Observational Behavior- Ch 5 Foundations of Employee Motivation

Bottom-up Approaches

job crafting: employees' attempts to proactively shape their work characteristics. The job-crafting approach to job design represents proactive and adaptive employee behavior aimed at changing tasks, relationships, and cognitions associated with one's job. Job crafting can change how employees perceive their jobs, resulting in more positive attitudes about their jobs, which, in turn, results in increased employee motivation, engagement, and performance.

Maslow's Need Hierarchy Theory

motivation is a function of five basic needs: physiological, safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization. Maslow contended that the five needs are arranged in a prepotent hierarchy, and he believed that human needs generally emerge in a predictable stair-step fashion. Once a need is satisfied, it activates the next higher need in the hierarchy until the highest need, the need for self-actualization is activated.

Intrinsic motivation

occurs when an individual is inspired by the positive internal feelings that are generated by doing well.

Herzberg's Motivator-Hygiene Theory

proposes that job satisfaction and dissatisfaction arise from two different sets of factors—satisfaction comes from motivating factors and dissatisfaction from hygiene factors. Herzberg proposed that individuals will experience the absence of job dissatisfaction when they have no grievances about hygiene factors and that managers can motivate individuals by incorporating motivators into an individual's job. Insights from Herzberg's theory allow managers to consider the dimensions of both job content and job context so they can manage for greater job satisfaction overall.

Extrinsic motivation

results from the potential or actual receipt of external rewards such as recognition, money, or a promotion.

Mechanisms behind the power of goal setting

1. Goals direct attention 2. Goals regulate effort 3. Goals increase persistence 4. Goals foster the development and application of task strategies and action plans

Using Herzberg's Theory to Motivate Employees

1. Hygiene first- eliminate dissatisfaction first 2. Motivation Next- building motivators 3. A few well-chosen words- verbal recognition to reinforce good performance.

Two Fundamental Perspectives on Motivation

Content theories -Focus on identifying internal factors such as needs and satisfaction -Examples: McGregor's Theory X & Y, Maslow's Need Hierarchy Process theories -Focus on explaining the process by which internal factors and environmental characteristics influence employee motivation. -Examples: Expectancy Theory, Equity Theory

motivating factors

achievement, recognition, characteristics of the work, responsibility, and advancement - cause a person to move from a state of no satisfaction to satisfaction.

Elements of Justice Theory

Distributive Justice: reflects the perceived fairness of the way resources and rewards are distributed or allocated. Procedural Justice: the perceived fairness of the process and procedures used to make allocation decisions. Interactional Justice: the "quality of the interpersonal; treatment people receive when procedures are implemented".

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor formulated two contrasting sets of assumptions about human nature in Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X: a pessimistic view of employees which contends that they dislike work, must be monitored, and can only be motivated with rewards and punishment. Theory Y: a modern and positive set of assumptions about people at work which contends that they are self-engaged, committed, responsible, and creative.

Using Equity and Justice Theories to Motivate Employees

-Employee perceptions are what count. -Employees want a voice in decisions that affect them. Voice- the discretionary or formal expression of ideas, opinions, suggestions, or alternative approaches directed to a specific target inside or outside of the organization with the intent to change an objectionable state of affairs and to improve the current functioning of the organization. Voice climate- is one in which employees are encouraged to freely express their opinions and feelings. -Employees should be given an appeals process. -Leader behavior matters. -A climate for justice makes a difference.

Goal-setting theory

-Goals that are specific and difficult lead to higher performance than general goals lie "Do your best" or "Improve performance". (Goal Specificity- Whether a goal has been quantified) -Certain conditions are necessary for goal setting to work. -Performance feedback and participation in deciding how to achieve goals are necessary but not sufficient for goal setting to work.

Using Acquired Needs Theory to Motivate Employees

People motivated by the need for achievement prefer working on challenging, but not impossible, tasks or projects and like to be rewarded for their efforts. People motivated by the need for affiliation like to work in teams and in organizational climates characterized as cooperative and collegial, and they tend to avoid conflict. People with a high need for power like to be in charge, and they enjoy coaching and helping others develop.

Equity/Justice Theory

a model of motivation that explains how people strive for fairness and justice in social exchanges or give-and-take relationships. Equity theory is based on cognitive dissonance theory, which contends that people are motivated to maintain consistency between their beliefs and their behavior. Equity theory contends that when people are victimized by unfair social exchanges, their resulting cognitive dissonance prompts them to correct the situation.

Using self-determination theory to Motivate Employees

Provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve 'competence'. Empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of 'autonomy'. Use fun and camaraderie to foster 'relatedness'.

Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals)

Employment terms individuals negotiate for themselves, taking myriad forms from flexible schedules to career development. I-deals tend to involve task and work responsibilities, schedule flexibility, location flexibility, and compensation. The goal of such deals is to increase employee motivation and productivity by allowing employees the flexibility to negotiate employment relationships that meet their needs and values. Drives employee intrinsic motivation

Expectancy Theory

holds that people are motivated to behave in ways that produce desired combinations of expected outcomes. Expectancy: -"Can I achieve my desired level of performance?" -an individual's belief that a particular degree of effort will be followed by a particular level of performance. Instrumentality: -"What intrinsic and extrinsic rewards will I receive if I achieve my desired level of performance?" -the perceived relationship between performance and outcomes. Valence: -"How much do I value the rewards I receive?" -the positive or negative value of a reward or outcome.

Job Characteristics Model

promotes high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics. -Skill variety: extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities. -Task identity: extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. -Task significance: extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization. -Autonomy: extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job. -Feedback: extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job. Linked to: -Increased job satisfaction -Enhanced employee intrinsic motivation -Increased performance -Reduced stress -Lower absenteeism

Models of Job Design

Historical: Top-down approaches to job design that are manager led. Recent: Bottom-up approaches are driven by the employee or work teams Emerging: Idiosyncratic deals (i-deals) are jointly negotiated by employees and individual managers.

Using Expectancy Theory to Motivate Employees

Motivation is based on a two-stage sequence of expectations: -Motivation is affected by an individual's expectation that a certain level of effort will produce the intended performance goal. -Motivation is also influenced by the employee's perceived chances of getting various outcomes as a result of accomplishing his or her performance goal. Individuals are motivated to the extent that they value the outcomes received. According to expectancy theory, employee motivation will be high when all three elements in the model are high (i.e., expectancy, instrumentality, and valence), and low if any element is near zero.

Outcomes of an Equity comparison

There are three different equity relationships resulting from an equity comparison: equity (i.e., person fares comparably), negative inequity (i.e., person fares worse than others), and positive inequity (i.e., person fares better than others).

self-determination theory

assumes that three innate needs influence our behavior and well-being: competence, autonomy, and relatedness. This theory focuses on needs that we are born with which are proposed to produce intrinsic motivation, which in turn is expected to enhance task performance. Competence need: the need to feel efficacious; the desire to feel qualified, knowledgeable, and capable to complete an act, task, or goal. Autonomy need: the need to feel independent to influence one's environment; the desire to have freedom and discretion in determining what you want to do and how you want to do it. Relatedness need: the need to be connected with others; the desire to feel part of a group, to belong, and to be connected with others.

Content Theories of Motivation

based on the idea that an employee's needs influence his or her motivation.

hygiene factors

cause a person to move from a state of no dissatisfaction to dissatisfaction and include company policy and administration, technical supervision, salary, interpersonal relations with one's supervisor, and working conditions.

Process Theories of Motivation

describes how various person factors and situation factors in the organizing framework affect motivation. Equity/Justice theory Expectancy theory Goal-setting theory

Top-Down Approaches (management led)

Scientific management: the kind of management which conducts a business or affairs by standards established by facts or truths gained through systematic observation, experiment, or reasoning. -Plus: increased efficiency and productivity -Negative: Encourages repetitive jobs which may lead to job dissatisfaction, poor mental health, stress, and a low sense of accomplishment and growth Job enlargement: putting more variety into a job by combining specialized tasks of comparable difficulty.(referred to as horizontally loading) the job because employees perform additional tasks of similar difficulty. Used alone without other motivational methods, it does not have a significant and lasting positive effect on job performance. Job rotation: moving employees from one specialized job to another to give them greater variety in their work. Advantages of job rotation -Engagement and motivation increased -Increased worker flexibility and easier scheduling -Increased employee knowledge and abilities Job enrichment: modifying a job to give employees an opportunity to experience achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement. Job enrichment is achieved by vertical loading, which consists of giving workers more autonomy and responsibility. Job enrichment is the practical application of Herzberg's motivator-hygiene theory. Job characteristic model: promotes high intrinsic motivation by designing jobs that possess the five core job characteristics. -Skill variety: extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a variety of tasks that require him or her to use different skills and abilities. -Task identity: extent to which the job requires an individual to perform a whole or completely identifiable piece of work. -Task significance: extent to which the job affects the lives of other people within or outside the organization. -Autonomy: extent to which the job enables an individual to experience freedom, independence, and discretion in both scheduling and determining the procedures used in completing the job. -Feedback: extent to which an individual receives direct and clear information about how effectively he or she is performing the job.

Job design/job redesign/work design

any set of activities that alter jobs to improve the quality of employee experience and level of productivity.

Using Maslow's theory to motivate employees

-Remember employees have needs beyond a paycheck. -Focus on satisfying employee needs related to self-concepts. Self-esteem Self-actualization -Satisfied needs lose their potential. -Be careful when estimating employee's needs.

three forms of job crafting

The first form of job crafting involves changing one's "task boundaries" by altering the number, scope, or nature of job tasks. The second form of job crafting changes the "relational nature" of a job by changing the quality and/or amount of interaction with others encountered in a job. The final form of job crafting is "cognitive crafting" by altering perceptions or thoughts about the tasks and relationships associated with a job.

Elements of Equity Theory

The key elements of equity theory as described in Figure 5.6 include outputs, inputs, and a comparison of the ratio of outputs to inputs. Outputs: "What do I perceive that I'm getting out of my job?" Inputs: "What do I perceive that I'm putting into my job?" Comparison: "How does my ratio of outputs to inputs compare with relevant others?"

McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory

states that three needs—achievement, affiliation, and power—are the key drivers of employee behavior. People vary in the extent to which they possess these needs. Need for achievement: the desire to excel, overcome obstacles, solve problems, and rival and surpass others. Need for affiliation: the desire to maintain social relationships, to be liked, and to join groups. Need for power: the desire to influence, coach, teach, or encourage others to achieve. Positive Institutional Power vs negative personal power.

Motivation

The psychological processes that underlie the direction, intensity, and persistence of behavior or thought. Direction pertains to what an individual is attending to at a given time; intensity represents the amount of effort being invested in the activity; and persistence represents for how long that activity is the focus of one's attention.