Agricultural and Rural Land Use

Integration of crops and livestock

Growing crops and raising livestock is integrated as much as possible at the level of the individual farm. Reflects a return to the historical practice of mixed crop and livestock farming.

Livestock/overfishing

Growing demand for protein rich foods and more efficient technologies available is leading to it. Fish stocks declining.

Soybeans and Corn

Grown at the mid-latitudes in temperate climates with some moisture.

Rice

Grown in tropical latitudes with lots of moisture.

Wheat

Grown on the poleward side of the mid-latitudes both north and south of the equator.

Equatorial Climates

Hot or very warm, generally humid. Have no dry season. Wet when the sub solar point are nearby and dry when the sub solar point is in the opposite hemisphere.

Value-added speciality crops

Increasing the value of an agricultural item by changing production. Describes practices as varied as agritourism activities that provide consumers baked from visiting a farm to large scale processing endeavors that create mass market retail food products from commodity crops.

Second Agricultural Revolution (British Revolution)

Increase in agricultural food production in Britain and the US due to new technology and techniques that led to better diets, longer life expectations, and more people available for work in factories. Evolution of agriculture. 5 factors that influenced it. Hinges on improving technology with innovations.

Warm Temperature

Include humid subtropical. Humid: moist and generally warm.

Polar Climates

Include tundra and icecap climates. Found poleward of snow climates or at very high elevations. Means temperatures are cold throughout the year. Plant life doesn't break down and nourish the soil. Layer of permafrost coats the ground.

Mediterranean

Lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, the Western United States, the southern tip of Africa, and Chile. Share a similar physical environment. Sea winds provide moisture and moderate the winter temps. Olives, grapes, fruits, and vegetables.

New technology and increased food production

Led to better diets, longer life expectancies, and more people available for work in factories in the second agricultural revolution.

Complex commodity chains

Linked production and consumption of agricultural products.

Cause of world hunger

Poverty trap, lack of investment in agriculture infrastructure, climate + weather, war + displacement, unstable markets, food wastage.

Vertical integration

Practice where a single entity controls the entire process of a product, from the raw materials to distribution.

Crops Shifting Cultivation

Predominant include upland rice in Southeast Asia, maize (corn) + manioc (cassava) in South America, and millet + sorghum in Africa. Yams, sugarcane, plantain, and vegetables grown in other areas. Example- kayapoo people of Amazon Rain Forest.

Factors most important to farmers

Price of crop/livestock sold. Cost of land and transportation.

Aa one gets closer to the city

Price of land increases.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO)

An organism whose genetic material has been altered through some genetic engineering technology or technique. Modified to survive when herbicides and insecticides are sprayed on fields to kill weeds and insects.

Sale of export crops

Since developed countries are willing to pay a lot of money for fruits and vegan mess that would be out of season in their countries, the sale of export crops brings developing countries money.

Commercial Gardening

Southeastern United States and Southeastern Australia. Predominate type of agriculture in the US Southeast. The intensive production of nontropical fruits, vegetables, and flowers for sale off the farm. Truck farmers.

Linear settlement pattern

Where the buildings are built in lines. Found on steep hillsides. Rural settlement pattern.

Bid rent

The price paid to rent or purchase urban land is a reflection of its utility or usefulness.

Metes and Bounds

A method of land description which involves identifying distances and directions and makes use of both the physical boundaries and measurements of the land. 13 original colonies measured this way. Fairly imprecise in the past. Parcels defined by formations such as rivers, trees, roads, or other landmarks.

Food deserts

A small region or area with limited access to fresh, nutrient rich foods. Typically found in low income neighborhoods where medium sized and large grocery stores are absent. People living in them more likely to purchase unhealthy foods, contributing to obesity. Overlap frequently with race because disadvantaged minorities often have lower incomes. Example: Birmingham, Alabama.

Food wastage:

About one-third of all food produced globally is never consumed.

Horizontal Integration

Absorption into a single firm of several firms involved in the same level of production and sharing resources at that level.

Salinization

Accumulation of salts in soil that can eventually make the soil unable to support plant growth. Decreases crop yields and soil fertility. Concentrated in arid and semi arid regions. Result of climate change and poor irrigation practices.

Factor 4 of Second Agricultural Revolution

Advances in breeding livestock enabled farmers to develop new breeds that were strong milk or beef producers.

Purpose of Animal Domestication

Advantages stimulated the rapid diffusion of livestock raising among places linked by trade. Looked for four traits: diet, temperament, growth rate, size.

Agriculture leads to Urbanization

Agriculture increased food security and created urbanization and civilizations. Growing enough grain to store a surplus enabled people to settle permanently, do other jobs, trade, and start civilizations. Agricultural surpluses and social stratification allowed cities to stabilize and grow.

Agricultural practices and the earth

Alter the earths landscape and have an impact on the environment including deforestation, desertification, draining wetlands, large-scale irrigation, soil salinization, livestock/overfishing, and pollution.

Monocropping

An agricultural method that utilizes large plantings of a single species or variety.

Fair trade

An alternative to international trade that emphasizes small businesses and worker-owned and democratically run cooperatives and requires employers to pay workers fair wages, permit union organization, and comply with minimum environmental and safety standards.

Vertical integration

An approach typical of traditional mass production in which a company controls all phases of a highly complex production process.

Organic agriculture

Approach to farming and ranching that avoids the use of herbicides, pesticides, growth hormones, and other similar synthetic inputs. Sensitive to the complexities of biological and economic interdependence between crops and livestock. Antibiotics only administered for therapeutic purposes.

Overfishing solution

Aquaculture

Rural settlement patterns

Are classified as clustered, dispersed, or linear. The shape of a settlement.

Hearths of domestication of plants + animals

Arose in the Fertile Crescent, the Indus River Valley, Southeast Asia, and Central America.

Aquaculture

Cultivation of seafood and fish under controlled conditions. Done in subsistence and commercial realms. Overfishing has reduced fish supplies in many regions.

Dairying and intensive farming occur in the ring closest to the city

Because vegetables, fruit, milk, and other dairy products must get to market quickly, they would be produced close to the city. (Remember, in the 19th century, people didn't have refrigerated oxcarts that would enable them to travel larger distances.) The first ring of land is also more expensive, so the agricultural products from that area would have to be highly valuable ones and the rate of return maximized.

Factor 5 of Second Agricultural Revolution

Better transportation methods moved agriculture into new regions, like the Great Plains.

Rural survey methods

Metes and bounds, township and range, and long lot.

Third Agricultural Revolution (Green Revolution)

Characterized in agriculture by the use of high-yield seeds, increased use of chemicals, and mechanized farming fray increased agricultural productions worldwide. Has positive and negative consequences for both humans populations and the environment. Focuses on mechanization, chemical farming, and engineering seeds. Began in North America, expands after WWII. Known as Green Revolution in less developed countries because of the impact it had on feeding people. Had three components.

Second Component of The Green Revolution

Chemical farming + use of artificial fertilizer. Early farmers first noticed enhanced crop growth in areas of natural dung accumulation where animals gathered.

Location of farmers

Closer to the city= intensive. Father from the city= extensive.

Patterns of diffusion

Colombian Exchange and the agricultural revolutions. Resulted in the global spread of various plants and animals.

Agribusiness

Commercial agriculture characterized by integration of different steps in the food-processing industry, usually through ownership by large corporations. Found in developed countries.

Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)

Community of individuals who pledge support to a farm operation so that the farmland becomes the communities farm, with the growers and consumers providing mutual support and sharing the risks and benefits of food production. Members buy a share of the farms production before each growing season. Members receive regular distributions of the farms blunted throughout the season. Farmers receive advance working capital, gain financial security, earns better crop prices, and benefits from the direct marketing plan.

Triangular Trade System

Complex trading system that developed in this era between Europe, Africa, and the colonies; Europeans purchased slaves in Africa and sold them to the colonies, raw materials from the colonies went to Europe, while European finished products were sold in the colonies.

War and displacement:

Conflict disrupts agriculture. Refugees and internally displaced peoples from farming areas no longer live on their farms and cannot produce crops.

Suburbanization and Loss of Farmland

Converted farmland into urban development. Not confined to areas close to major cities. Expendable wealth and the desire to have a place to get away from it all have led highly productive commercial agriculture areas to be converted into regions for second homes. Example: Delmarva Peninsula.

Lack of investment in agriculture infrastructure:

Countries that lack infrastructure to keep produce cold at the point of harvest until it can be shipped globally by cold chain, and countries that lack infrastructure such as roads to move food are at a disadvantage in production and consumption.

Critics + defenders of shifting cultivation

Critics- at best is a preliminary step in economic development. Large scale destruction of forests contributes to global warming. Defenders- most environmentally sound approach for the tropics. Elimination of it can upset the traditional local diversity of cultures in the tropics.

Four rings of Von Thunen's Traditional Model

Dairying and intensive farming occur in theih ring closest to the city. Timber and firewood. Crops. Livestock.

Debate about plant domestication

Debate whether agriculture developed independently in each hearth or if crop domestication diffused from certain hearths to others.

Causes of food insecurity

Declining control over local food resources. Lack of political power. Political-economic structures.

Agricultural Production Regions

Defined by the extent to which they reflect subsistence or commercial practices.

Rectangular Survey System (Township and Range)

Designed by Thomas Jefferson to disperse settlers evenly across farmlands of the US interior and was used by the US Land Office Survey to parcel land West of the Appalachians after the US gained independence. Marks large tracks of land that the US received in its early years. Divides a district into 24 square mile quadrangles from the meridian (north-south line) and the baseline (east-west line). Tracts divided into 6 square mile parts called townships, which are then divided into 36 tracts, each 1 square mile, called sections.

Monoculture

Dependence on a single agricultural commodity.

Where people settle

Determined by the physical environment, demographic, natural, transportation, economic, and social concerns. Role of government policy.

Intensive and extensive farming

Determined in part by land cost.

Plant Domestication

Developed in more than one hearth and at different times. First hearth was the Fertile Crescent. Hard to know where crops were independently invented. Example: Southeast Asians domesticated rice, yams, beans, and sugarcane. Changed the plants themselves: farmers chose seeds from the largest, hardiest plants. Genetic modification of a plant such that its reproductive success depends on human intervention

The revolutions

Don't happen in the world at the same time. Some are later in the diffusion process and some are isolated from it.

Pastoral Nomadism

Drylands of Southwest Asia, North Africa, Central Asia, and East Asia. Form of subsistence agricultural based on herding domesticated animals. Live primarily in belts of arid and semi arid lands. Example: Bedouins of Saudi Arabia and North Africa. Depend on animals. Size of herd of animals is a measure of power and security. May plant crops at a fixed location while the rest of the group wanders with the herd. Reclining form of agriculture. Played an important role as carriers of goods and info. Government efforts to resettle them in China, Kazakhstan, Saudi Arabia, and Syria. Some governments force groups to give it up because they want the land for other uses.

Soil erosion and sedimentation

Due to inefficient farming practices, soil is left open for erosion, and leads to declining fertility. Sedimentation causes the soil to build up in areas such as rivers, streams, ditches, and surrounding fields.

Issues with land loss, urban food deserts, and suburbanization

Effect many Americans locally.

Seed drill

Enabled farmers to avoid wasting seeds and to plant in rows, making it simpler to distinguish weeds from crops.

Government policies

Enforce rules, controlling the growth of settlements by allowing people to live in some areas but not others. Example: when the US and Canada were expanding West across North America, they each instituted rules that allowed settlers to claim land for farms.

People are starving because

Enough food is being produced to feed everyone, but people are starving. Inadequate distribution systems and widespread poverty. Population is growing too fast.

Impact of colonial agriculture

Establishment of monoculture throughout much of the colonial world.

Arid Climates

Extremely dry and can support little or no vegetation. Semi-arid found next to deserts.

Economies of scale

Factors that cause a producer's average cost per unit to fall as output rises. The average cost per unit of production decreases as the size of the farm increases. Can occur when a farm is able to obtain volume discounts for inputs such as seed or fertilizer. Example: cost for pollution monitoring around a swine production facility.

Commercial Farming

Farm for money. Grow crops and raise livestock in large quantities for profit. Products produced in bulk to support entire populations (where the products are sold). Products produced aren't directly sold to consumers but sent to food processing companies. Usually found in MDC's. Grow only 1 type of crop: monocropping.

Subsistence Farming

Farm for survival. Crow are grown for the consumption of their immediate family. Often times, the crops grown are their only source of food. Surplus of crops may be self to the government or traded. Usually found in LDC's. Usually don't make profit. Grow a variety of crops.

Domestication of Animal Hearths

First domesticated goats in the Zagros mountains. Sheep in Anatolia. Chickens, several kinds of pigs, water buffaloes, and waterfowl in Southeast Asia. Cattle and water buffalo in South Asia. Yaks, horses, goats, and sheep in Central Asia. Llama, alpaca, species of pigs and turkey in the Andean highlands.

Wetlands

Flat areas of rich organic soil that is highly productive agricultural land if drained. Many have been drained and converted to agricultural lands. Destruction of them is a concern because they're some of the most productive habitats in the planet.

Unstable markets:

Fluctuating and unpredictable food prices make it difficult to access healthy foods consistently.

Global Supply Chain

Food and other agricultural products. Worldwide system that a business uses to produce products or services.

Locations of...

Food processing facilities in markets, economies of scale, distribution systems, and government policies all have economic effects on food production practices.

Snow Climate

Found closer to the poles. Include humid continental and subarctic. Humid continental climates found in the middle of continents. Winters cold and summers hot. Subarctic found in poleward of humid continental regions.

Animal Domestication

Genetic modification of an animal such that it is rendered more amenable to human control. Began in the Fertile Crescent.

Export commodities

Goods or services sold to a foreign country. Some countries have become highly dependent upon it.

Double Cropping

Harvesting twice a year from the same field. Common in places that have warm winters, such as southern China and Taiwan.

Technology

Has increased economies of scale in the agricultural sectors and the carrying capacities of land.

Government policies

Have aggravated food supply, cost, and distribution problems. To make food affordable for urban residents, they keep agriculture prices low, making the farmers unable to sell commodities at a profit and have little incentive to increase production.

Farmers in vulnerable agricultural area

Have less say over local food production and hand over decision making to agribusiness, including seed and fertilizer suppliers. Have little agency if their governments are corrupt or the political system has institutional inefficiencies. Governments can create policies to disempower or disadvantage certain groups as means of control, which can create food insecurity and famine. Example: South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa.

Opposition to GMOs

Heath problems (Antibiotics, ecological balances). Export problems (Europe doesn't like). Increased Dependence on the US (Monsanto; Bring "terminator" gene that requires constant repurchasing).

Von Thunen Model

Helps explain rural land use by emphasizing the importance of transportation cost associated with distance from the market. Regions of speciality farming don't always conform to the model. Predicts human behavior in terms of the commercial agricultural landscape. Based on assumptions. Has only one city located in an isolated state (country). Environmental assumptions. Economic/infrastructure assumptions.

Problems with Aquaculture

High fish densities means diseases and parasites thrive and spread easily. Chemicals and antibiotics used to counter parasites can damage the larger ecosystems near the enclosures. Fish can escape pens and escape with local species. Example: the Asian Carp escaping from Arkansas. Excess concentration of fish waste can produce dangerously high levels of organic matter in the ocean. Social impact: systems can challenge local or traditional cultural fishing practices, disrupting a local way of life in favor of commercial venture. Conflict between traditional fishermen and the commercial operations can occasionally lead to violence + conflict.

Positives of GMOs

Higher yields, increased nutrition, more resistance to pests, better tasting to some people.

Third Component of The Green Revolution

Hybrid Crops and diffusion into LDC's. Began in North America where agricultural scientists in the Midwest experimented with technologically manipulated seed varieties to increase crop yields. Brought new high yields of wheat and corn from the US to other parts of the world (South and Southeast Asia). Production stemmed from new seed varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and significant capital improvements.

Unequal Exchange

Idea that global trade is set up to structurally benefit some more than others, creating an unevenness in wealth in the capitalist world economy. Those who produce the food, first enslaved Africans and now farm workers, receive little income compared to those who process food into products and trade it globally.

Origin of first Agricultural Revolution

Idea to move from hunting and gathering to domesticating plants and animals developed independently in different hearths. Transition marks beginning of first agricultural revolution. Jared Diamond believes that scarcity of food forced people into farming, that competition forced people to become resourceful and grow their own food. Carl Sauer believed that a reliable food supply created the opportunity for people to experiment with raising plants or invest time to domesticate animals.

Climates

Impact the types of agriculture produced in the region.

Price factors

Impacts farmers' bottom line and their ability to maintain their operation.

Encouraging of food production

In developed regions, farmers are encouraged to grow less food. In developing regions, farmers are struggling to increase food production to match the rate of growth in their population.

Patterns of food consumption and production

Influenced by social, economic, and political realities at all different scales in the world. Influenced by movements related to individual food choice, such as urban farming, community supported agriculture, organic farming, value added speciality crops, fair trade, local food movement, and dietary shifts.

Commercial practices

Influenced by the physical environment in climatic conditions.

Shape of early settlements

Influenced by the surrounding landscape.

Agriculture in developing countries

Intensive subsistence, wet rice dominant. Intensive subsistence, wet rice not dominant. Pastoral nomadism. Shifting cultivation. Plantation.

Agricultural production

Intertwined with food processing regions around the world because of major changes in transportation (railroad), food storage (cold chains).

Large scale commercial agricultural

Is replacing small family farms.

Fair Trade

Is when producers in developing countries are paid a fair price for their work by companies in developed countries. Let's them be able to afford food, eduction, and healthcare. Created as an alternative way of doing trade. Based on partnership. Represents a solution to poverty and a model for development. Payments often paid in advance to ensure supplier can fulfill orders. Producers and workers have a voice; freedom of association. Safe working conditions, non-discrimination, and welfare of children. Aim is to raise the income of certified producers by reducing the number of actors in the supply chain. Example: coffee

Environmental assumptions

Isolated state surrounded by an unoccupied wilderness. Land of state is flat and has no rivers or mountains. Soil quality and climate are consistent throughout state.

Issues with global distribution of food

Lack of political or economic power of farmers.

Negative effects of pesticides and fertilizers

Laden with chemicals that aren't found in nature. Once sprayed, they don't disappear completely; some of it mixed with the water and seeps into the ground. The rest is absorbed by the plant itself. Groundwater polluted, and the animals that eat the crops and plants become contaminated as well.

Long Lot Surveying System

Long, narrow land divisions, usually lines up along a waterway. Prevalent in diverse areas of the world along rivers. Appeared in Ireland, Central Europe, West Africa, Brazil, and Chile. In the US and Canada, found in places settled by the French. Developed as a means of maximizing the ease of transit, commerce, and communication by using natural waterways and few roads.

Positives of Green Revolution

Lots more food for growing population, reduction of world hunger.

Global Food Distribution

Main elements affected by political relationships, infrastructure, and patterns of World Trade.

Women in Agriculture

Majority of economically active women in the least developed countries work in agriculture. Gender specified obstacles: lack of access to land, financing, markets, agricultural training + education, suitable working conditions, and equal treatment- put them at signifying disadvantages. Biggest roadblock is land rights since in some developing countries, they can't own or control land- not empowered, which means they can't enter contract farming agreements that could provide for higher earnings and reliable sources of income. Entrenched gender roles in LDCs can prevent them from bringing their crops to the market or even leaving village without husbands permission. If they were empowered, they could solve world hunger. If empowered, more women will go to school, leaving agriculture.

Goal of sustainable agriculture

Meet societies food needs in the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Healthy environment, economic profitability, and social + economic equity. Process of negotiations.

Agriculture in developed countries

Mixed crop and livestock. Dairy. Grain. Livestock ranching. Mediterranean. Commercial gardening.

Farmers are motivated by

Money.

Poverty trap

People who cannot afford food become weaker, which makes it more difficult to find or keep a job, creating a cycle of poverty and hunger.

Climate and weather:

Natural disasters have longer-lasting impacts in peripheral countries. Climate change is creating extended droughts, exacerbating threats from new pests, and altering growing conditions for traditional crops.

Dairy

Near population clusters in the northeastern US, Southeastern Canada, and Northwestern Europe. Most important type of commercial agriculture practiced on farms near large urban areas. Must be closer to their markets since the milk is highly perishable (in the past. Changed because of technology). Choice of product varies depending on whether the farms are within the milk shed of a large urban area. Face economic problems because of declining revenues and rising costs (labor intensive, expense of feeding cows during the winter).

Factor 3 of Second Agricultural Revolution

New mechanical tools and techniques. Invented the seed drill, improved life stock breeding methods, consolidated land into larger farms, and began suing new crop rotation systems. Fueled more advancements. Used new fertilizers on crops and giving artificial feeds to live stock. Mechanical tools weren't machines since they were powered by humans and animals.

Blue Revolution

New techniques of fish farming that may contribute as much to human nutrition as miracle cereal grains but also may create social and environmental problems.

Father of Green Revolution

Norman Borlaug. Cross-bred crops. Revolutionized farming across the world. Developed wheat grain.

Grain

North-central US, South-central Canada, and Eastern Europe. Wheat is the most important crop. United States is the largest commercial producer of it. Generally located in regions too dry for mixed crop and livestock. Concentrated in winter wheat belt and spring wheat belt. Wheat is grown for international trade and is the world leading export crop.

Economic/infrastructure assumptions

Only one central market where farmers sell products. All farmers are profit earners and there's only one mode of transportation.

Contaminated water

Polluted with organic compounds and heavy metals. Happens due to the disposal of industrial and agricultural waste in local bodies of water.

Large scale irrigation

Process of diverting water from its natural course or location to aid in the production of crops. Altered the natural landscape. Contributed to greatly feeding rapidly growing populations. Used extensively in California's central and imperial valleys that are dealing with issues of sustainability. Disrupts natural drainage of water and reduces the normal regeneration of soil causes by natural flooding. Can result in salinization or land submergence. Draining of wetlands to increase farmland decreases the biodiversity in both plants and animals.

Livestock:

Ranching is located in the final ring surrounding the central city. Animals can be raised far from the city because they are self-transporting-they can walk to the central city for sale or for butchering. Also, they need A LOT of land to graze. Land is cheaper further from the city.

Overfishing

Removing more fish from the oceans than can be naturally produced. Due to commercial agriculture. Fish stocks declining at alarming rate. Example: cod fisheries on Canada's Grand Banks collapsed.

Green Revolution: Africa

Rice, wheat, and corn not idea, in all parts: desertification and water shortages. Widespread corruption, insecurity, a lack of infrastructure, and general lack of will on the part of the government. Vulnerability to pests. Soil erosion- les organic material in soil= less fertility. Water shortages. Increased exposure to toxic materials. Dependency on chemicals for production: increased groundwater pollution.

Agricultural pollution

Salinization, pesticides, fertilizers, manure, silage. Causes the degradation of the ecosystem, land, and environment. Prevents the natural movement of water, aquatic animals, and nutrients to other fertile areas.

Commodity chains

Series of links connecting the many places of production and distribution and resulting in a commodity that is then exchanged on the world market.

Specific agricultural practices

Shape different rural land use patterns.

First Component of The Green Revolution

Shift from rural to metropolitan living. Mechanization of farming. Tractors drove it.

Commercial agriculture produces

Significant environmental changes.

Negatives of Green Revolution

Social changes, health risks, and environmental hazards. Large scale monocropping made farms vulnerable to changes in climate or infestation of pests. Higher input of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, and pesticides reduced organic matter in the soil and led to groundwater pollution Worked against interest of small-scale farmers who lack the resources for the genetically modified seeds and necessary chemical inputs.

Issues with aquaculture

Some say it's unsustainable. Record of overusing wild fish to feed formed stock and its effects in surrounding marine systems.

Locavore

Someone who is committed to eating food that is grown or produced within their local community or region. Anything within 100 or 250 (if in remote area) miles of their home. May purchase food from farmers markets through CSA's. Believe that locally grown food is fresher, better tasting, more nutritious, and provides a healthier diet than typical supermarket foods grown in factories or mills. Argue that eating locally grown food supports farmers and small businesses in their communities. Believe eating locally grown food helps the planet by reducing air, soil, and water pollution.

Von Thunen

Strove to identify trends of people's economic relationship with the landscape surrounding them. Interested in different ways people tend to use land around a city

Cold chains

Temperature-controlled transportation, transfers, and warehousing.

Factor 1 of Second Agricultural Revolution

The Industrial Revolution and the Second Agricultural Revolution needed each other. Second Agricultural Revolution included a series of innovations, improvements, and techniques developed in different places at different times, which allowed fewer people to work on farms. Farmers migrated to cities, and became the labor force for the Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution responsible for developing new mechanical tools and created transportation improvements that allowed agricultural surpluses to go further then before.

Dispersed settlement pattern

The buildings are spread out and are often found in upland areas. Rural settlement pattern.

Livestock Ranching

The drylands of Western North America, Southeastern Latin America, Central Asia, Sub-Sahara Africa, and the South Pacific. Commercial grazing of livestock over and intensive area. Adapted to semiarid or arid land. Practiced in developing countries where vegetation is too sparse and soil too poor to support crops. Not as profitable per acre as farming. Historically used lots of open land that no one owned. Ranches exist on every continent expect Antarctica. Vital part of economies and rural development around the world. Major effects on the environment. Example: South America where the ranchers clear a lot of the forest for grazing. Also contributes to air and water pollution, and global warming.

Factor 2 of Second Agricultural Revolution

The government of Europe helped create conditions necessary for it by passing laws such as the Enclosure Movement. Encouraged consolidation of fields into large, single owner buildings for wealthier people. Subsistence, poor farmers who lived on the land were kicked off and migrated to the cities. Wealthier farmers increased size of farms and fenced them in. Encouraged innovation and improvements in agriculture since the wealthy families could experiment with parts of the land to see if there were better methods of growing food without worrying of losing profits.

Desertification

The gradual transformation of habitable land into desert. Causes: deforestation, overgrazing of livestock, over-cultivation of crops, inappropriate irrigation. Example: sand dunes of the Sahara, vast salt pans of Kalahari.

Urban farming/gardening

The growing of fruits, herbs, and vegetables and raising animals in towns and cities, a process that is accompanied by many other activities such as processing and distributing food, collecting and reusing food waste. Increasing agricultural production in food deserts. Example: Toronto and Detroit.

Intensive Subsistence, wet rice not dominant

The large population concentrations of East Asia and South Asia, where growing rice is difficult. Land is used intensively and worked primarily by human power, with the assistance of some hand implements and animals.

Intensive subsistence, wet rice dominant

The large population concentrations of East Asia and South Asia. Field in prepared using animal power. Flat land is needed. Field is flooded with water. Rice seedlings grown in the first month in a nursery are transplanted into the flooded field. Rice plants harvested with knives.

Deforestation

The removal of trees faster than forests can replace themselves. Practiced mostly in Southeast Asia, Africa, and the rainforests of South America. Farming, grazing of livestock, wildfires, and urbanization can cause it. Affects the people and animals and can cause temperature swings. Cutting them both adds carbon dioxide to the air and removes the ability to absorb existing carbon dioxide. Damage in the rainforests mostly due to commercial farming and globalization. Examples in notes on other iPad.

Crops:

The third zone consists of extensive field crops such as grains for bread. Because grains last longer than dairy products and are much lighter than wood, reducing transport costs, they can be located farther from the city.

Plantation

The tropical and subtropical regions of Latin America, Sub-Sahara Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. Large farm that specializes in one or two crops. Cotton, sugar cane, coffee, rubber, and tobacco. Usually situated in sparely settled locations; must import workers and provide them with food, housing, and social services.

Columbian Exchange (Global Interchange)

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, diseases, and ideas between the Americas, West Africa, and the Old World in the 15th and 16th centuries. Began with Spanish and Portuguese exploration in the late 15th century. New crops came into Europe from trade with Africa and the Americas. Greatly accelerated by the worldwide trade communications network established with the development of European exploration and colonization. Places known today for growing certain crops are not where the crops originated. Farmers found crops that could grow in places that previously didn't support agriculture, bringing Neocolonialism and The Columbian Exchange.

Timber and firewood:

These would be produced for fuel and building materials in the second zone. Before industrialization (and coal power), wood was a very important fuel for heating and cooking, and thus comes in second in value after dairy and produce. Wood is also very heavy and difficult to transport, so it is located as close to the city as possible to minimize additional transportation costs.

US Government Policies

Three agriculture policies designed to improve the financial position of farmers: Farmers are encouraged to avoid crops that are in excess supply. Because soil erosion is a constant threat, the government encourages planting fallow crops, such as clover, to restore nutrients to the soil and to help hold the soil in place. These crops can be used for hay or forage for pigs, or to produce seeds for sale. The government pays farmers when certain commodity prices are low. The government sets a target price for a commodity and pays farmers the difference between the price they receive in the market and the target price set by the government as a fair level for the commodity. The target prices are calculated to give farmers the same price for the commodity today as in the past, when compared to other consumer goods and services. The government buys surplus production and sells or donates it to foreign governments. In addition, low-income Americans receive food stamps in part to stimulate their purchase of additional food.

First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic Revolution)

Transformation of human societies from hunting and gathering to farming. Occurred worldwide, with earliest known in Middle East. Depended on a change in human effort.

Shifting Cultivation

Tropical regions of Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, and Southeast Asia. Equatorial climate regions. Farmers clear land for planting by slashing vegetation and burning the debris (slash and burn agriculture). Farmers grow crops on a cleared field for only a few years until soil nutrients are depleted and then leave it fallow for many years so the soil can regenerate. People who practice it generally live in small villages and grow food on the surrounding lands, which the village controls. Plows and animals rarely uses. Only fertilizer is potassium from the burning debris. Cleared land can support crops for 3 years or less, and then replant somewhere else, and then return when soil is regenerated. Variety of crops grow. Only 5 percent of the world engage in the activity

Horizontal Integration

Type of monopoly where a company buys out all of its competition. Ex: Rockefeller

Hunter-gather culture

Type of subsistence lifestyle that relies on hunting and fishing animals and foraging for wild vegetation and other nutrients like honey, for food. 12,000 years ago, every human practiced it. Didn't rely on agriculture; used mobility as survival strat. Required access to large areas of land. Nomadic. Some abandoned it at the start of the Neolithic Revolution. Some still exist. Example: Hadza people of Tanzania.

Mixed crop and livestock

US Midwest and Central Europe. Integration of livestock and crop farming. Most crops raised are fed to animals. Most land is devoted to crops. Most money is generated from animals and animal products. Livestock supply to manure crops. Workload evenly distributed. Less seasonal variation in income.

Purpose of Farming

Varied in LDC's with subsistence farmers and MDC's with commercial farmers.

Food security factors

Varying abilities to balance production and consumption across regions and countries. Accelerating conversions of agricultural land use to urban uses. Increasingly energy intensive food production methods in a world of shrinking fossil fuel resources. Expanding use of food crops for biofuel production.

Solution to Food Deserts

Walgreens committed to turning at least 1000 of its stores into food oasis stores, locations where fresh fruits and vegetables, whole grain, fresh meats are available at affordable prices. Not achieved yet.

Dilemma in developing countries

Want to grow more to make sales by exporting food, but the more land that devoted to exporting cash crops, the less that is available to grow crops for domestic consumption.

Major settlements

Were located next to seas or rivers for transportation.

Nucleated settlement pattern

Where a lot of buildings are grouped together. Often found in lowland areas. Rural settlement pattern.

Pests and weeds

With the arrival of new crops (GMOs), the native population have to deal with the new diseases, pests, and weeds that are not capable of fighting it.