Unit 3 - 3.4 Notes

Barriers to problem solving include:

1. Mental sets: Mental sets are barriers to problem solving that occur when you apply only methods that have worked in the past, rather than trying new or different strategies. 2. Functional fixedness: Functional fixedness occurs when you aren't able to recognize novel uses for an object because you're so familiar with its common use. 3. Confirmation bias: Confirmation bias is the tendency to seek out and pay attention to information that confirms an existing position or belief while at the same time ignoring contradictory information. 4. Framing: Framing refers to the way an issue is stated. How an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments. 5. Overconfidence: Overconfidence is the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's beliefs and judgments.

What are the two types of heuristics?

1. availability heuristic = An availability heuristic refers to the tendency to judge and perhaps over-estimate the likelihood of something by the most obvious examples. 2. representative heuristic = A representative heuristic is the tendency to judge a person or event according to a group that we have already judged. both are used in decision making

Algorithm

A step-by-step method for solving a problem that guarantees a solution but may take too long to implement in some situations.

Heuristic

A strategy for solving a problem or coming to a decision that might be efficient, but doesn't guarantee the right decision.

Algorithm:

Algorithm: a methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrast with the usually speedier - but also more error-prone -- use of heuristics

Algorithm:

Algorithm: methodological rule or procedure that guarantees a solution requires time and effort

Belief perseverance:

Belief perseverance: clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

belief perseverance

Belief perseverance: ignoring evidence that proves our beliefs are wrong; closes our mind new ideas

The availability heuristic operates when we estimate the likelihood of events based on how mentally available they are - how easily they come to mind

The availability heuristic operates when we estimate the likelihood of events based on how mentally available they are - how easily they come to mind operates when we estimate the likelihood of events based on how mentally available they are - how easily they come to mind o Availability heuristic can distort our judgment of other people

Compensatory decision model vs non-compensatory models

The compensatory decision model allows attractive attributes to compensate for unattractive attributes. Non-compensatory models don't allow some attributes to compensate for others. Rather, decisions are derived by eliminating options by their undesirable aspects.

Heuristic:

Heuristic: a simple thinking strategies that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently; usually speedier but also more error-prone than algorithms

Heuristics

Heuristics: simple thinking shortcuts that allow us to act quickly and efficiently but put us at risk for errors

Incubation

break the constraints of mental sets

functional fixedness:

functional fixedness: The tendency to think about and use objects only in their customary way

True Statement

o Intuition is usually adaptive, enabling quick reactions

- Belief perseverance:

o Our tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face of contrary evidence

Inductive reasoning

requires the thinker to induce a general rule from particular observations.

§ Adventures and personality:

§ Adventures and personality: six new experiences, tolerates ambiguity and risks, and perseveres in overcoming obstacles

§ Creative environment:

§ Creative environment: sparks, support, and redefined creative ideas

§ Expertise:

§ Expertise: well developed knowledge -- furnishes the ideas, images, and phrases we use as a mentor building blocks

§ Imaginative thinking skills:

§ Imaginative thinking skills: provide the ability to see things in novel ways, to recognize patterns, and to make connections

§ Intrinsic motivation:

§ Intrinsic motivation: is being driven more by interest, satisfaction, and challenge then by external pressures

Availability heuristic:

Availability heuristic: estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind - perhaps because of their business - we presume such events are common

Confirmation bias:

Confirmation bias: a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Confirmation bias:

Confirmation bias: tendency to search for support for our own views and ignore contradictory evidence

Confirmation bias:

Confirmation bias: we more eagerly seek out and favor evidence that supports our ideas than evidence that refute them

Divergent thinking:

Divergent thinking: expanding the number of possible problem solutions; creative thinking that diverges in different directions

Cognition:

Cognition: all mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

cognition

Cognition: focus on the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating information

Concept:

Concept: a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

Concepts:

Concepts: mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas or people

Convergent thinking:

Convergent thinking: narrowing the available problem solutions determine the single best solution

Creativity and its various terms:

Creativity refers to the ability to generate ideas and solutions that are original, novel, and useful Originality: coming up with new ideas Fluency: coming up with many ideas easily Flexibility: freely adapting ideas to new conditions Appropriateness or usefulness: idea solves an important problem or serves a need In creativity there are two styles of thinking - divergent and convergent

Creativity:

Creativity: the ability to produce new and valuable ideas

Creativity:

Creativity: the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

effects of framing

Decisions and judgments may be significantly affected depending upon how an issue is framed.

Fixation:

Fixation: inability to view problems from a new angle; focuses is thinking about avengers creative problem-solving

How do we form out concepts?

Form concepts based on prototypes -- a mental image or best example of a category When symptoms don't fit our prototype we are solver to recognize it as an illness

Framing:

Framing: The way an issue was posed; having issues from getting to begin the effect decisions and judgments

Framing:

Framing: wording a question or statement so that evokes a desired response; can influence others decisions and produce a misleading result

Individuals can also experience fixation:

Individuals can also experience fixation: an inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective

Insight:

Insight: a sudden realization of a problem solution; contracts with strategy-based solutions

Intuition:

Intuition: an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

Intuition:

Intuition: fast, automatic, effortless feelings and thoughts based on our experience; huge and adaptive but can lead us to over-feel and under think

Main point:

Our two-track mind makes sweet harmony as a smart, critical thinking listens to the creative whispers of our vast unseen mind, and then evaluate evidence, test conclusions, and plans for the future

Overconfidence:

Overconfidence: overestimating the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments; allows us to be happy make decisions easily but put us at risk for errors

Overconfidence:

Overconfidence: the tendency to be more confident than correct Dash to estimate the accuracy of her beliefs and judgments

Perceptual and mental set:

Perceptual set: predisposes what we perceive Mental set: predisposes how we think; sometimes this can be an obstacle to problem-solving - past experiences can come in the way

Prototype:

Prototype: a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories - As when comparing feathered creatures to approach a typical bird such as a robin

Schema:

Schema: mental structures that an individual uses to organize knowledge and guide cognitive processes and behaviour. People categorize objects and events based on common elements and characteristics and thus interpret and predict the world.

- Overconfidence:

Sometimes our judgments and decisions go away simply because we are more confident than correct o Overconfidence is: the tendency to overestimate the accuracy of our knowledge and judgments

Are heuristics used in problem solving?

Yes, a heuristic is a rule-of-thumb strategy that's used in problem solving. decision-making heuristics are frequently used to save time and effort in making a decision.

Deductive reasoning:

the thinker tries to determine a particular consequence from a general rule or set of rules.

Problem solving strategies

trial and error, algorithms, heuristics, insight (insight - Kohler showed humans are not the only ones to show insight)