Sociology (Ch.8 - Ch.10)

recent mobility trends

(Middle class is shrinking)

occupational sex segregation

(Sometimes called occupational gender segregation) the process of channeling women and men into different types of jobs. -male dominated occupations pay higher wages

social mobility

movement from one social class to another.

intragenerational mobility

movement up or down a social class over one's lifetime.

intergenerational mobility

movement up or down a social class over two or more generations.

minority group

people who may be treated differently and unequally because of their physical, cultural, or other characteristics. -Latinos, African Americans, American Indians, Asian Americans

racial group

people who share visible physical characteristics that members of a society consider socially important.

caste system

people's positions are ascribed at birth and largely fixed.

class system

people's positions are based on both birth and achievement.

segregation

physical and social separation of dominant and minority groups.

Native Americans: a growing nation

-6.6 million Americans Indians and Alaskan Natives (AIANs) account for almost 2 percent of the U.S. population -AIANs are a unique minority group because they're not immigrants and have been in what is now the United States longer than any other group. They have experienced centuries of subjugation, exploitation, and political exclusion -Many AIANs are better off today than they were a decade ago, but long-term institutional discrimination has been difficult to shake. For example, 27 percent live below the poverty line compared with 13 percent of the general population. The median household income of AIANs is slightly higher than that of Black households, but lower than that of other racial-ethnic groups -AIAN educational levels have increased, but only 14 percent have a bachelor's or advanced degree or higher compared with 36 percent of the general population. One of four civilian-employed AIANs works in a management or professional occupation. Even when AIANs are similar to White people in age, gender, education level, marital status, state of residence, and other factors, their odds of being employed are 31 percent lower than those of White people.

violence against females

-In the Democratic Republic of Congo, approximately 1,100 women are raped every day by soldiers, strangers, and intimate partners ("Human Rights Violations," 2015). -globally, women have fewer rights than men

Latinos: the largest minority

-Latinos are the youngest and largest racial or ethnic group, constituting 18 percent of the nation's population. -Latino median household income is lower than the national median, but higher than that of American Indian and Black households -Latinos have among the lowest education levels (Figure 10.8), but there's considerable variation across subgroups. Almost half of Venezuelans have a bachelor's degree or higher compared with only 8 to 9 percent of those from Guatemala, Mexico, and Salvador -As with other groups, Latinos' socioeconomic status reflects a number of interrelated factors, particularly education, occupation, English language proficiency, and recency of immigration. For example, 21 percent of second-generation Latinos have at least a college degree compared with 11 percent of foreign-born Latinos, and higher median household incomes—$48,400 and $34,600, respectively ("Second-Generation Americans," 2013).

Structural characteristics

-Macro-level factors create and sustain poverty -Effective remedy is changing structural forces

Middle Eastern Americans: an emerging minority

-Of the 61 million people in the United States who speak a language other than English at home, about 5 percent speak Middle Eastern languages such as Armenian, Arabic, Hebrew, Persian, or Urdu. -Because of the continued immigration from the Middle East and North Africa, Arabic is the fastest growing and seventh most commonly spoken non-English language in the United States (Brown, 2016). There are at least 1.9 million Americans of Arab descent, accounting for about 0.5 percent of the population (Brown, 2016). Those who identify themselves as Arab Americans come from many different countries (Figure 10.10). As in the case of Asian American families, Middle Eastern families make up a heterogeneous population that is a "multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic mosaic" -Because of the continued immigration from the Middle East and North Africa, Arabic is the fastest growing and seventh most commonly spoken non-English language in the United States (Brown, 2016). There are at least 1.9 million Americans of Arab descent, accounting for about 0.5 percent of the population (Brown, 2016). Those who identify themselves as Arab Americans come from many different countries (Figure 10.10). As in the case of Asian American families, Middle Eastern families make up a heterogeneous population that is a "multicultural, multiracial, and multiethnic mosaic" -Not all Middle Eastern Americans are successful. Lebanese and Syrians have the lowest poverty rates, 11 percent, compared with more than 26 percent of Iraqis, and 23 percent of all foreign-born Middle Easterners (Arab American Institute Foundation, 2012; Motel and Patten, 2013).

Characteristics of power

-People who experience status consistency are about equal in terms of wealth, prestige, and power -there's status inconsistency if a person ranks differently on stratification factors

violence against males

-Russia's parliament recently banned LGBT relationships and forbade distributing material on gay rights. Russians are more accepting of extramarital affairs, gambling, and drinking alcohol (a major cause of men's death before age 55) than same-gender sexual behavior (Council for Global Equity, 2014; Poushter, 2014). -gay men are outcasts/can face punishment in some countries

pluralism

minority groups maintain many aspects of their original culture while living peacefully with the host culture.

Characteristics of prestige

-They require more formal education -They're primarily nonmanual and require more abstract thought -They are paid more -They're seen as socially more important -They involve greater self-expression, autonomy, and freedom from supervision

Effects of poverty on gender and family structure

-Women's poverty rate is higher than men's

Individual failings

-culture of poverty perspective: Poor do not succeed because they are "deficient" or "inadequate" -effective remedy according to this perspective -> to change poverty we need to change people's attitudes and behaviors (Not as easy as that)

Characteristics of wealth

-cumulative -passed on to the next generation -preserves privileges

Asian Americans: a model minority *READ BITCH

-diverse origins with differences in language, dialects, religions, cuisines, and customs - highest median income and high education levels among minority groups -labeled as model minority

gender stereotypes

-fuels sexism expectations about how people will look, act, think, and feel based on their sex.

African Americans: a changing minority

-second largest minority -many were brought to the U>S involuntarily and legally enslaved -lowest median income among all racial-ethnic groups -have lower education levels than Asian or whites

David Moore thesis summarization

1. Every society must fill a wide variety of positions and ensure that people accomplish important tasks. Societies need teachers, doctors, farmers, trash collectors, plumbers, police officers, and so on. 2. Some positions are more crucial than others for a society's survival. Doctors, for example, provide more critical services to ensure a society's continuation than do lawyers, engineers, or bankers. 3. The most qualified people must fill the most important positions. Some jobs require more skill, training, or intelligence than others because they're more demanding, and it's more difficult to replace the workers. Pilots, for example, must have more years of training and aren't replaced as easily as flight attendants. 4. Society must offer greater rewards to motivate the most qualified people to fill the most important positions. People won't undergo many years of education or training unless they're rewarded by money, power, status, and/or prestige. If doctors and nurses earned the same salaries, there wouldn't be much incentive for people to spend so many years earning a medical degree.

Age

Children under age 18 are 34% of the poor but only 23% of the population

critical evaluation of conflict theory

Conflict theories have several drawbacks. First, discrimination isn't always as conscious and deliberate as some conflict theorists claim. To increase diversity, Google and Facebook have for some time recruited at historically Black colleges, trained employees about unconscious bias, and rewarded recruiters and managers for hiring Black, Latino, and female engineers (McGirt, 2017; Zarya, 2017). Second, conflict theories are better at explaining racial-ethnic competition than cooperation. Forty-two percent of Americans (up from only 13 percent in 2010) worry a "great deal" about U.S. race relations. This surge is likely due to high-profile police shootings of unarmed Black men and some of President Trump's racist comments about Mexicans and Middle Eastern refugees (Swift, 2017). Despite such divisive rhetoric, Americans generally work together and cooperate to improve race relations, especially at the local level. Finally, economic inequality reinforces racial-ethnic inequality, but racism existed hundreds of years before the rise of capitalism.

critical evaluation of conflict perspectives: stratification harms society

Conflict theories have their limitations. First, and despite Marx's prediction, even though corporate wealth has surged during the past 100 years while many people have become poorer, there have been some protests but no revolutions in capitalist countries. Americans aren't demanding greater economic equality, and many go into debt to purchase luxury items like TVs, jewelry, and pet supplies, and to replace expensive smartphones and other high-tech hardware every few years. Thus, according to critics, conflict theorists are exaggerating the existence and effects of economic inequality. Second, some critics point out that conflict theorists overlook the fact that government programs have cut poverty by 40 percent since the 1960s. About 46 percent of American households pay no federal income taxes (and these tax breaks have nearly doubled since 1975) because they receive public assistance, get deductions for raising children under age 18, or don't report income. Moreover, the United States spends far more, per capita, than do many other wealthy countries on pensions, health care, education, unemployment, housing assistance, and similar benefits (Kirkegaard, 2015; "Inequality," 2017).

What are the criticisms of the poverty line?

Does not include: -that many people aren't as poor as they seem because the poverty threshold doesn't include the value of noncash benefits such as food stamps, medical services -child care and job transportation costs or the cost-of-living expenses, particularly housing, that vary considerably across states, regions, and urban-rural areas.

ethnic group

people who identify with a common national origin or cultural heritage. *Chinese, Serbs, Arabs, Hungarians, Jews

Critical evaluation of feminist theories

Feminist perspectives can be faulted on two counts. First, because all of us have internalized institutional discrimination, minority group members are also guilty of reinforcing gendered racism in schools, workplaces, and elsewhere. Black girls as young as 15 have to cope with Black men's sexual harassment, stereotypes that Black girls and women are sexually promiscuous, and many Black men's preference for women with lighter complexions and facial features that are closer to European standards of beauty (Friedman, 2011; Thomas et al., 2011). Second, feminist scholars seldom explore women's contribution to gendered racism (e.g., affluent Black women and Latinas who exploit domestic and farm workers).

Critical evaluation

For conflict theorists, capitalism creates and sustains racial-ethnic inequality. According to a classic explanation, there's a "split labor market." Jobs in the primary labor market, held primarily by White workers, provide better wages, health and pension benefits, and some measure of job security. In contrast, workers in the secondary labor market (e.g., fast-food employees) are largely minorities and easily replaced. Their wages are low, there are few fringe benefits, and working conditions are generally poor (Doeringer and Piore, 1971; Bonacich, 1972). © 2001 Brian Fairrington and PoliticalCartoons.com/Cagle Cartoons, Inc. Such economic stratification pits minorities against each other and low-income White people. Because these groups compete with each other instead of uniting against exploitation, capitalists don't have to worry about increasing wages or providing safer work environments. Social class doesn't always protect minorities from economic inequality. Because of residential segregation, for instance, middle-income Black and Latino households are much more likely than White ones to live in poor neighborhoods, exposing children to inadequate schools and more crime. At leading technology companies like facebook and Google, Black and Latino people still make up only 2 to 3 percent of college-educated officials and managers (Andrews, 2015; Kang, 2015; Reardon et al., 2015).

What do social classes differ in?

values, power, prestige, social networks, and lifestyles

FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES: STRATIFICATION BENEFITS PRIMARILY MEN

For feminist scholars, functionalist and conflict theories are limited because they typically focus on men in describing and analyzing stratification and social class. As a result, women are largely invisible.

Critical evaluation of functionalist theory

Functionalist explanations are limited in several ways. First, acculturation and assimilation increase social solidarity, but can also have negative outcomes. For example, second-generation immigrants are more likely than their foreign-born peers to join gangs, commit crimes, and experience obesity and other health problems (Bersani, 2014; Akbulut-Yuksel and Kugler, 2016; see also Chapter 14). Second, by focusing on order and stability, functionalists ignore racial-ethnic inequalities that often spawn tension and discord. Instead of implementing an immigration policy, President Trump tried to prevent refugees and people from seven majority-Muslim countries from entering the United States. His action polarized many Americans—particularly the 64 percent who think the nation's growing racial and ethnic diversity makes the country a better place ("In First Month...," 2017). Third, functionalism doesn't explain why, despite acculturation and assimilation, minorities experience exclusion. For instance, 61 percent of Black people and 45 percent of White people say that U.S. race relations are "generally bad," and 43 percent of Black people believe that America will never make the changes needed for Black people to achieve equal rights with White people (Geiger, 2016; Bialik and Cilluffo, 2017). Functionalists acknowledge that inequality is dysfunctional, but this isn't their major focus. Thus, they seem to accept discrimination as inevitable (Chasin, 2004).

Feminist theories

Gendered racism refers to the overlapping and cumulative effects of inequality due to racism and sexism. Many White women encounter discrimination on a daily basis (see Chapter 9). Minority women, however, are also members of a racial-ethnic group, bringing them a double dose of inequality. If social class is included, some minority women experience triple oppression. Many affluent women, in particular, have no qualms about exploiting recent immigrants, especially Latinas, who perform demanding housework at very low wages (Hondagneu-Sotelo, 2001). Gendered racism also occurs within racial-ethnic groups. According to a Black male sociologist, scholars rarely discuss Black male privilege, which is characterized by having advantages over Black women. Examples include being promoted more often and getting higher pay than their Black female counterparts who are equally skilled and educated (National Public Radio, 2010). Minority women are eager to reach high-level positions: 48 percent, compared with 37 percent of White women, aspire to be a top executive. Minority women make up one-third of the workforce, but less than 4 percent of executives and only 0.4 percent of CEOs at the largest companies. Some label minority women's roadblocks a "concrete ceiling." In contrast to a "glass ceiling" that White women might shatter, concrete ceilings are more difficult to break through (Piazza, 2016; Calacal, 2017; see also Chapter 6 on glass ceilings).

inherited characteristics

How are people's places in a hierarchy determined in a caste system?

Functionalism

Immigration is functional for the host nation if it gains needed workers. Highly educated and skilled immigrants fill important positions in medicine, science, and business. Many employers also rely on immigrants to work in fields, orchards, and vineyards at low wages; others are actively recruiting immigrants for decent-paying but "dirty" jobs at meat and fish factories that native-born Americans avoid (Newkirk and Douban, 2012; Davey, 2014). Functionalists view racial-ethnic inequality as dysfunctional, but attribute much of the inequity to individual failings and a lack of acculturation. There are incentives for not acculturating, however. For example, hundreds of Puerto Ricans get federal disability benefits, and regardless of work experience or level of education, because they're considered less employable if they can't speak English. Office of the Inspector General, 2015).

Effects of education on poverty

Increasingly, education separates the poor from the non-poor. In 2016, just 5 percent of college graduates were poor, compared with 13 percent of high school graduates and 25 percent without a high school diploma

Why do we blame the poor?

Individual failings Structural characteristics

SYMBOLIC INTERACION PERSPECTIVES: PEOPLE CREATE AND SHAPE STRATIFICATION

Symbolic interactionists focus on how people create, change, and reproduce social classes. They address micro-level issues such as how people learn their social positions in everyday life and how such learning affects their attitudes, behavior, and lifestyles.

Critical evaluation of symbolic interaction

Interactionism is limited for three reasons. First, it's not clear why labeling, selective perception, and racial bias are more common among some people than others, especially when they're similar on a number of variables such as social class, gender, age, religion, race, and ethnicity (Dovidio, 2009). Second, symbolic interaction tells us little about the social structures that create and maintain racial-ethnic inequality. For instance, people who aren't prejudiced can foster discrimination by simply going along with the inequitable policies that have been institutionalized in education, the workplace, and other settings (i.e., the unprejudiced discriminators described earlier). A third criticism is that contact between and among racial-ethnic groups doesn't necessarily increase acceptance and understanding. For instance, darker- and lighter-skinned Black people report more everyday discrimination even from Black people than those with a medium tone (Monk, 2015; Jones et al., 2016).

Symbolic Interaction

Labeling can increase racial tension and conflict, because people attach meaning to symbols and act according to their subjective interpretation of the symbols. Students on some college campuses have demanded the removal of paintings and Civil War statues and the renaming of buildings that, according to students, honor slave owners, segregationists, and white supremacists. The protests antagonize many alumni whose generous donations support academic and sports programs, scholarships, and libraries ("Universities," 2015). Selective perception also affects racial attitudes and behavior. When White people get proof of being privileged, they may insist that other people, not they themselves, benefit personally from privilege (Phillips and Lowery, 2015). People who see what they want and ignore any evidence that challenges their perceptions are unlikely to support policies to reduce racial inequality. Negative images create and reinforce racial and ethnic stereotypes, but people can decrease labeling and selective perception. The contact hypothesis posits that the more people get to know minority group members personally, the less likely they are to be prejudiced against that group. Such contacts are most effective when dominant and minority group members have approximately the same ability and status (e.g., both are coworkers or bosses), when they share common goals (e.g., work on a project), when they cooperate rather than compete, and if an authority figure supports intergroup interaction (e.g., an employer requires White supervisors to mentor minority workers) (Allport, 1954; Kalev et al., 2006; Carrell et al., 2015).

CONFLICT PERSPECTIVES: STRATIFICATION HARMS SOCIETY

Like Tumin, conflict theorists maintain that social stratification is dysfunctional because it hurts individuals and societies. Karl Marx's (1934) analysis of social class and inequality has had a lasting impact on modern sociology, especially conflict theory.

sociological explanations of racial-ethnic inequality

PERSPECTIVE Functionalist Conflict Feminist Symbolic Interactionist

the ability to influence or control the behavior of others despite opposition

POWER

Respect or recognition attached to social positions

PRESTIGE

social contexts shape social class

People across social classes interact with and socialize their children differently. By age 2, children from higher-income homes know 30 percent more words than those from low-income homes. Early vocabularies increase reading comprehension and proficiency as early as kindergarten (Fernald et al., 2013). Children as young as 4 years old are aware of and enact their social class. Among preschoolers, upper-middle-class children speak, interrupt, ask for help, and argue more often than do working-class children. Such behavior receives more adult attention and gives upper-middle-class children more opportunities to develop their language skills (Streib, 2011). Social contexts also affect mobility. The social classes into which children are born affect their aspirations, the skills they value and can access, and their networks and resources. Doctors' children, for example, are more likely to become physicians themselves because they're exposed to medical discussions at home, are encouraged to pursue medicine as an occupation, and are embedded in social networks that provide medical school contacts (Jonsson et al., 2009). You've seen that U.S. economic inequality is at its highest level since the 1930s, yet many Americans are relatively unconcerned. Fully 62 percent are satisfied with their opportunities to get ahead, and only 47 percent say that the rich-poor gap is a problem (DeSilver, 2014; Newport, 2016). Why are so many people content instead of challenging policies that benefit primarily the top 1 percent? The average American knows very little about economic inequality (e.g., whether it's increasing or decreasing), where she or he is on the income spectrum, and believes (incorrectly) that there's more upward than downward mobility. Also, what people think they know is often wrong (Gimpelson and Treisman, 2015; Kraus and Tan, 2015). Thus, and because popular culture reinforces the idea that inequality is normal and inevitable, many people don't see the connection between structural inequality and their personal situation. Many Americans aren't angry about rising inequality, moreover, because they embrace "mobility optimism"—a belief in the American Dream that anyone can succeed, and that they (or their children) will be rich someday (Manza and Brooks, 2016; see also Davidai and Gilovich, 2015). Political speeches and social media, particularly, fan beliefs that the American Dream is achievable.

critical evaluation of feminist perspectives: stratification benefits primarily men

Some critics point out that feminist theorists often focus only on poor women in showing how patriarchy affects stratification and social class (see Kendall, 2002). Another criticism is that many feminist scholars don't explain why so many women succeed despite patriarchal barriers. Third, feminist theories don't account for some striking cross-cultural variations. For example, women have greater wage equality and political power in some patriarchal and developing countries (e.g., Bolivia, Burundi, Cuba, Rwanda) than in many presumably more egalitarian industrialized nations (e.g., Australia, Canada, Denmark, United States) (World Economic Forum, 2016).

critical evaluation of symbolic interaction perspectives: people create and shape stratisfication

Symbolic interaction theories help us understand the everyday processes that underlie social stratification, but there are several weaknesses. First, interactionism, unlike the other perspectives, doesn't explain why stratification exists. Second, the theories don't explain why—despite the same family background, resources, and socialization—some siblings are considerably more upwardly mobile than their brothers and sisters. Third, conflict theorists, especially, fault symbolic interactionists for ignoring structural factors—like the economy, government policies, and educational institutions—that create and reinforce inequality.

Imigration FACTS

The United States admits more than 1 million immigrants every year—more than any other nation. A major change has been the rise of undocumented (also called unauthorized and illegal) immigrants—from 180,000 in the early 1980s to 11.1 million in 2015. They make up 26 percent of all foreign-born residents, and nearly 4 percent of the nation's population. Almost 53 percent are from Mexico, 21 percent from Central and Latin America, 13 percent from Asia, and 13 percent from other countries, including Canada, Europe, and Africa (Passel and Cohn, 2016). Most immigrants, legal and undocumented, come to the United States for the same reasons as in the past—religious and political freedom, economic and educational opportunities, and escape from wars and natural disasters (see Chapter 15). Americans have usually opposed admitting large numbers of refugees, people who flee their country to escape war, persecution, or death. Since 1980, however, the United States has resettled about 3 million refugees, more than any other country. People from the Democratic Republic of Congo, Syria, Myanmar, Iraq, and Somalia accounted for 71 percent of all refugees admitted in 2016. Since 2002, 46 percent of all refugees have been Christian and 32 percent have been Muslim (Connor, 2016; Krogstad and Radford, 2017; Zong and Batalova, 2017).

sexual harassment

any unwanted sexual advance, request for sexual favors, or other conduct of a sexual nature that makes a person uncomfortable and interferes with her or his work. -verbal and nonverbal behavior

Economic assets that a person or family owns are...

WEALTH -money, property, stocks and bonds, retirement and savings accounts, personal possessions, and income

meritocracy

a belief that social stratification is based on people's accomplishments.

sexual double strandard

a code that permits greater sexual freedom for men than women. -hyper sexualization of women (what women should look like)

homophobia

a fear and hatred of lesbians and gay men. -gay, lesbian's students are more likely to be raped, skip school, attempt suicide

dominant group

a physically or culturally distinctive group that has the most economic and political power, the greatest privileges, and the highest social status.

8-1 Social Stratification

a society's ranking of people based on their access to valued resources such as wealth, power, and prestige. (Unequal ranking)

What are the 2 types of poverty

absolute and relative

open stratification system

allows movement up or down because people's achievements affect mobility

sexism

an attitude or behavior that discriminates against one sex, usually females, based on the assumed superiority of the other sex.

prejudice

an attitude that prejudges people, usually in a negative way.

socioeconomic status (SES)

an overall ranking of a person's position in society based on income, education, and occupation

stereotype

an oversimplified or exaggerated generalization about a group of people.

social stratification

based on... -wealth -power -prestige

discrimination

behavior that treats people unequally because of some characteristic.

heterosexism

belief that heterosexuality is the only legitimate sexual orientation.

racism

beliefs that one's own racial group is inherently superior to other groups.

Feminist Theory

critical evaluation: - theories pay little attention to the parenting problems men face -inclusivity can be a weakness ->unclear whether race, ethnicity, or social class should be given priority in implementing change -feminist scholars overstating women's underrepresentation in some sectors? -like conflict theorists, some feminists are accused of glossing over women's exploitation of others

miscegenation

marriage or sexual relations between a man and a woman of different races. -multiracial diversity is increasing

Symbolic interaction

critical evaluation: -interactionists ignore the social structures that create, maintain, or change gender roles and gender inequality -An equal division of labor is unlikely, however, because current workplace and government policies don't support women's and men's balancing work and family life -interactionsists emphasixe that language, erotic images, and other symbols evoke sexual interest or deisre, but they neglect the relationship between biological factors and sexual orientation (interactionsim doesn't explain why siblings, even if

Conflict Theory

critical evaluation: -women aren't as powerless as some conflict theorists claim -ignores women's exploitation of other women -capitalism can discourage sexism

Gender and Sexuality under Functionalists

critical evaluation: -working class and immigrant women who play both instrumental and expressive roles -women "choose" lower paying occupations -Functionalists tend to reject sexual relationships outside of marriage. -Antigay discrimination, which is legal in 28 states, is dysfunctional. Companies don't attract young and talented LGBT workers, and forbidding transgender people to use a bathroom that corresponds to their gender identity has sparked considerable interpersonal and group conflict (Green, 2016; McCarthy, 2017).

Demographic factors also affect social mobility. Four of the most important are education, gender, race, and ethnicity, but place also has an effect.

demographic factors that affect social mobility?

Higher education promotes upward mobility. Especially when the economy is slumping, people with a high school education or less often face long and frequent bouts of unemployment, must get by with temporary work, and may move down the socioeconomic ladder (Kochhar and Fry, 2015; Chetty et al., 2017).

education factors that affect social mobility?

-higher rates of unemployment for women -only 23% of national legislators are women - women's progress differs in countries

examples of gender inequality

abortion

expulsion of an embryo or fetus from the uterus. -can occur naturally (miscarriage) or medically

Family wealth affects social mobility. About 60 percent of all U.S. household wealth is inherited; most of it grows, spreads through families and dynasties, and endures for generations. Whether people inherit wealth or amass it themselves, children who grow up in high-income households can experience considerable upward mobility (Alvaredo et al., 2017; Roth, 2017). In contrast, nearly half of U.S. adults don't have enough money to cover a $400 car repair or any other unexpected expense. Not having savings increases chronic stress. Constantly struggling to solve the crisis of the day makes it difficult to plan for the future, including saving for college (Larimore et al., 2016; Graham, 2016).

family background factors that affect social mobility?

Women's massive entry into the labor force since the 1980s has increased family income and many women's upward mobility. You'll see in later chapters that men's labor participation rates have been dropping, and women's educational attainment has risen faster than men's, but men's mobility is less affected than women's by a divorce, nonmarital children, or widowhood.

gender factors that affect social mobility?

-some countries include a third option under gender in documents -legalization of same-sex marriage -health care benefits for same-sex partners -federal workers and Medicare recipients are eligible for sex-change operations -LGBT characters are appearing on prime-time TV

how has society implemented greater acceptance? (for homosexuality/transgenderism)

In 2016, global wealth reached $256 trillion, but how is it distributed? Among the world's richest, -1 percent own more wealth than the rest of the planet; =10 percent own 89 percent of all global wealth; and -8 people (6 of whom are Americans) own as much wealth as "half the human race" (Shorrocks et al., 2016; Hardoon, 2017).

how is wealth distributed?

(SES) is based on...

income, education, and occupation

assimilation

learning its language and values, and intermarrying with that group.

absolute poverty

not having enough money to afford the basic necessities of life.

relative poverty

not having enough money to maintain an average standard of living.

critical evaluation of functionalist theory: stratification benefits society

ociologist Melvin Tumin (1953) challenged the Davis-Moore thesis. First, he argued, societies don't always reward the positions that are the most important for the members' survival. If the multimillionaire professional athletes, actors, and pop musicians went on strike, many of us would probably barely notice. If, on the other hand, those with much lower income—whether they're doctors, garbage collectors, teachers, truck drivers, or mail carriers—refused to work, society would grind to a halt. Thus, according to Tumin, there's little association between earnings and the jobs that keep a society going. Second, Tumin claimed, Davis and Moore overlook the many ways that stratification limits upward mobility. Where wealth is differentially distributed, access to education, especially higher education, depends on family wealth. As a result, large segments of the population are likely to be deprived of the chance to discover what their talents are, and society loses. Third, Tumin criticized Davis and Moore for ignoring the critical role of inheritance. In upper classes, sons and daughters don't have to work because their inherited wealth guarantees a lifetime income and perpetuates privileges over generations. Functionalist theories also don't explain why (1) upward social mobility is more limited in the United States than in other industrialized (and even some developing) countries; (2) so many college graduates can find only low-paying jobs; and (3) racial/ethnic income and wealth gaps persist across all social classes (Legatum Prosperity Index, 2013; McKernan et al., 2013).

opponents say: immoral, weakens the traditional idea of marriage proponents: let us do what the **** we want

opponent's vs proponents of same sex marriage

life chances

opportunities to access social and economic resources that improve one's quality of life

slavery system

people own others as property and have almost total control over their lives.

social class

people who have a similar standing or rank in a society based on wealth, education, power, prestige, and other valued resources.

racial-ethnic group

people who have distinctive physical and cultural characteristics.

Where one lives can stimulate or dampen upward mobility. For example, the probability of a child born into the poorest fifth of the population in San Jose, California, making it to the top fifth is 13 percent compared with only 4 percent for a child born in Charlotte, North Carolina. These upward mobility disparities in different parts of the country are correlated with four factors: residential segregation (whether by income or race), the quality of schooling, how many children live with only one parent, and parents' social capital (Chetty et al., 2014; Berube and Holmes, 2015). The longer that children live in better environments, the greater their chances of upward mobility. For example, children below age 13 whose parents move to lower-poverty neighborhoods are more likely to attend college, more likely to have substantially higher incomes as adults, and less likely to become single parents (Chetty and Hendren, 2016; Smeeding, 2017).

place factors that affect social mobility?

Black and Latino middle classes have grown since the 1970s, but both groups still lag significantly behind White people and Asian Americans (see Chapters 10 and 11). Of Black children born into the bottom 20 percent of the income distribution, about half will still be there as adults, compared to less than one-quarter of White children. Economic, cultural, and social capital account for most of this mobility gap. Since the slavery era, White parents could accumulate skills and wealth that, with every generation, gave their children far better chances than Black children of moving up (Collins and Wanamaker, 2017; Matthew and Reeves, 2017).

race and ethnicity factors that affect social mobility?

social construction

social invention that labels people -based on physical appearance, social class, or other characteristics

sexual scripts

specifies the formal and informal norms for acceptable or unacceptable sexual behavior.

corporate welfare

subsidies, tax breaks, and assistance that the government has created for businesses.

gender roles

the characteristics, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that society expects of females and males.

gender pay gap

the difference between men's and women's earnings (also called the wage gap, pay gap, and gender wage gap). - (wage gap) increases with higher education positions

feminization of poverty

the disproportionate number of the poor who are women

FUNCTIONALOST PERSPECTIVES: STRATIFICATION BENEFITS SOCIETY Davis-Moore thesis

the functionalist view that social stratification benefits a society.

poverty line

the minimal income level that the federal government considers necessary for basic subsistence (also called the poverty threshold).

Income

the money a person receives, usually through wages or salaries, but can also include other earnings.

infant mortality rate

the number of babies under age 1 who die per 1,000 live births in a given year.

acculturation

the process of adopting the language, values, beliefs, and other characteristics of the host culture.

genocide

the systematic effort to kill all members of a particular ethnic, religious, political, racial, or national group.

bourgeoise

those who own and control capital and the means of production.

gender stratification

unequal access to wealth, power, status, prestige, and other valued resources because of one's sex.

institutional discrimination

unequal treatment because of a society's everyday laws, policies, practices, and customs.

individual discrimination

unequal treatment on a one-to-one basis. -usually by a dominant group member against someone in a minority group

-Of the nearly 326 million U.S. population, 14 percent are foreign born (up from only 5 percent in 1965), and is expected to reach a historic 19 percent (78.2 million people) in 2065. -America's multicultural umbrella includes at least 150 ethnic or racial groups and 350 languages -By 2025, only 58 percent of the U.S. population is projected to be White—down from 86 percent in 1950 *(white population decreasing -number of Americans who identify themselves as multiracial is increasing

what are some examples of racial and ethnic diversity?

-majority says immigrants strengthen country, but 27% believe immigrants are a burden -split as to whether to increase or decrease immigration levels -most favor giving undocumented immigrants a chance to become citizens if they meet certain conditions

what are some of Americas' reaction to immigrants?

Do immigrants take American jobs? -immigrants don't make up the majority in any industry -except for high school dropouts, little evidence for this Do immigrants burden government budgets? -first generation immigrants are costly (don't pay equal amounts of taxes), but third generation pays $224 billion in taxes -immigrants and their children outperform Americans

what are some questions about immigrations?

Worldwide, 11 percent of the population (766 million people) live in extreme poverty (on less than $1.90 a day), but this is down from 35 percent (1.8 billion people) in 1990. This unprecedented decline is due, largely, to China's and India's economic growth, which has benefited the rich and the poor. Despite such progress, extreme poverty rates have increased in sub-Saharan Africa, which now accounts for half of the world's extremely poor (World Bank, 2017). Because of severe destitution, almost one in ten people worldwide suffer from chronic hunger and undernourishment. China and India have reduced their hunger rates, but in other developing regions (e.g., sub-Saharan Africa and Southern Asia, which includes Pakistan and Bangladesh), the number of undernourished people has increased. Some of the consequences include recurring illness, reduced work capacity, delayed physical and mental development, and stunted growth. For females, stunted growth can result in low birth weight babies and high child mortality rates (Martins, 2011; FAO, IFAD, and WFP, 2015). People in poor countries report high levels of unhappiness, physical and mental health problems, and have little chance to escape poverty. Economic inequality has other costs: The world's richest 1 percent use their wealth to get political favors, including bypassing environmental laws; diminish other people's opportunities for upward mobility; and have a global network of tax havens worth almost $8 trillion within their own countries and offshore. Why should we care about tax havens? Taxing the income of the top 1 percent would (among other benefits) end extreme poverty, decrease political corruption, and ensure access to high-quality education and health care for all social classes (Helliwell et al., 2013; Lipton and Cresswell, 2016; Hardoon, 2017).

what are the consequences of global stratification?

changes in the economy spur upward or downward mobility. During an economic boom, the number of jobs increases, and many people have an opportunity to move up. During recessions, such as the Great Recession, long-term unemployment leads to downward mobility Second, government policies and programs affect social mobility. Unlike the United States, countries that have promoted equality (e.g., Canada, Denmark, Finland, Norway) have the highest upward mobility rates. They have universal health care, which reduces the chance of people falling into poverty because of medical emergencies or poor health; provide affordable housing; and fund technical schools where young people learn a high-paying trade (Foroohar, 2011; Deparle, 2012).

what are the different types of structural factors that affect social mobility?

-enabled by gendered institutions, social structures that enable and reinforce gender stratification -in family life ->gender division of household chores ->gender division of childcare work ->number of "stay at home dads" remains negligible

what is gender stratification?

-colleges, workplaces, and neighborhoods are more racially mixed than in the past -shortage of spouses within a group *Common in second generation immigrants

what is the change in attitude about intermarriage

-delay vaginal intercourse -maintain one's virginity -avoid the risk of pregnancy and STDs

what is the purpose of oral sex?

-abortion rate has dropped to lowest rate since 1973 -immorality is religious and philosophical question -being denied an abortion increases risk of mental health problems

what tendencies have become more pronounced over abortion?

few women are decision makers or elected officials

what's the differences with genders in politics?

United States -admits more than 1 million immigrants every year -foreign-born includes naturalized citizens; lawful permanent residents (immigrants); temporary migrants (e.g., foreign students); refugees; and unauthorized migrants

who has one of the highest (not the highest) foreign born rates in the world?

-linked to poor health and relationship problems rather than age

why does sexual desire and activities reduce with age?

Modernization theory claims that low-income countries are poor because their leaders don't have the attitudes and values that lead to experimentation and using modern technology. Dependency theory contends that the main reason why low-income countries are poor is that they're pawns that high-income countries exploit and dominate. More recently, world-system theory, similar to dependency theory, argues that "the economic realities of the world system help rich countries stay rich while poor countries stay poor" (Bradshaw and Wallace, 1996: 44).

why is inequality universal?

proletariat

workers who sell their labor for wages.

global stratification

worldwide inequality patterns that result from differences in wealth, power, and prestige.