AP Chemistry, Chapter 7: Atomic Structure and Periodicity (This quizlet includes ALL periodic trends, however, for testing purposes, know that: Chapter 7 primarily covers half of the trends, while Chapter 8 covers the other half of the trends)
Photons
A stream of "particles" from electromagnetic radiation is called...
Up; Down
Absorbing energy = n going _____ to a higher level Emitting (giving off) energy = n going _____ to a lower level
Amplitude Length = How much INTENSITY (The longer the amplitude, the more intense)
Amplitude Length = __________
-Energy Level (The Rows/Periods in the periodic table) (Represented by "n") -Shape (circular) -Orbit/Orientation -Spin
4 things to take account of when dealing with the Quantum Theory
SHAPE -4 Shapes of an element: "s" (circular, 0), "p" (dumbbell, 1), "d" (clover, 2), and "f" (multiple, 3). The elements with "s" shapes are in groups 1 and 2 (call this the left-hand side of elements) and HELIUM. The elements with "p" shapes are in groups 13 through 18 (call this the right-hand side of elements). The elements with "d" shapes are the Transition Metals (call this the center elements). Finally, the elements with "f" shapes are the lanthanide/actinide series elements. NOTE: LANTHANUM and ACTINIUM count as "d" elements, however, the series elements count as "f" elements. NOTE: There's also a fifth subshell (or shape) called "g" (this is conceptual, but don't worry about this one) Examples: Lithium (3): One of the left-hand side elements, so it has a shape of "s"/circular/0 Aluminum (13): One of the right-hand side elements, so it has a shape of "p"/dumbbell/1 Manganese (25): One of the transition elements, so it has a shape of "d"/clover/2 Uranium (92): One of the actinide series elements, so it has a shape of "f"/multiple/3
Analysis of Quantum Theory (Just look at this chart and study from it): SHAPE
Down a group and right to left across a period
Atomic Radius increases as you go.....
Polyelectronic Atoms
Atoms with more than one electron are called...
Wavelength = Planck's Constant (h) x Speed Of Light (c) / Change in Energy (Delta E) Work: Delta E = Planck's Constant x Frequency Frequency = Speed Of Light/Wavelength. So... Delta E = Planck's Constant x Speed Of Light/Wavelength Wavelength = Planck's Constant x Speed Of Light / Delta E
Calculating Wavelength with Delta E Formula (Use the initial equation Delta E = Planck's Constant x Frequency and get Wavlength = .....)
Yes
Does Energy of a Photon have the same formula as change in energy (from this chapter)?
Dual Nature Of Light
Electromagnetic Radiation's certain CHARACTERISTICS (not just wave properties)
Electromagnetic Radiation
Energy traveling through space. Examples include light from the Sun, microwaves, X-Rays, and radiant heat.
Delta E = energy of level n (final) - Energy of level n (initial) = E final - E initial = (-2.178 x 10^-18 J) (1^2 / n^2 (final)) - (-2.178 x 10^-18 J) (1^2 / n^2 (initial)) Delta E = -2.178 x 10^-18 J (1 / n^2 (final) - 1 / n^2 (initial))
Formula from the general equation (energy levels available to the electron in the Hydrogen atom) of Delta E = energy of level n (final) - energy of level n (initial)
Pauli Exclusion Principle
In a given atom, no two electrons can have the same set of four quantum numbers
(Mostly) Particulate (Mostly) Wave (Equally) Both
Large pieces of matter (like a baseball) predominantly exhibit _________ properties. Photons (tiny pieces of matter) predominantly exhibit ______ properties. Electrons (intermediate pieces of matter) predominantly exhibit _______ properties.
Down a Group and left to right across a period
Nuclear Charge increases as you go...
Two electrons; Opposite spins
Orbitals hold _____ electrons and they must have _____ spins
Energy Level, Shape, Orbit/Orientation, Spin
Order Of Quantum Theory/Numbers
Line Spectrum
The _____ _________ lets us only see a few lines. Additionally, the hydrogen emission spectrum is called the ____ ___________.
Principal Quantum Number (The Energy Level)
The ________ ___________ ________ (n) has integral values and is related to the SIZE and ENERGY of the orbital. As n increases, the orbital becomes larger and n gains higher energy.
Frequency
The number of waves (cycles) per second that pass a given point in space.
Nodal Surfaces/Nodes
The spaces between orbitals are called...
Crest
The wave's highest point
Angular Momentum Quantum Number (Greek Letter e) (Shape)
This quantum number is related to the shape of atomic orbitals. The value of Greek Letter e for a particular orbital is assigned to a letter: Greek Letter e = 0 is called s; Greek Letter e = 1 is called p; Greek Letter e = 2 is called d; Greek Letter e = 3 is called f. Each set of orbitals with a given value of Greek Letter e is also called a SUBSHELL.
Anywhere from 4 to 7 x 10^-7 m 10^-12 m 10^4 m (AM on the Radio)
What WAVELENGTH can we see visible color? What about Gamma Rays? What about Radio Waves? (AM being the greatest wavelength)
VELOCITY, not Frequency
What does the "v" stand for in De Brogilie's Formula?
Fluorine
What's the most electronegative element?
Constructive Interference Increasing; Bright
When Waves are IN phase (the waves match up) it's called... These matched up waves result in _______ Intensity and therefore result in ________ spots in a diffraction pattern.
(Energy Level) (Shape^atoms) Ex.) Hydrogen: Energy Level = 1, Shape = "s", Atoms = 1 -> 1s^1
When dealing with electron configuration write it out like:
Diffraction
When light is SCATTERED from a regular array of points or lines. A ________ pattern (light spots or dark spots of an object) also occurs from the scattering light.
Destructive Interference Decreasing; Dark
When waves are OUT of phase (the waves are opposite or inverse of each other, resulting in the trough and crest almost touching each other) it's called... These opposite waves result in ________ Intensity and therefore result in _______ spots in a diffraction pattern.
Periods = Horizontal Rows Groups = Vertical Columns
_______ = Horizontal Rows across the periodic table _______ = Vertical Columns across the periodic table
1.) No 2.) Increase 3.) Kinetic Energy
1.) Frequency of Light is LOWER than the threshold frequency resulting in ___ electrons in varied Intensity of light. 2.) Frequency Of Light is HIGHER than the threshold frequency resulting in an ______ of electrons with increasing Intensity. 3.) Frequency Of Light is HIGHER than the threshold frequency resulting in _________ Energy increasing LINEARLY with Frequency Of Light.
Nanometer (nm)
10^-9
Speed Of Light (c)
2.9979 x 10^8 m/s
Planck's Constant (h)
6.626 x 10^-34 J x s
Inversely proportional
Additionally, Wavelength and Intensity are ___________ proportional
Particulate and Wave properties
All matter exhibits both _______ and _______ properties.
Degenerate
All orbitals with the same value of n have the same energy (only applies to elements with ONE electron, otherwise Polyelectronic Atoms (atoms with more than one electron) are a different story).
ENERGY LEVEL -Energy Level is based off of the (horizontal) Rows in the periodic table (represented by n). (DON'T MIX ENERGY LEVEL up with PERIODS because an element may be in period 4, but it may have an energy level of 3) If your element is anywhere in periods 1, 2, or 3, your energy level is the same as the period. If your element is anywhere in periods 4, 5, 6, or 7, LOOK FOR WHERE YOUR ELEMENT IS. If it's one of the transition metals, take the period number and subtract it by 1 (n-1). If it's one of the LANTHANIDE/ACTINIDE elements (excluding Lanthanum and Actinium) take the period number and subtract it by 2 (n-2). If the metal is not one of the elements in the center of the table, your energy level is the same as the period. Examples: Energy Level Of... Aluminum (13): Period 3; Energy Level is 3 Manganese (25): Period 4, One of the transition elements so... n-1. 4-1 = 3; Energy Level is 3 Uranium (92): Period 7, One of the actinide elements so.... n-2. 7-2 = 5: Energy Level is 5 Polonium (84): Period 6, NOT one of the center elements; Energy Level is 6
Analysis of Quantum Theory (Just look at this chart and study from it): ENERGY LEVEL
ORBIT/ORIENTATION -Orbit/Orientation depends primarily on shape. The first thing to do is determine which element is what shape. If you have an "s" shape, your element will have an orbit/orientation of 0. If you have a "p" shape, your element will have either a -1, 0, or 1. If you have a "d" shape, your element will have either a -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2. If you have a "f" shape, your element will have either a -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, or 3. Now, notice that the orbit/orientation has exactly half the numbers of elements in each shape (You have 1 number out of 2 for the "s" shape, 3 numbers out of 6 for the "p" shape, etc.) This is on purpose, so... number the elements in your shape by the orientation (yes, repeat the numbers when you're halfway). Examples: Lithium (3): Since it's a "s" shape, we have an orientation of 0. Lithium = 0, Beryllium = 0. Therefore, Lithium has an orientation of 0. Aluminum (13): Since it's a "p" shape, we have an orientation of -1, 0 or 1. Aluminum = -1, Silicon = 0, Phosphorous = 1, Sulfur = -1, Chlorine = 0, Argon = 1. Therefore, Aluminum has an orientation of -1. Manganese (25): Since it's a "d" shape, we have an orientation of -2, -1, 0, 1, or 2. Scandium = -2, Titanium = -1, Vanadium = 0, Chromium =1, Manganese = 2, Iron = -2, Cobalt = -1, Nickel =0, Copper = 1, Zinc = 2. Therefore, Manganese = 2. Uranium (92): Since it's a "f" shape, we have an orientation of -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3. SKIP Actinium (since this is a "d" element), Thorium = -3, Protactinium = -2, Uranium = -1, Neptunium = 0, Plutonium = 1, Americium = 2, Curium = 3, Berkelium = -3, Californium = -2, Einsteinium = -1, Fermium = 0, Mendelevium = 1, Nobelium = 2, Lawrencium = 3. Therefore Uranium = -1.
Analysis of Quantum Theory (Just look at this chart and study from it): ORBIT/ORIENTATION
SPIN -Spin is represented by +1/2 or -1/2, depends on shape, and just like orbit/orientation, is divided up in two parts. Thankfully, this is easier than orbit/orientation. The first step is to find out what shape your element is. Then divide the shape of elements by half, so you have a set of elements on the left side and a set of elements on the right side. For example, if you have an element that's a "s" shape, you divide the two elements: one on the left and one on the right. Whichever element your side is on, determines your spin. If your element is on the left side, it has a spin of +1/2, and if it's on the right side, it has a spin of -1/2. Examples: Lithium (3): Dividing the elements by half in the "s" section, Lithium is on the left side, and Beryllium is on the right side. Therefore, Lithium has a spin = +1/2. Aluminum (13): Dividing the elements by half in the "p" section, Aluminum, Silicon, and Phosphorous are on the left side, and the rest of the elements are on the right side. Therefore, Aluminum has a spin = +1/2. Zinc (30): Dividing the elements by half in the "p" section, Iron, Cobalt, Nickel, Copper, and Zinc are on the right side, and the rest of the elements are on the left side. Therefore, Zinc has a spin = -1/2. Uranium (92): Dividing the elements by half in the "f" section, Actinium, Thorium, Protactinium, Uranium, Neptunium, Plutonium, and Americium are on the left side, and the rest of the elements are on the right side. Therefore, Uranium has a spin = +1/2.
Analysis of Quantum Theory (Just look at this chart and study from it): SPIN
You subtract the second-to-last shape (atoms) by 1 and add one atom to the last shape (atoms) by 1. (I apologize for the grammar). Example: Chromium (24): [Ar] 4s^2, 3d^4. The 2 atoms in "4s^2" gets subtracted by 1 and the 4 atoms in "3d^4" gets added by 1. The resulting configuration is [Ar] 4s^1, 3d^5.
As you can see from the last two examples (the unstable elements) what pattern do you use to set up the CORRECT electron configuration?
Delta E = nhv n = an integer (if they don't give you an integer, assume this is 1) or atomic radius h = Planck's Constant (6.626 x 10^-34 J x s) v = Frequency (in Hz or s^-1)
Change in Energy Formula
ROYGBIV Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
Color Spectrum
Continuous Spectrum
Contains ALL the wavelengths of visible light
Wavelength = Planck's Constant (h) / mass (in grams) x v (Velocity, NOT Frequency)
De Brogilie's Formula (Wavelength = ?)
Quantum Numbers
Describes the properties of atomic orbitals and the properties of electrons in orbitals by a series of numbers.
Chlorine (this is based off of Coulomb's Law)
Due to size, the highest electron AFFINITY is.... because Fluorine is too small
Electron Correlation Problem
Due to unknown electron pathways, electron repulsions can't be calculated. This problem is called the...
Carbon (6): 1s^2, 2s^2, 2p^2 (2 + 2 + 2 = 6 atoms, our answer checks out) Sodium (11): 1s^2, 2s^2, 2p^6, 3s^1 (2 + 2 + 6 + 1 = 11 atoms, our answer checks out) Vanadium (23): 1 s^2, 2s^2, 2p^6, 3s^2, 3p^6, 4s^2, 3d^3 (2 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 6 + 2 + 3 = 23 atoms, our answer checks out)
Electron Configuration Examples (See if you can do these on your own before looking) Carbon (6) Sodium (11) Vanadium (23)
1.) (Energy Level) (Shape^atoms) or (Energy Level) (Shape^electrons) 2.) Atoms (or electrons) increase within a shape going left to right 3.) If you add up the atoms you should get your intended atomic number for an element 4.) Go in order
Electron Configuration Rules (If these don't make sense, look at the examples)
Up a group and left to right across a period
Electronegativity (the attraction to gain electrons) increases as you go...
Electron Spin Quantum Number (m subscript s)
Electrons have magnetic moments which determines their SPIN
E = -2.178 x 10^-18 J (Z^2 / n^2) Z = Nuclear Charge (If you're using Hydrogen, then Z will always equal 1) n = integer or atomic radius (This was all developed by Bohr's Quantum Model)
Energy Levels Available To The Electron in the HYDROGEN Atom Formula
Quantized; Integer (or discrete)
Energy is __________ and can ONLY OCCUR IN ________ units of size "hv." (hv = Planck's Constant x Frequency)
Oxygen (8): (1s^2, 2s^2, 2p^4) 1s:_____up/down; 2s: ____up/down; 2p: ______up/down, _______up, ________up Scandium (21): (1s^2, 2s^2, 2p^6, 3s^2, 3p^6, 4s^2, 3d^1) 1s: ____up/down; 2s: _____up/down; 2p: _____up/down, _____up/down, _____up/down; 3s: _____up/down; 3p: ______up/down, ______up/down, _______up/down; 4s: ____up/down; 3d: ________up, _______, _________, _________, ________
Examples of Orbital Configuration Oxygen (8) Scandium (21) _______ are blanks Up represents up arrows Down represents down arrows Up/Down represents both up and down arrows
Inversely proportional
Finally, Wavelength and Energy are _______ proportional
Up-up-down rule (ask Boggs or your science teacher about this)
How do you calculate how much energy it takes to take away an electron from an ion/element?
Orbital Configuration is represented by a combination of electron configuration, and spin. First, find the electron configuration of the elements. Second, draw blanks of each separate electron configuration (1s^2 is 1 blank, 2s^6 is 3 blanks, 2p^6 is 3 blanks). NOTE: Each blank can hold up to two electrons Third, Fill out the blanks with arrows, starting with +1/2 for the first half and ending with -1/2 for the second half. This results in your orbital configuration. NOTE: Up arrows indicate +1/2 spin and Down arrows indicate -1/2 spin
How to do Orbital Configuration
Higher orbital; Excited state
In a Hydrogen ground state (the lowest state) the electron is in a 1s orbital. If energy is put into the atom, the electron enters a ________ orbital and turns into a ________ ________.
Down a group and right to left across a period
Ionic Radius increases as you go..... Additionally, this is the same as atomic Radius EXCEPT Metals and nonmetals are SEPARATED
KE = hv - hvo hv = Planck's Constant x Frequency (Energy Of Inclined Photon) hvo = Planck's Constant x Frequency (BEFORE removal of electron) (Energy required to remove electron from metal's surface) KE = Energy after removal of electron - Energy before removal of electron
Kinetic Energy Formula (Derived from Energy Of Photons)
Calcium (20): Draw Ca and 2 dots around it Phosphorous (15): Draw P and 5 dots around it Zinc (30): Draw Zn and 2 dots around it (Transition Metal) Astatine (85): Draw At and 8 dots around it
Lewis Dot Configuration Examples (You can only do this for elements within the "s" and "p" shapes. From left to right the number of electrons increase. For example in period 2, Lithium is all the way to the left so it has 1 electron and Neon is all the way to the left so it has 8 electrons. Elements from the center of the periodic table (transition metals/lanthanide/actinide series metals) will always have 2 electrons.) Calcium (20) Phosphorous (15) Zinc (30) Astatine (85)
m = Planck's Constant (h) / Wavelength x Speed Of Light (c)
Mass Formula
Polonium (84): [Xe] 6s^2, 5d^1, 4f^14, 5d^9, 6p^4 OR [Xe] 6s^2, 5d^10 (since d^1 + d^9 = d^10), 4f^14, 5d^9, 6p^4 Iodine (53): [Kr] 5s^2, 4d^10, 5p^5
Noble Gas Configuration Examples (Use the closest Noble Gas and Electron Configuration to find these examples) Polonium (84) Iodine (53)
"n" (energy level)
Nodes increase as ____ (energy level) increases
Number of Orbitals represents the NUMBERS of Orbit/Orientation while Magnetic Quantum Number is the 0; -1, 0, 1; -2, -1, 0, 1, 2; -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3. Examples: In the "s" section we have a magnetic quantum number of 0 and the number of orbitals as 1. In the "p" section we have magnetic quantum numbers of -1, 0, 1 and the number of orbitals as 3. In the "d" section we have magnetic quantum numbers of -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 and the number of orbitals as 5. In the "f" section we have magnetic quantum numbers of -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3 and the number of orbitals as 7.
Number of Orbitals vs. Magnetic Quantum Number (Orbit/Orientation)
Different energy levels Order of energy from greatest to least shape: f > d > p > s
Polyelectronic Atoms have __________ energy levels, even if they have the same energy level. What's the order of energy from greatest to least shape?
Absorbed = Endothermic = Delta E " - " Released = Exothermic = Delta E " + "
REMEMBER: Absorbed = Endothermic = Delta E "___" Released = Exothermic = Delta E "___"
Down a group
Shielding/screening (energy level) increases as you go...
Chromium (24): Incorrect: [Ar] 4s^2, 3d^4 Correct: [Ar] 4s^1, 3d^5
Since Chromium is unstable (for electron configuration), and has an electron configuration of [Ar] 4s^2, 3d^4, what is its correct electron configuration?
Copper (29): Incorrect: [Ar] 4s^2, 3d^9 Correct: [Ar] 4s^1, 3d^10
Since Copper is unstable (for electron configuration), and has an electron configuration of [Ar] 4s^2, d^9, what is its correct electron configuration?
Spectrum
The CHARACTERISTIC wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation that is emitted or absorbed by an object, substance, atom, or molecule.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The ENTIRE range of wavelengths/frequencies of electromagnetic radiation
Amplitude
The distance between crest and trough (or any other point in the wave) vertically.
Wavelength
The distance between two consecutive peaks or troughs in a wave (horizontally).
Photoelectric Effect
The phenomenon in which ELECTRONS are EMITTED from the surface of a metal when light strikes it.
Magnetic Quantum Number (m subscript Greek Letter e) (Orbit/Orientation)
The value of m subscript Greek Letter e is related to the ORIENTATION of the orbital in space relative to the other orbitals in the atom.
Trough
The wave's lowest point
1.) Kinetic Energy of the electrons 2.) Potential energy of attraction between the nucleus and electrons 3.) Potential energy of repulsion between electrons
Three energy contributions must be considered in the description of an element's atoms
Wavelength in METERS (M) Frequency in HERTZ (Hz) Hz = cycles/second Speed Of Light in METERS PER SECOND (m/s)
Units for... Wavelength? Frequency? Speed Of Light?
Inversely proportional
Wavelength and Frequency are ______________ proportional
Diamagnetic
When you write orbital configuration, and all orbitals are filled up
Paramagnetic
When you write orbital configuration, and an electron is left all by itslf
Dmitiri Mendeleev (along with Meyer)
Who was the chemist to recognize patterns among elements and begin the process of creating the periodic table? He emphasized the importance of predicting the existence and properties of unknown elements. His periodic table lists the elements in order by atomic number rather than atomic mass.
d^4, d^9, f^6, f^13 d^4: Chromium, Molybdenum, Tungsten, and Seaborgium d^9: Copper, Silver, Gold, and Roentgenium (Unununium) f^6: Europium and Americium f^13: Ytterbium and Nobleium
You can NEVER have a configuration of.... (Because they're unstable) (4)
