conclusions

Estrogen and progesterone

1) female hormones produced in the ovaries 2) estrogen is responsible for the development of secondary sex characteristics 3) Progesterone stimulates growth of female reproductive organs and prepare the body for pregnancy. 4) both control the menstrual cycle together

The hindbrain

1) medulla: controls heartbeat, blood pressure, and breathing 2) pons: controls body movement and sleep alertness 3)cerebellum: involved in balance and coordination

The adrenal glands

1) secrete cortical steroids which increase resistance to stress and promote muscle development 2) tell the liver to release stored sugar for emergency energy 3) produce adrenaline and noradrenaline

Rods and cones

1) sensitive only to light 2) allows us to see color

The forebrain

1) thalamus: relay station for sensory stimulation 2) hypothalamus: below the thalamus, regulates body temp, nutrient storage, and parts of motivation & emotion 3) limbic system: forms a fringe around the inner edge of the cerebrum, involved in memory, hunger, emotion, etc 4) cerebrum: largest part of the brain, its the part of the brain that 'thinks'

The skin

Detects touch through pressure, temperature and pain

Fixed ratio scheduling

A behavior must occur a specific amount of times to get the reward

The cochlea

A bony tube that contains fluids as well as neurons that move in response to the vibrations of the fluids

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)

A brain-imaging method using radio waves and magnetic fields of the body to produce detailed images of the brain (more powerful than CAT)

Electroencephalogram (EEG)

A device that records the electrical activity of the brain

Hallucinogens

A drug that produces hallucinations, giving feeling of pleasure or panic (marijuana, mushrooms, and LSD)

Synapse

A gap between the axon terminals of one neuron and the dendrites of another

Taste aversion

A learned avoidance of a particular food

Psychiatrists

A medical doctor who specializes in the treatment of psychological problems, can also prescribe medication for clients

Meditation

A method some people use to try to narrow their consciousness so that the stresses of the outside world fade away

Systematic desensitization

A method where people are taught relaxation techniques. They are then gradually exposed to the stimulus they fear

Sample

A part of the target population

Altered states of conscious

A person's sense of self or sense of the world changes (sleep is an example)

Consciousness

A psychological concept used to talk about something we can't see, touch, or measure directly. It means awareness

Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

A scan that shows the activity of the brain instead of a snapshot like the MRI or CAT

The retina

A sensitive surface of the eye which consists of light sensitive neurons called photoreceptors

Circadian rhythm

A sequence of bodily changes, such as those in body temperature, blood pressure, sleepiness and wakefulness that occurs every 24 hours

PQ4R

A study method with an active approach

Biofeedback

A system that provides information about something happening to your body. With training, it can teach people to control certain bodily functions

Flooding

A type of extinction where a person is exposed to a harmless stimulus until the fear response is gone

Discrimination

A weaker response that occurs due to the difference in similarity of 2 stimuli

Myelin

A white, fatty substance that insulates and protects the axon as well as speeding along messages

Cognitive activities/private mental processes

Activities such as dreams, perceptions, thoughts, and memories

B.F Skinner

Added the concept of reinforcement to behaviorism

Narcotics

Addictive depressants that have been known to relieve pain and induce sleep (morphine, heroin, and codeine; all derived from the opium poppy plant)

The lens

Adjusts to the distance of objects by changing its thickness

Addiction

After a person takes a certain drug for a while his or her body craves it just to feel normal (alcohol, nicotine, and narcotics)

Hypnosis

An altered state of consciousness when people are more responsive to suggestions

Hypothesis

An educated guess

Fixed interval scheduling

An exact amount of time must pass in between reinforcements

Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)

An imaging scan that provides a 3D view of the brain

Case study

An in-depth investigation of an individual or a small group

Intoxication

Another word for drunkenness. Slurred speech, blurred vision, clumsiness, and difficulty concentrating. May bring feelings of elation, or great happiness, to wipe away inhibitions, or self consciousness

Behavior

Any action that other people can observe or measure

Vibrations

Anything that creates sound creates this

Unconditioned stimulus

Automatic, not learned.

Loudness

Determined by the height or amplitude of the sound waves

Gestalt psychology

Based on the idea that perceptions are other than the sums of their parts. Rather, they are wholes that give shape or meaning to the parts

John Watson

Behaviorism, referring to the belief that psychology is a natural science and therefore must be limited to observable, measurable events

The midbrain

Between hind and forebrain, involved in vision and hearing, also contains the reticular activating system which spans through hind, mid, and fore; important for attention and sleep

Binocular cues

Both eyes are needed to perceive the cue

Sleep apnea

Breathing interruption that occurs during sleep

Brain waves

Cyclical and they vary on the basis of whether we are awake, relaxed, or sleeping

The sociocultural theory

Deals with issues such as gender, culture, socio-economic status, etc

Parietal lobe

Deals with sensation of touch

Sleep stages

Defined in terms of brain wave patterns, which can be measured by an EEG.

Dependent variable

Depends on the independent variable

Distributive v. massed learning

Distributive learning is more effective than massed/crammed learning

Control group

Does not receive 'treatment'

Depressants

Drugs that slow the activity of the nervous system (alcohol and narcotics)

Stimulants

Drugs that, in contrast to depressants, increase the activity of the nervous system (nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine)

Subjective feelings

Emotional responses and mental images

The learning perspective

Emphasizes the effects of experience on behavior

The biological perspective

Emphasizes the influence of biology on our behavior

The cognitive perspective

Emphasizes the role that thoughts play in determining behavior

Occipital lobe

Furthest back, contains the primary visual area of the brain

The spinal chord

Extends from the brain down the back, it transmits messages between the brain, muscles and glands throughout the body

Axon

Extensions of the neuron that vary in length and carry messages away from the neuron it is attached to

Variable

Factors that vary, or change

Axon terminal

Fibers that reach out from the ends of axons

Educational psychologists

Focus on course planning and instructional methods for an entire school system rather than one student

Primary reinforcer

Food, warmth, water (necessities)

Freudian v. Biopsychological view

Freudian view is that dreams reflect unconscious views and desires no matter what they are, while the biopsychological view is that dreams are because of neurons

Frontal lobe

Front of the brain, deals with moving certain parts of the body

William James

Functionalism, stream of consciousness

Preview

Having a general picture of your content before beginning to study it

Narcolepsy

Having no control over when or where you fall asleep

Prostaglandins

Helps transmit the pain message to the brain.

Pre-conscious

Ideas that are not in your awareness right now but could be recalled if needed

School psychologists

Identify and help students who have problems that interfere with learning

Personality psychologists

Identify characteristics or traits

Positive reinforcer

Increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are applied

Negative reinforcer

Increase the frequency of the behavior they follow when they are removed

The Enlightenment Period (1500-1700)

Increased relevance of science and intellect in society

Random sample

Individuals are selected by chance from the target population

Un/subconscious

Information generally unavailable to awareness, or "hidden"

Direct inner awareness

Involves thoughts, feelings, and memories inside yourself

REM sleep

Irregular breathing, increased heart rate and bp, etc

The eardrum

Is the gateway from the outer to middle ear. it has a thin membrane that vibrates when sound strikes it

Receptors for temperature

Located just beneath the skin

Extinction

Losing its ability to bring about the conditioned response

Association areas

Mainly serve to shape information into something meaningful to help allow ourselves to act

Copernicus, Newton, Locke

Men who were involved in the Enlightenment Period

Surveys

Method of collecting data that usually involves asking a particular group of people questions

Sensory organs (in the ear)

Monitor your body's movement and position

Auditory nerve

Movement of the cochlea generates neural impulses which are sent to the brain because of this

Unconditioned response

Natural, not learned

Neuron

Nerve cells that send and receive messages from other structures in our body such as muscles and glands

Olfactory neurons

Neurons high up in each nostril which detect odors

Laboratory observation

Observes behaviors in any place that provides the best opportunity for observation or experimentation NOT in the field

Naturalistic observation

Observing an individual in their natural surroundings or environments

Cross-sectional method

Observing individuals from varying ages and then comparing behavior

Conductive deafness

Occurs because of damage to the middle ear

Photoreceptors

Once light hits it, visual input is relayed to the brain, specifically the occipital lobe. Can be split into categories of rods and cones

Gate theory

Only a certain amount of information can be processed by the nervous system at a time

Monocular cues

Only one eye is needed to perceive the cue

Counterconditioning

Pairing a pleasant stimulus repeatedly with a fear-producing stimulus

Operant conditioning

People and animals learning to do or not to do certain things because of the results they produce

The social learning theory

People can learn to change intentionally by observing others

Continuity

People prefer to perceive smooth, continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

Similarity

People tend to group stimuli that are similar

Fixed interval schedule

Produce higher incidents of a desired behavior nearer to the time of the reinforcement

Thyroid gland

Produces thyroxine, which affects the body's metabolism

Cell body

Provides the energy that fuels the activity of the cell

Signmund Freud

Psychoanalysis, which emphasizes the importance of unconscious motives and internal conflicts determining human behavior.

Longitudinal method

Psychologists observe a group of participants over a period of time

Read

Read the content with the intent to answer the questions

Experimental group

Receives 'treatment'

Recite

Recite answers to questions in order to remember them later or to quiz yourself and/or others

Partial reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every other time it happens, which is more effective

Continuous reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs

Sense of pressure and pain is ______ to the body

Relative; meaning, one is more prevalent than the other in different parts of the body

Replication

Repeating a study to produce the same results in order to confirm its accuracy

conditioned stimulus

Repetitive association, learned

The psychoanalytic perspective

Stresses the influence of unconscious forces on human behavior

Wilhelm Wundt

Structuralism

Structuralism vs. Functionalism

Structuralists break down consciousness into two categories, while Functionalism focuses on the "stream of consciousness" which is a fluid and continuous relationship

Developmental psychologists

Study the changes that occur throughout a person's life span

Stratified sample

Subgroups in the population are represented proportionally in the sample

The four basic taste qualities

Sweetness, sourness, saltiness, and bitterness (umami too)

Vestibular sense

Tells you whether you are physically upright without you having to use your eyes

Sensations of _______ are relative

Temperature

Pituitary gland

The "master gland" is responsible for the secretion of different hormones that affect behavior such as growth

Generalization

The act of responding in the same way to stimuli that seem to be similar, even if they aren't identical

The pupil

The adjustable opening in the eye

Genes

The basis building blocks of heredity

Independent variable

The factor being manipulated to determine the effect of something

Hippocrates

The first person to suggest that confusion and madness were not punishments from the gods, instead they came from the brain

Stroboscopic motion

The illusion of movement is produced by showing the rapid progression of images or objects that are not moving at all

Correlation

The measure of how closely one thing is related to another

Experiment

The method researchers use to answer questions about cause and effect

Difference threshold

The minimum amount of difference that can be detected between two stimuli

Closure

The tendency to complete figures that are incomplete

Hammer, stirrup, anvil

The three bones of the middle ear, takes sounds from the outer ear and transmits them to the inner ear

Heredity

The transmission of characteristics from parents to offspring

Absolute threshold

The weakest amount of stimuli that can be sensed

Cerebral cortex

The wrinkled surface of the cerebrum, has two sides

Hormones

They stimulate growth and other reactions like changes in mood

Dendrite

Thin fibers that branch out from the cell body, which receive information from other neurons and pass the message through the cell body

Secondary reinforcer

Things that will get you primary reinforcers (money)

Reflect

Think of examples and images of the content as you read

chromosomes

Threadlike structures of DNA that contain genes, 23 from each parent

Counseling psychologist

Treats people who have adjustment problems rather than serious psychological disorders

Kenneth and Mamie Clark

Used dolls to study children's attitude toward race, and the experiment was used in Brown v. Board of Education (1954).

Sensoneural deafness

Usually caused by damage to the inner ear or by damage to the nerves in the cochlea or auditory nerve

Cycles/soundwave

What vibrations are called

Signal detection theory

a method of distinguishing sensory stimuli that takes into account not only the strength of the stimuli but also such elements as setting and one's physical state, mood, and attitudes. Also considers motivations, expectations, and learning

Variable interval scheduling

a varying amount of time passes between each reinforcement

Experimental psychologists

conduct research into basic processes

Conditioned response

learned, responsive to a previously neutral stimulus

Volunteer bias

people who volunteer to participate in research studies often differ from people who do not, who can also skew results because of bias

Testosterone

produced by testes, is a steroid

5 stages of sleep

stages 1-4 and REM sleep stage

Pitch and frequency

the pitch of a sound depends on the frequency, so the more cycles per second, the higher the pitch

Target population

the whole group you want to study or describe