Psychology 110 Chapters 5,6,7 (Exam 2)
Examples of stimulants
- Caffeine - Nicotine - Amphetamines: Meth and bath salts - Cocaine: rapidly absorbed, takes effect almost immediately ^^ acts on dopamine, can rewire the brain, mental and physical deterioration
Stage 3 of sleep
- Deepest stage, least responsive to outside stimulation
Taste aversion
- John Garcia - some organisms prepared to quickly learn to avoid foods that smelled or tasted like something that made them sick
Korsakoff's syndrome
- Long term alcoholics - hallucinations and tendency to repeat the same story - affects their ability to remember
Sleep deprivation experiments
- Participants feel weary, irritable, unable to concentrate, loss of creativity, decline in logical reasoning ability - But no lasting effects - rebound after a few days of regular sleep
Negative punishment
- Removing a desired stimulus to decrease undesired behavior - Ex: taking away kids phone
Stage 2 of sleep
- Slower and more regular wave pattern compared to stage 1 - momentary interruptions of sleep spindles
Value of hypnosis
- controlling pain - reducing smoking - treating psychological disorders - assisting in law enforcement (doesn't hold anymore) - improving athletic performance
Mood patterns
- happier in the morning - happier in seasons with longer days - less happy in seasons where days are shorter
Stage 1 of sleep
- state of transition between wakefulness and sleep - rapid, low amplitude brain waves
Stimulus discrimination
- two stimuli are very distinct from one another - can differentiate between stimuli and give different responses based on what the stimuli is
Analytical learning style
- understanding material best through analyzing various components - focuses on detail - analytical approach - logical reasoning
Shaping
- you want pigeon to learn to know when it presses the button it gets food - give food when it turns toward button - give food when it walks toward button - give food when it raises head toward button - give food when it pushes the button
Positive punishment
-Adding something unpleasant to decrease behavior - Ex: spanking,
Dreams-for-survival theory
-dreams permit information that is critical for our daily survival to be reconsidered and reprocessed during sleep - mechanism to process information
Examples of depressants
alcohol barbituarates: Nembutal, Seconal, phenobarbital ^^induce sleep or reduce stress sense of relaxation altered thinking can be deadly combined with alcohol Rohypnol: Date rate drug
Cognative Learning Theory
an approach to the study of learning that focuses on the thought processes that underlie learning
Reinforcer
any stimulus that increases the probability that a preceding behavior will occur again
Circadian rhythm
biological process that occur regularly on appoximately a 24 hour cycle
During daydreaming,
brain areas that are associated with complex problem solving become activated
Evolutionary theory (explanation of sleep)
energy conservation - restore and replenish brain and body - physical growth and brain development
Narcolepsy
fall asleep anywhere at anytime
Episodic memory
for events that occur in a particular time, place, or context - declarative - Ex: being able to easily remember from when a specific event like a covid announcement
Declarative memory
for factual information
Chunking
grouping information that can be stored in short-term memory
implicit memory
information that you remember unconsciously and effortlessly
The distinction between long- and short-term memory
is supported by the effects of certain kinds of brain damage.
Short-term memory
Holds information for 15 to 25 seconds, stores according to meaning rather than sensory memory
Psychoactive drugs
Influence a person's emotions, perceptions, and behavior
Interference
Information in memory disrupts the recall of other infomration
Proactive interference
Information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material
Manifest content of the dream
Information one remembers and reports -Disguises the latent content, dreams can have deeper meaning
Explicit memory
Information that you have to consciously work to remember
Operant conditioning
Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened based on the consequence
Meditation
learned technique for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of consciousness - decrease oxygen usage - reduced heart rate and blood pressure - change in brain wave patterns
Latent learning
learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it
Decay
Loss of information through nonuse
Examples of Hallucinogens
Marijuana MDMA(ecstasy) LSD or acid
Relational learning style
Master material best through exposure to a full unit or phenomenon
Retroactive interference
Material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier
Consolidation
Memories become fixed and stable in long term memory
As part of a behavior modification program, Kendra and her partner each agree to praise the other if she completes her assigned household chores by the end of the day. Such praise is an example of:
positive reinforcement
Reinforcers that satisfy a biological need are called _____ reinforcers.
primary
Four steps of hynosis
STEP 1: Person is made comfortable in a quiet environment STEP 2: Hypnotist explains what is going to happen STEP 3: Person is asked to concentrate on a specific object or image STEP 4: Hypnotist makes suggestions that the person interprets as being produced by hypnosis
Primary reinforcers
Satisfy biological needs and works naturally - Ex: food, sex
Omar experienced a dissociative fugue state. He suddenly snapped out of it in front of a pet-supplies display in a Boise, Idaho discount store; he had no memory whatsoever of his previous life in Greensboro, North Carolina. Omar's amnesia is best described as:
retrogade.
seasonal affective disorder
severe depression which increases during the winter and decreases during the rest of the year
The levels-of-processing approach
suggests that thinking about material leads to better memory than maintenance rehearsal.
Primacy effect
tendency to remember words at the beginning of a list especially well
Recency effect
tendency to remember words at the end of a list especially well
The schedules of reinforcement that yield the highest response rates are
variable-ratio and fixed-ratio schedules
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
a stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned
Hypnosis
a trancelike state of heightened susceptibility to the suggestions of others - susceptibility varies
Source amnesia
occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where he or she encountered it
Cue-dependent forgetting
occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory
Thorndike's law of effect
responses that lead to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
Social cognitive approach
- Albert Bandura - learning through imitation - bobo doll study(kids put in room with doll and imitate what the researcher did)
The Skinner Box
- B. F. Skinner - Chamber with highly controlled environment, used to study operant conditioning with lab animals
Activation-synthesis theory
- Brain produces random electrical energy during REM sleep that stimulates memories stored in the brain
How long do most people sleep per night
7 to 8 hours
How long is a typical sleep cycle, in which a sleeper progresses through some or all of the sleep stages?
90 minutes
Habituation
A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated presentations
Behavior modification
A formalized technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones.
Conditioned Stimuls (CS)
A once-neutral stimuls that has been paired with an unconditioned stimuls
Unconditioned response (UCR)
A response that is natural and needs no training
Anya pulled all-nighters both last night and the night before. Tonight, finally, she anticipates going to bed at her usual time. Which of the following alternatives most accurately describes and identifies what Anya is likely to experience?
Anya will spend a greater proportion of her sleep time than usual in the REM stage. This phenomenon is called rebound.
Stimulants
Drugs that have an arousal effect on the central nervous system - cause a rise in heart rate, blood pressure, and muscular tension
Narcotics
Drugs that increase relaxation and relieve pain and anxiety
Depressants
Drugs that slow down the nervous system
Memory
Encode, storage, retrieval
Semantic memory
For general knowledge, facts about the world and rules of logic - declarative
Procedural memory
For skills and habits - non declarative - Ex: walking, riding a bike
Anterograde amnesia
Memory is lost for events that follow an injury - not being able to remember new memories that are just made
Retrogade amnesia
Memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event, but not for new events - Not being able to remember old events that happened in the past
Semantic networks
Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information - spreading activation - one memory triggers another and another and so on
Examples of Narcotics
Morphine Heroin Methadone: used to help people get off of Heroin
Variable-Ratio schedule
Occurs after a varying number of responses, rather than after a fixed number
Extinction
Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and disappears
Priming
Occurs when exposure to a word or concept later makes it easier to recall related information
Schemas
Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is: - interpreted - stored - recalled
Amygdala
Part of the brain's limbic system, it is involved with memories involving emotion - EMOTION
Hippocampus
Part of the brain's limbic system, it plays a central role in making memories consolidated
Autobiographical memory
Recollection of our own life experiences - we forget things in the past because it doesn't fit our current personality
What is the impact of temporary sleep deprivation on people? Can this impact be reversed?
People who participate in sleep deprivation experiments, in which they are kept awake for as long as 200 hours, show no lasting effects. It is no fun--they feel weary and irritably, cannot concentrate, and show a loss of creativity, even after only minor deprivation. They also show a decline in logical reasoning ability. However, after being allowed to sleep normally, they bounce back quickly and are able to perform at predeprivation levels after just a few days. In short, as far as we know, most people suffer no permanent consequences of such temporary sleep deprivation. But--and this is an important but--a lack of sleep can make us feel edgy, slow our reaction time, and lower our performance on academic and physical tasks. In addition, we put ourselves and others at risk when we carry out routine activities, such as driving, when we are very sleepy.
Memory traces
Physical changes that take place int he brain when new material is learned
Engram
Physical memory trace in the brain that correpsonds to a memory
Reinforcement
Process by which a stimulus increases the probability that a preceding behavior will be repeated
Addictive drugs
Produce a biological or psychological dependence on the user - withdrawals and cravings - psychological dependence: people believe that they need the drug
Hallucinogens
Produce hallucinations, or change in the perceptual process
Fixed-Interval schedule
Provides reinforcement for a response only after a fixed time period has elapsed
Rebound effect
REM-deprived sleepers spend significantly more time in REM sleep than they normally would
REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep - 20 percent of adult's sleeping time - increased heart rate, blood pressure and breathing rate - eye movements - experience of dreaming more likely
Iconic memory
Reflects information from the visual system - sensory - Sperling's sensory memory study
Unconscious wish fulfillment theory
Sigmund Freud's theory that dreams represent unconscious wishes that dreamers desire to see fulfilled
Stimulus generalization
Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus produce the same response
Retrieval cues
Stimulus that allows us to more easily recall information that is in long-term memory
Punishment
Stimulus that decreases the probability that a previous behavior will occur again
Long-term memory
Stores information on a relatively permanent basis - sometimes difficult to retrieve information
Secondary reinforcers
a stimulus that becomes reinforcing because of its association with a primary reinforcer - Ex: money, grades in school
Negative reinforcers
Unpleasant stimulus whose removal leads to an increase in the probability that a preceding response will be repeated - Ex: If you make good grades, then I will take away a chore for you
Working memory
a memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information
Conditioned response
a response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus
Positive reinforcers
a stimulus added to the environment that brings about an increase in a preceding response - Ex: paying kid money for good grades
Long-term potentiation
certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned
Insomnia
chronic, trouble falling or staying asleep
As a child, Tim loved salami sandwiches but was not particularly fond of dill pickles. However, his mother would always serve the pickles with salami sandwiches. Now, the sight of even an empty dill pickle jar makes his mouth water. In the context of classical conditioning, the pickle jar is a(n) ________ and salami is a(n) ________.
conditioned stimulus; unconditioned stimulus
Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
controls circadian rhythms
Ewan is convinced that a woman across the bar is "sending signals." A learning theorist would term such signals:
discriminative stimuli
Long-term potentiation refers to the process whereby
neural pathways become activated more easily as learning occurs.
Unlike stimulants, depressants cause
neurons to fire more slowly.
Night terrors
not a nightmare, scarier, terrifying and make heart rate rise
Fixed-Ratio schedule
reinforcement is given only after a specific number of responses
Rehearsal
repetition of information that has entered short-term memory - allows transfer of information into long-term memory
The "date-rape drug" is ____________; it is a _________.
rohypnol; depressant
altered state of consciousness
sleeping, drugging, dreaming, hypnosis
Neutral stimuls (NS)
stimulus that does not produce a reflexive response (initially the bell)
Sensory memory
the initial, momentary storage of information, lasting only an instant
Spontaneous recovery
the reemergence of an extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest and with no further conditioning
Rehearsal refers to the
the repetition of information that has entered short-term memory
sleep apnea
throat closes as person is sleeping, body jerks them awake so the person does not suffocate. - sudden infant death syndrome
Variable-Interval schedule
time between reinforcements varies around some average rather than being fixed