SOC 144 midterm 1
Risk Factor for rape and Sexual assault Victimization
- Being female - Being adolescent or young adult - Being young women of color - particula, African American and Native American young - Being poor woman Poor women re neaarly four times mre likely to be sexually victimized than middle clas women and sex tine more likly ths upper lass womenn
consequences of sexual assault. fro. adolescent victims
- physical injuries in addition to sexual assault itself - gynecological problems - chronic headache - Gastrointestinal disorder - sleeping disorder - PTSD symptom - anxiety - hyperviglilence - depression - substance use. - suicidal ideation - sexual revictimization - substance use. - suicidal ideation - sexual revictimzations as an adult
Intervention and prevention Strategies
Adolescents rarely seek help to address dating violence - In one study, 60% of victims and 79% of perpetrators did not seek help Among adolescents who do seek help, most disclose to their friends or family members, rather than professionals such as teachers, school nurse, doctors or clergy prevention : teach how to have healthy romantic relationships - Ex: the Expect respect program focuses on developing group skills, choosing equality and respect for others, learning to recognize abusive relationships developing healthy relationship skills, and becoming active proponents for safe and healthy relationships intervention: legal Intervention: counseling
Psychological Maltreatment
All parents treat their children in inappropriate ways at some time or another saying or doing hurtful things they later regret - Such mistakes are a characteristic of most intimate relationship Confusion related to the inconsistency of terms used to describe this form of child maltreatment - Psychological versus emotional ---> Psych: teaching daughter to not walk, deceits, lying (mind games) ---> Emotional: being mean, saying I hate you Confusion about whether this form of child maltreatment refers only to acts of commission (e.g., name calling) versus. Bother acts of commission and omission (e.g silent treatment) - Is the latter neglect? - Parental behavior versus child outcomes
Uniform Crime Report
Annual report by the FBI of number of arrests and persons arrested, by crime (small number)
Peer Harassment Intervention and prevention
Because of the prevalence of peer sexual harassment and its negtice short/long-term effect → effective repsonses and prorgrams to prevent it are essential Apart from holding perpetrators accountable and providing victims with treatment and accommodations (e.g., assistance in making up missed classes and schoolwork), some schools, particularly in the lower grades, proactively address sexual and gender harassment by offering bullying prevention programs - Evaluations show → not effective in preventing sexual or gender harassment Consequently. Programs are needed that → 1) challenge hegemonic masculine norms and replace then with an alternative more egalitarian set of core beliefs and behavioral norms 2) provide opportunities to learn and practice healthy relationship skills 3) address sexual health and other relevant issues (substance use) 4) empower young people to recognize and intervene to stop harassment
perpetrator risk factors
Biological parent Has difficulties with interpersonal and social interactions, problems solving, and psychiatric adjustment Low income (4-5 times higher for low SES children than for high SES children) Is in a dysfunctional family, including one with marital discord and domestic violence
Psychological maltreatment
Center of Disease Control and prevention definition: intentional caregiver behavior that conveys to a child that he or she is worthless, flawed, unloved, unwanted, endangered, or valued only in meeting another's needs American professional society on the abuse of children definition - Primarily based on parents behavior, a repeated pattern or extreme incident of caretakers behavior that thwarts the child's basic psychological developmental need - Message sent is: child is worthless, defective, damaged, unloed, unwanted, primarily useful in meeting other needs and/or expendable
(CHAPTER 5-6) Child Neglect and Child Psychological Maltreatment
Child neglect and psychological maltreatment have received less attention than other forms of child abuse The vague nature of these two types makes then hard to define At preen, no single definition of these twa types is universally accepted Given these definitional complexities, the true incidence of these two types is largely undetermined
SCOPE of child neglect
Child neglect is the most frequently reported and substantiated for of child maltreatment - 75% of all child maltreatment cases reported to CPS in 2014 were for child neglect, compared to 17% for physical abuse and 8% for sexual abuse
Conceptual perspective on psychological maltreatment
Consequences to child: Physical --> Parents behavior → Physical → physical abuse - Ex: choking a child result in injury to the child's trachea Non Physical → psychological maltreatment - A parents lack of supervision results in a child being poisoned Consequences to child: nonphysical --> Parents behavior Physical → Psychological maltreatment - Repeatedly beating child leads to low self esteem in the child Psychological maltreatment - Repeatedly yelling and screaming at a child leads to low self-esteem in the child
What is child neglect?
Definition of child neglect includes a THE ENDANGERMENT STANDARD - This allows for the reporting of cases in which children demonstrate no actual harm (i.e., present evidence of injury) but in which it is reasonable to suspect potential harm (I.e., future risk of injury) Factors include: - Duration - Frequency Experts generally agree that deficits in meeting a child's basic needs including basic needs in the broad categories of physical, emotional, medical, and educational needs, constitute child neglect
intimate partner violence (IPV)
Early women's right went from focusing on securing the right to vote to the victimization of women within the family 1970 s → women movement raised awareness fo wife abuse, including marital rape National coalition against domestic violence founded in 1976 involvement of healthcare and government entities - with focus on consequences of violence - helped to make the movement to raise awareness about violence against women to go mainstream In the 1980s dating violence was viewed as a form of violence against women - seminal study showing the parallel between girlfriends and wives - stalking, sexual assault among dating couples and cyber staling have been recognized as abuse (METOO MOVEMENT) - Movement results included the Violence Against Women Act (VAWA) - Recognitions of male victims (looking at catholic church) - Shift focus onto perpetrator as in need of help, not just punishment
International and understudied groups (perceptions on violence)
Elder abuse has gained recognition by parallels with child abuse. Now there are adult protective services (APS) More attention is being given to violence against women and children around the world Cross-cultural definitions and understandings of relationships violence are important to consider Variations among diverse groups are important to consider in research and practice Understudied groups: immigrant families, ethnic and racial minorities, LGBT families: research suggests that LGBTQ couples likely experience as much or perhaps even more violence than heterosexual couples, disabled intimates, religious groups, rural residents, intimate serving in the military (we have been in lots of wars)
Prevalence of peer sexual harassment
Estimate of peer sexual harassment range from 23% to more than 80% - This variation is largely due to the characteristic of the sample surveyed, definition use, the way the questions were worded and the time period examined Additional studies confirmed the greater victimization of LGBTQ students, especially lesbians; students of color, especially female students of color; and students with disabilities, especially girls -bullying at a young age Witnessing and/or experiencing abuse at home - Adherence to norms of hegemonic masculinity peer support and reinfrocement for harrasing behvaiors
Prevalence of rape in/and Sexual assault
Estimates of the prevalence of rape and sexual assault vary widely - FBI reprts by policee departments throughout the unted Sates nate that in 2014 there were about 85000 rape cases - However, National Crime Victimization Survey indiciate significialy more rapt and sexial assault cases: in 2014, 110 rape victims per 100,000 peope 12 year olf and older in teUS - Why are there differences between FBI and NCVS → FBI is number of convictions and NCVS self reported victimization numbers
Parental behaviors (6 thing)
Guidelines list six categories of parental behaviors that constitutes child psychological maltreatment: Spurning: verbal and nonverbal hostile rejecting/degrading behavior) Terrorizing: behavior that harms or threaten harm to a child or child's loved ones or possessions exploiting/corrupting: encouraging inappropriate behaviors in a child Emotional unresponsiveness: ignoring a child's needs failing to express a positive effect towards a child isolating: denying a child opportunity to interact/communicate with others Mental health/medical/educational neglect: failing to provide for a child's needs in these areas
CHAPT 1 the scope (polyvictimization)
Hard to determine (there are reported and unreported) Polyvictimization = term to describe the empirical reality that victims are often exposed to multiple forms of violence and maltreatment
Prevention and intervention Strategies
Historically reponses to sexual assault by the legal health care and eduation system, as well as by victims freins and family have been woefully inadequate and even harmful - Police tended to "unfound" many raoe cmoplaints; did not to investigate them because the did not think a "real" rape had occurred or they doubted victims Reforms since the 1990s have helped to improve the treatment of victims by the criminal justice system and other social service providers such as medical personnel - Interventions includes education and training for police and medical staff - Most police officer receive special training to sensitize them to the trauma of victims (it may be one workshop in their life career) - our knowledge rose over → continued education good - My hospitals use Sexual Assault Nuse Examiners to collect physical evidence from the victim in emergency rooms - devlopments that have positive outcomes for victims and for the successful prosection of perpetrators Despite the many reforms however, victims continue to encounter difficulties reporting to police and obtaining help
Social learning
How do we learn the answer to these questions: How are parents supposed to discipline children? How are married couples supposed to interact? Hoare are people supposed to navigate social interactions (much of this is from peers) Intergenerational transmission: when behaviors passed and repeat across generations, - is not as strong as we may imagine Parents child transmission - But it is not deterministic as people think it is Family as teacher versus broader society as teacher
If a child is exposed to IPV is to psychological maltreatment?
If a child is exposed to IPV is to psychological maltreatment? → YES 24 states in the US mention exposure to IPV in their state statutes
Prevention programs currently employed in various settings
Including middle schools high schools and college/universities - Some are referred to as awareness-based programs which employ speakers, such as sxual assault survuvors, and victim advocates Bystander intervention program train individuals to respond to situation in which norms behaviors that promote violence are present -Example of how a bystander could intervene? --> Do not have the fifth drink --> Do not go upstairs with that person
increased awareness for relationship violence
Increased media and academic coverage Progress in reducing violence against children and women reached international level - Children human rights - Women's human rights In the US claims-manager began defining various forms of relationship violence as social problems
LECTURE 2 RESEARCH METHODS AND PERSPECTIVE ON VMIR
Invisibility and secrecy, as well as the often heated disagreement within the field of VMIR, create empirical and methodological hurdles that are difficult to overcome - Measurement issues surround VMIR - Important data sets are used to study VMIR
Perpetrator RISK FACTORS
Is a birth parent, especially the birth mother Is female (but likely due to the fact that mothers spend more time with children) Interact less with their children, and when they do interact the interactions are less positive Has personal problems such as depressive symptoms, impulsivity, low self-esteem, low empathy, and chronic health problems (POST-PARTEN) Has substance abuse disorder Low SES is the most powerful predictor of neglect; it is more powerfully predictive of neglect than for any other for of child maltreatment Other social factors
The National Child Abuse and Neglect Data System
Is a federally sponsored data collection stsrem on reported child abuse and neglect Every year NCANDS compiles CPS data from all 50 states on a variety of important issues relevant to child maltreatment
Many people, including rape victims themsleves, adhere tp a set of beliefs, commonly reffered to as rape myths,
Myths are not true She asked for it by being sexy She caused by her own carelessness stupidity She deserved it She led him on Women lie about rape She really wanted it to happen She enjoyed it She didn't fight back enough She iplicily agreed to hsve sex She miscommunicated Only certain types for women/men are raped There was no violence/weapon involved Rape is inevitble, naturl event Rae is a trivial event Rape only ahppens in very specifiic places/situations She didn't mean it She was entitled because they paid for dinner or something Only certain types of men and women rape
Is self defense training considered a prevention strategy
NO → it is putting the responsibility on the victims rather than holding perpetrators accountable
Child Risk Factors
Older age → 14-17 year olds are at greater risk
Structural characteristics of intimate relationships Culture of acceptance
Part of the reason VMIR occurs is structural Time together Opportunity Power differences Patriarchy Culture of acceptance The more we as a society except physical, emotional and sexual aggression as "appropriate" or "inevitable," or even "fun," the more likely is that abuse will occur Cultural example → wife beater tank top Is intimate violence culturally accepted? → yes, "it just happened" argument (thought this argument is not accepted for violence against someone in another family or another close relationship (high reward)
CHAPTER 7 ABUSE IN ADOLESCENT AND EMERGING ADULT RELATIONSHIPS
Peer to peer abuse , including sexual harrassment sexual assault, and vioelnce and stalkig in dating relaitonships One third - more than ha of 2-18 year olds in the US report to be in some type of romantic relationship ⅕ of adolescents are sexually active Problems within relationships can result from this
forms of neglect
Physical neglect: failure to provide a child with basic necessities of life, such as food, clothing, and shelter Medical neglect: failure or delay in seeking needed health care, refusal to allow or provide needed care of diagnosed Emotional neglect: failure to provide a child with emotional support, security, and encouragement Environmental neglect: lack of environmental safety opportunities and resources associated with living in a neighborhood burdened by crime, lack of civility, nf few resources for children and families Prenatal neglect: actions of a pregnant woman that can potentially harm her unborn child (abuse of illicit drugs and alcohol in utero - factors that she cannot control as well)
Legal Issues
Practical def vs LEGAL def 1974 federal child abuse prevention and treatment act → delegate individual states the responsibility for defining child psychological maltreatment The lack of clean and consistent legal definitions contributes to problems identifying child psychological maltreatment inaccuracies in the ability of child protective services (CPS) to intervene to protect children who are psychologically maltreated
Subtypes of child psychological maltreatment
Rejecting Degrading Terrorizing Isolating Mis-socializing Exploiting Denying emotional responsiveness Close confinement Newer models suggest a ninth subtype → parental inconsistency
Methodological issues
Research on VMIR can never be perfect Methodological issues include: ----- Is impartial empiricism in the study of intimate violence possible? ----- Are definitions negotiated? - Correlation is not causation - Randomized controlled trials - Longitudinal studies and matched comparison groups
Rape and Sexual Assault
Sexual assault encompasses various forms of nonconsensual sexual contact, such as kissing or fondling a person without their consent or when they are unable to consent - The most sever form o sexula assault is rape: nonconsensual attemptede or copletd penetration, no matter ho slight, of the vagina or anus with a body part or object, or orl penitration by a sex organ of another person Sexual assault may be acconplished through the use of physcal force or the threat of force, but a perpetrator may also use intimidation of the imposition of thier authoroty to maje the victim have sex with them
Social consruction
Social conditions only become recognised as social problems as a result of a successful advocacy by those concerned about them Social problems are negotiated, with a variety of claims makers weighing in on the nature and seriousness of the problem Violence and maltreatment in intimate relationships has only relatively recently been socially constructed as a social problem
Low cost of violence Social control Deterrence
Social control → collective efforts of a society to ensure conformity and prevent deviance All theories of social control begin with the assumption that humans are rational beings who maximize benefits and minimize cost Deterrence theorists suggest: where there are few formal legal costs to behavior, the behavior is more common
Measurement issues
Social phenomena are inherently difficult to study The funnel metaphor is helpful as we turn our attention to specific data sources and survey VMIR - Official crime data - Vicitizations surveys - self report surveys Convictions --> aarrest --> Social services --> substaintiated VMIR (authorities condlcude abuse did in fact occur) --> reported VMIT (CPS, APS, or police) --> actual rates of VMIR
Teen dating violence and stalking
Teen dating violence is physical, psychological, or sexual violence as well as stalking, perpetrated within a dating relationship Stalking is a form of teen dating violence that involves a pattern of unwanted harassing or threatening tactics that generate fear in he victim These definitions encompass a wide range of behavior including hitting and slapping, threats, forced sexual activity and following a person
Victimization data
The National Crime Victimization The National Intimate Partner and sexual violence survey Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire
Risk factor: Dating violence and Stalking
The factor associated with peer sexual harassment and sexual assault also emerge as significant factors contributing to teen dating violence and stalking In addition → - Youths who are poor are not likely to report victimization as well as perpetration - Witnessing parental IPV or experiencing maltreatment as a child increases the likelihood that teen will b the victim or perpetrator of dating violence - Having a friend involved in dating violence increases a teens risk of victimization and perpetration
CHILD PSYCHOLOGICAL MALTREATMENT
The least common form of reported and substantiated child maltreatment - 6% of all reported cases of child maltreatment were child psychological maltreatment
Why might we reasonably expect VMIR (violence merit intimate relationships) to be a common occurrence under specific conditions?
The proximity is closer Structure (cultural transmission > media) Low cost on engaging in violence Social learning
Consequences of Peer Sexual Harassment
The psychological and physical impacts of sexual harassment on victims include depression, lowered self esteem, lower self-confidence, loss of appetite, and sleep disturbances These negative outcomes are more frequent and severe for female sexual harassment victims - May be because girls are not only more likely to experience sexual harassment, but also because girls experience more frequent and more severe harassment
Discovering Child Maltreatment
Value of children has changed Harshness of life, high rates of disease, and visibility death → devaluation of life and of children's lives in particular Discovery of child physical abuse traced to the house refuge movement First child abuse court case was tried in 1874 Child saving movement promoted child protective statutes in 1900 Battered child syndrom described in 1960 helped recognition of child abuse as a social problem Child sexual abuse is not universally recognized Child neglect and child psychological maltreatment were the last from of child maltreatment to attract attention
Prevalence of dating violence and stalking
Victimization rates range from 6% to 16%; self reported perpetration rates from 6.4% to about 19% ] - Using different data sets that tell different stories - Higher number → victimization - Lowest → official crime report Victimization rates of teem dating violence and stalking or not vary by race/ethnicity or gender - But girls are more likely than boys to be injured by a partner
child neglect
What constitutes a basic need and what constitutes parental failure to provide Debatable child neglect subjects include - Poverty --> Parents are unable to provide food for their children - Parental intent --> The didn't know versus thy did not fare - Cultural context --> Some cultures where younger children are babysitters and not seemed inappropriate
maltreatment
acts that may cause physical or other harm
Peer harassment Bullying
aggressive or mean-spirited behavior that occurs repeatedly over time and has the underlying intent to harm of disturb the person or group at whom it is targeted It is perpetrated by a person or group who is perceived as having more power than the weaker, less powerful individuals or peer groups that is targeted
violence
an act carried out with the intention of physically hurting another person
Defining the problem
claims -making influencing people's understanding of what the problems is and in turn, impacts research and policy claims - making among researchers has lead to vastly different research methodologies that have produced different competing definitions No one definition is accepted as universally correct Existing legal definitions are problematic --> - The lack of consensus has made it difficult to make laws against violent acts -- Child sex abuse laws more clear bc focus on perpetrators actions -- Child psychological, physical, and neglect abuse laws less clear bc it focuses on injury outcomes IPV laws are too narrow bc focus on single incident only Progress depends on achieving decision consensus
perpetrator protector factors
higher self-efficacy involvement in thief child's activities If you are involved, yo know what our children needs are
Peer harassment Sexual harassment
in contrast, is defined as unwelcomed sexual advances, request for sexual favors, or the other verbal, nonverbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature Includes a wide range of unwanted and unwelcome behaviors such as sexual comments, jokes, features or rumor, shoing sexual pictures or writing seual mesages in private
self-report data
intimate partners: the conflict tactic scales (CTS), originally created by Murray Straus (1979), is the most historically significant and widely used scale in self reported intimate violence Parent-child dyads: The parent-child conflict tactic scale (CTSPC), created a modified version of the CTS specifically to measure child maltreatment
peer harassment: Gender harassment
involves being touched or grabbed in a sexual way or beig forved to touch someone sles in a sexual way and being called gay or lesbuan in a malicious way
The National Intimate Partner and sexual violence survey
is a victimization survey that measures adult respondents' recollection about physical violence and sexual assault experienced by the respondent (Focus on Adult)
Outcomes associated with child psychological maltreatment
outcomes in infants - interpersonal maladjustment intellectual and learning problems affective-cognitive behavioral problems outcomes observed in adolescents and adults - affective behavioral cognitive problems (anxiety, depression, suicidal behavior, alcohol, sexual problems) outcomes observed in adolescents and adults - interpersonal difficulties : attachment issues, marital dissatisfaction - mental disorder: post-traumatic stress disorder, substance abuse, eating disorder
Acquantance rape
rape done by someone we know which happens to most rape incidiences 73% of rapes are acquaintance rapes
some negative effects
social and attachment difficulties cognitive and academic deficit emotional and behavioral problems physical consequence --> Death, Failure to thrive, obesity Long-term consequences --> cognitive deficit, illegal activity, violence against a partner
Practice, policy and prevention issues --> prevention
social support and education programs designed to prevent intimate violence from occurring - Family support and training programs - School-based programs - Community awareness campaigns
Practice, policy and prevention issues --> intervention
societal responses to VMIR_ after it occurs Child and adult protective services (government agency that responds to claims of abuse) Mandatory arrest laws (partner violence where police are required to arrest) "No-drop" prosecution policies (once a case is open you cannot drop it) Family preservation, foster care, and adoption Family support and training programs (parents' education and family programs where children are also engaged) School based program Treating offenders and victims Shelter and hotlines Community awareness campaigns designed to not prevent but to better respond to people who are experiencing the abuse
social constructionism
sociology concept to explain how social conditions become social problems - Societal reactions to particular social conditions, individuals, and institutions transform public perceptions - Claims-makers make assertions of grievances or claims with respect to some conditions - As the cause of claims-makers is recognized by society more generally, the social conditions comes to be defined as a social problem - Social problems are discovered through this process of society relations and social definitions - Thus social problems come and go as reaction change
National Incidence Studies
survey of professionals who are mandated to report cases of child may learn to CPS. Provides an estimate of the incidence of child maltreatment
The National Crime Victimization
surveys a semiannual victim survey conducted by the US census bureau on behalf of the department of justice (this will have a higher number) - The NCVS has been conducted since 1973 and is the primary source of information in the US on the characteristics of criminal victimization
Juvenile Victimization Questionnaire (JVQ)
to measure exposure to a wide variety of childhood victimization, including conventional crime, child maltreatment, peer and sibling victimization, sexual assault, and witnessing an indirect victimization
official crime data
uniform crime report The national child abuse and neglect dat system national incidence studies
