APWH Chapter 15
Adal
muslim state...warlord was emboldened by rise of Ottoman Turks and launched an assult on Ethiopa VICTORY in 1529 reduced Ethiopa to a precarious state - THIS MADE ETHIOPA'S CONTACTS WITH PORTUGUESE BECOME CRUCIAL
Granada
southern Muslim kingdom on the Iberian pennisula that was the only kingdom on the Iberian pennisula that was not recaptured by the Christians -> see marriage of Isabel and Ferdinand
COMPARE: Africa, Asia, Amerindians, Tlaxcalans meet Europeans
"Like the peoples of Africa and Asia when confronted by Europeans, Amerindian peoples, like the Tlaxcalans of Mexico, calculated as best they could the potential benefit or threat represented by these strange visitors. Individual Amerindians also made these calculations"
Ferdinand Magellan
(1519) began expedition to complete Columbus's interrupted westward voyage by sailing around Americas and across the Pacific considered first person to encircle globe (sailed from Europe to East Indies as part of an expedition for Portugal)
Queen Helena's gift
(to king of Portugal) two tiny crucifixes said to be made of wood from Christ's cross symbolized their mutual connection - christianity
Portuguese efforts to persuade king and nobles of benin tp accept Catholic faith...
*failed* kings showed some interest at first, but rulers declined to recieve missionaries after 1538 also closed male slave market for rest of 16th century reasons why benin chose to limit contats with portuguese are unknown -> african rulers CLEARLY had power to control contacts with europeans
Motives for Exploration Notes
- adventurous personalities and ambitions of Iberian rulers led them to sponsor voyages
Portuguese in Africa and Asia
-1440s: raids on northwest coast of Africa and Canary Islands -> $$ slave trade -> number of slaves dramatically increased -Portuguese made contact with the west Africa gold trade -1457: Portugese had enough African gold that they issued the CRUZADO (crusader//a gold coin) ^^DEEPLY ENTWINED RELIGIOUS AND SECULAR MOTIVES
Italy
-1450: city-states of Italy had established extensive trade routes to northern Europe, Indian Ocean, Black sea -Italian merchant rinces sponsored intellectual/artistic Renaissance -trading states of Venice and Genoa maintained $$ ties in Medi -> depended on muslim alliances -Italian merchants had privledged access to lucrative from the East -expansion of Ottoman empire disrupted trade to the East...cities never took lead in Atlantic exploration -> many individs, however, played leading eploration roles
Marriage of Isabel of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon 1469
-> conquest of Granada (1492) -> creation of Spain (most powerful state in sixteenth-century Europe)
Prince Henry of Portugal Henry the Navigator (1394 - 1460)
-led attack on Ceuta -devoted life to promoting exploration -mixed motives: exploration, converting Africans to Vhristianity, making contacts with Christian rulers in Africa, laug=ching joint crusades with those rulers against Ottomans -wanted to discover new, profitable places Indian exploration/contact became more important than African -founded a center for research at Sagres -ships established contact with Madeia (1418) and Azores (1439) - staff improved magnetic compass, astrolabe
ENCOUNTERS WITH EUROPE (1450 - 1550)
1. African kingdoms reacted in various ways to the opportunities and threats created by the arrival of the Portuguese, but only Kongo embraced Christianity and accepted a large Portuguese military presence in the sixteenth century. 2. However, the Portuguese used military force to consolidate a trade empire in the Indian Ocean. 3. After the Spanish occupied the Caribbean, Cortés led an expe- dition that conquered the Aztecs, weakened by epidemic. 4. The Spanish under Pizarro conquered the Inca Empire, already suffering from civil war, and then fell on each other, but surviv- ing conquistadors continued to explore the Americas
two related phenomena that resulted in Iberian expansion overseas
1. Iberian rulers had strong economic, religious, and political motives to expand influence 2. improvements in maritime and military technologies -> -Iberians could master unfamiliar and dangerous ocean enviros -seize control of existing maritime trade routes -conquer new lands
THE MARITIME REVOLUTION
1. Portugal and Spain initiated oversees explorations to expand Christianity and gain new markets. 2. Portugal, aided by Prince Henry the Navigator, created a trad- ing empire in Africa and the Indian Ocean. 3. COlumbus first revealed the Americas to Europe, and other Spanish explorers reached Asia by crossing the Pacific.
EUROPEAN EXPANSION (1400 - 1550)
1. Portugal and Spain initiated oversees explorations to expand Christianity and gain new markets. 2. Portugal, aided by Prince Henry the Navigator, created a trad- ing empire in Africa and the Indian Ocean. 3. Columbus first revealed the Americas to Europe, and other Spanish explorers reached Asia by crossing the Pacific
Four trends evident in Latin West since about 1000
1. revival of urban life and trade 2. in Europe -> unique alliance between merchants and rulers 3. struggle with Islamic powers to control Medi...mixed the expansion of trade with religion 4. grew intellectual curiosity about the outside world
da Gamma's un-impressive gifts to samorin in Calicut
12 pieces of fairly ordinary stripped cloth 4 scarlet hoods 6 hats 6 wash basins seemed inferior to those who were accustomed to LUXURIES of Indian Ocean trade...da Gamma said they were gifts of an explorer not a rich merchant..."If he had come to discover men, as he said, why had he brought nothing?"
Fernao Gomes
1469; Lisbon merchant perchased the exploration pri vledge of 250 miles of African coast from the crown inreturn for trade monopoly islands of Sao Tome were uninhabitated -> major producer of sugar dependent on imported slaves (model for sugar plantations in Brazil and Caribbean) explored Gold Coast
Bartolomeu Dias
1488: first Portuguese explorer to round southern tip of africa and into Indian Ocean
Pedro Alvares Cabral
1500: ships under his command sailed too far west -> reached SA mainland discovery established portugals claim to Brazil
Spain conquers land...
1508: Borinquen was conquered (Puerto Rico...my heart's devotion...) 1510-1511: Cuba was conquered after TWO FAILED EXPEDITIONS TO MEXICO...Governer Velaquez of Cuba appointed HERNAN CORTEZ
rulers of Benin and Kongo...
Benin and Kongo = two largest coastal kingdoms accepted both Port. missionaries and soldiers as allies in battle to test efficacy of CHRISTIAN RELIGION and EUROPEAN WEAPONRY
Aden
Calicut's principal trading partner
christopher columbus (1451-1506)
Genoese mariner who in the service of Spain led expedi- tions across the Atlantic, reestablishing contact between the peoples of the Americas and the Old World and opening the way to Spanish conquest and colonization. -four voyages -"new world" -refused to accept that he found new land and insisted he had reached unknown areas off of China -won sponsorship of Queen of Castile and King or Aragon -kept a log (starting 1492)
African King that made agreements to set up trading fort with portuguese on Gold Coast
King Caramansa
Portuguese in West Africa (cont.)
King Caramansa gave permission for a small trading fort...said he was assured by the honorable apperance of the Portuguese instead of earlier "few, foul, vile" Portuguese visitors neither side made show of force but AFRICANS HAD UPPER HAND bc of Caramansa's warnign that he and his ppl would move away (deprive portuguese fort of food and trade) if portuguese acted aggressively
Kingdom of Kongo and Potuguese
LIKE BENIN...manikongo sent delegates to Portugal , established royal monopoly on trade with Portuguese, expressed interest in Christian teachings -> rulers were deeply interested in new faith system -> Catholicism was made kingdom's official faith sold increasing number of slaves to to aquire goods brought by Portugal and pay costs of missionaries
Mughal emperors of India (response to Portugal)
LIKE EMPERORS OF CHINA, they largely ignored Portugal's maritime intrusions saw Port. interests as maintaining control over vast land possessions
King Manual had named himself...(when da Gamma returned to Portugal in 1499)
Lord of Conquest, Navigation, and Commerce of Ethiopia, Arabia, Persia, and India
Akbar
Mughal Emperor (muslim) 1572 - took control of Gujarat permitted Portuguese to continue maritime monopoly in return for allowing one ship a year to carry pilgrims to Mecca without paying the Portuguese any fee
Malindi
Muslim ruler of one of the ports/coastal trading sites of EASTERN AFRICA... Vasco da Gama's fleet sauled up the coast of East Africa in 1498 ...saw the POrtuguese as allies who could help expand his city's trading position and provided da Gama with a pilot to guide him to India
Benin
Niger Delta near peak of power when first encountered portuguese
Portugese ships
PROBLEM: large crews of galleys couldnt carry enough supplies for long voyages...square-rigged northern vessels couldn't sail at an angle to the wind SOLUTION: the caravel
"good impression" of Portuguese Royal Representative
PRR and officers wanted to make a good impression on coastal africans dressed in best clothes erected/decorated reception platform celebrated a catholic mass signaled the start of negotiations with trumpets, tambourines, drums
Fears about the World
People feared that... -South Atlantic water were boiling hot -South Atlantic currents would suck people in and never let them out
Portuguese in Indian Ocean
Port. used control of major port cities to enforce even larger trading monopoly power grew = required all spices and goods carried btwn major ports to be carried in Portuguese ships portuguese also tried to control/tax other IO trade by requiring all merchant ships entering and leaving one of their ports to carry a Portuguese passport and pay customs duties. Patrols seized vessels that attempted to avoid these monopolies, confiscated their cargoes, and either killed the captain and crew or sentenced them to forced labor.
Vasco de Gama
Portuguese explorer (1497-1498) led first naval expedition from Europe to India (also sailed around Africa) -> opened opened important commercial sea route
Portuguese in (west) africa
Portuguese trade offered new markets for exports/access to cheaper imports very evident along GOLD COAST -> first Portuguese visit in 1471
THE SPANISH PATTERN: Spanish in Antilles v Spanish during Muslim Wars
SAME ACTIONS AND MOTIVES -sought to serve God by defeating nonbelievers and placing them under christin control -sought to become rich in the process -individual conquistadors extended this pattern around Carribean as gold/indigenous labor became scarce on Hispanola -> new expeditions searched for gold/Amerindian labor across Caribbean region, captured natives, relocated them to Hispaniola as slaves
Columbus's ships
Santa Maria Nina (caravel) Pinta (caravel)
Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)
Spain and Portugal splot the new world to prevent disputes to exploit new discoveries and spread Christianity -> Pope drew imaginary line down middle of North Atlantic Ocean EAST = portugal WEST = Spain -> Cabral's Brazil gave Portugal a claim to part of SA
Malintzin aka Malinche
a native woman given to Cortes shortly after his arrival in the Maya region, became his translator, key source of intelligence, and mistress As peoples and as individuals, native allies were crucial to the Spanish campaign
entrepot
a place where goods are stored or deposited and from which they are distributed
Queen Helena of Ethiopia
acted as a regent for younger sons after husband's death (1478) 1509 - she sent a letter to King of Portugal along with a gift THE LETTER proposed alliance between her army and Portugal's fleet against Turks DIED IN 1522 - before alliance could be arranged ethiopia's situation became more desperate
spain established a vast empire in the...
americas *whoop whoop*
Columbus and the "Indians"
believed islands he reached were part of the East Indies (1st ad 2nd voyages) reach SA on his 3rd voyage -> believed it was part of Asia others believed he had discovered new lands...
official faith of kingdom of Kongo
catholicism
Tlaxcalans
central mexico natives enemies of Aztecs became crucial supporters of cortez
Afonso I (r. 1506 - ca. 1540)
christian manikongo in Kongo in 1526... wrote to "royal brother" (king of portugual) and BEGGED for him to help stop slave trade...unauthorized Kongolese were kidnapping and selling good people...appeals for help recieved no reply from Portugual (interests had shifted to indian ocean)...see <delcine of Kongo>
Aztecs
conquered their vast empire only the century before -subject peoples wanted to embrace spanish as allies -Spanish resented tribute payments. forced labor, and large-scale human sacrifices demanded by Aztecs -powerful native enemies (ex. Tlaxcalns) -
Ottoman Turks
conqured Egypt in 1517 and launched a major fleet in indian ocean to counter Portuguese
Vasco NuneS de Balboa
crossed the Isthmus of Panama and sighted Pacific Ocean
DISEASE
disease (especially smallpox) weakened their ability to resist/facilitate Spanish and Portuguese occupation after 1518
Christian Ethiopia
east african state that saw benefits of an alliance with portuguese 14/15th centuries - Ethiopia faced conflicts with Muslim states along the Red Sea
trade at Saint George of the Mine aka Elmina
enriched both coastal africans (caramansa) and portuguese portuguese crown purchased gold = 1/10 of world's production Caramansa and people recieved large quantities of Asian, European, and other African goods in return (from Portuguese)
"good impression" of African King
enterance with equal ceremony arrived with A LOT of attendants and musicians portuguese and caramansa exchanged elaborate, good-willing speeches
NOTES...
epic sea voyages that Iberian kingdoms of Portugal and Spain sponsored are of special interest because the maritime revolution they began had huge impacts Portuguese and Spanish ended isolation of the Americas and increased volumes of global interaction
what determined consequences of new contacts?
european actions ways in which africans, asians, amerindians perceived and interacted with new visitors -> europeans were allies or enemies -> Europeans tried to insert themselves into existing commercia; and geopolitical arrangements long isolations of amerindians -> disease-vulnerable -> potential to resist and facilitate european settlement was limited
Amerigo Vespucci
explorations on behalf of spain, then portugal -> mapmakers named new continents after him "America" (instead of "columbia" after Columbus)
Arawak of Hispaniola
first Amerindians to encounter Columbus modern Haiti and Dominican Republic(greater antilles and bahamas to the north) cultivized maize, cassava (tuber), sweet potatoes, hot peppers, cotton, tabacco no large gold deposits and didnt trade gold over long distances -> BUT natives were skilled at working gold -first extended cautious welcome to spanish - learned to tell exaggerated stories about gold in other places to persuade them to move on.
Center for Research at Sagres
founded by Prince Henry the Navigator -> to study navigation that built upoon pioneering efforts of Italian merchants and Jewish map-makes -> center collected geographical information and sponsored Atlantic explorations
Vasco de Gama's impression on citizens of Calicut (Malabar coast of India, 1498)
four small ships were... 1. not near as imposing of Chinese fleets that had come to Calicut 65 years before 2. no larger than dhows that filled the harbor of the trading city recieved with laughter by samorin and officials
Portugese capture of Ceuta
gave Portugese better intellige ce of caravan trades -> portugese couldn't get direct access to gold trade -> sailed down african coast -> attack was led by Prince Henry
Portuguese and Ethiopia
had previously explored possible alliance bc of their mutual religion - CHRISTIANITY attempted alliance under Queen Helena 1539 - another woman ruler was holding ethiopia together...small portuguese fleet commander by Christopher de Gama came to help ethiopia Muslim forces captured and tortured Christopher de Gama to death ...Muslim attack failed bc leader was wounded in battle PORTUGUESE HELPED SAVE ETHIOPIAN KINGDOM BC OF COMMON RELIGION FROM EXTINCTION, BUT PERMANENT ALLIANCE FALTERED BC OF RELIGION (Ethiopian rulers refused to transfer their Chris- tian affiliation from the patriarch of Alexandria to the Latin patriarch of Rome (the pope))
Christian Militancy
important motive for both Portugal and Spain, especially overseas -> conquerors also wanted MATERIAL returns
EXAMPLE 1 most sustained resistance = merchants of Calicut
in response, port. embargoed all trade with Aden and centered trade on Port of Cochin some calicut merchantswere good at avoiding port. naval patrols...price of resistance: shrinking of calicut's commercial importance as Cochin gradually became a major pepper-exporting port on Malabar Coast
astrolabe
instrument of Arab or Greek invention that allowed mariners o determine location at sea measured postion of sun/stars at night improved by Henry's staff
Portugese Voyages
investing resources in new exploration depended on Atlantic fishing trade and history of Anti-Muslim warfare -> Muslim gov't of Morocco showed weakness -> Portugese attacked and conqured city of Ceuta (1415)
Amerindian isolation
isolation of Amerindian peoples made responses to outside contacts different than those of African/Indian people -isolation slowed development of metallurgy and other militarily useful technologies -made large populations susceptible to new diseases
oba
king (of Benin) presided over elaborate bureaucracy from his spacious palace in the large capital city (also called Benin)
manikongo
king of Kongo
Portugese explorers..
learned to return home quickly sailing northwest allowed ships to pick up westerly winds that would blow them back to portugal KNOWLEDGE OF CIRCULAR WIND PATHS WERE VERY VALUABLE
Hernan Cortez (1485 - 1587)
left Cuba in 1519 with 600 fighting men/experienced sailors, most of the islands' stock in weapons and horses -demonstrated military skills in battles with Maya -learned of rich Aztec empire in central Mexico
Portuguese on China Coast
local oficials and merchants interested in in profitable new trade with the Portuguese persuaded the imperial government to allow the Portuguese to establish a trading post at Macao (1557) -> portuguese ships operating from Macao came to almost monopolize trade between china and japan
decline of Kongo
manikongo began to lose royal monopoly over slave trade 1526 - see <Afonso I> eventually, rebellion and relocation of slave trade from Alfonso's kingdom to the south weakened the authority of the manikongo
Western Africa
many ppl along west african coast were eager for portuguese trade
Gold trade/why coastal africans wanted to trade with portuguese/why portuguese wanted to trade with coastal africans
miners had sold gold to traders -> traders took gold to trading cities along south sahara -> sold to North African traders who crossed desert -> coastal Africans wanted better terms from the Portuguese so they negotiated with the Portuguese Royal Representative (PRR sought permission to erect a trading fort)
Muslim rulrs of coastal trading sites of eastern Africa
most rulers gave da Gama a cool reception but were suspicious of intentions of these ppl with crusaders' crosses on sails suspicious were correct 7 years later...Portuguese war fleet bombarded and looted most coastal citis in the name of CHRISTIANITY and COMMERCE HOWEVER...the christians spared Malindi
Portuguese and Indian Ocean Trade
never gained complete control...naval supremacy allowed them to dominate key ports/trade routes (16th century) profits from spices/luxury goods -> Portuguese could break pepper monopoly held by Venice + Genoa by selling at lower pries AND could fund more aggressive colonization of Brazil
Malacca
on strait between Malay pennisula and Sumatra...became the focus of Portuguese attention became the main entrepot for trade from China, Japan, India, SE Asia mainland, Moluccas in 15th century 100,000 residents 84 languages from areas pretty far away (like Cairo) many non-Muslim residents supported letting Portguguese join cosmopolitan trading community -> tried to offset solidarity of Muslim traders 1511 - Portuguese seized Malacca outright with 1000 soldiers (included 300 indian recruits)
first encounter of Benin + Portuguese
port. visit in 1486 - oba sent embassador to Portugal to learn more about these strangers oba established royal monopoly on trade with portuguese
New Spanish/Portuguese Empires
promoted growth of major new trading network -> rivaled/importance surpassed Indian Ocean network TREMENDOUS EXPANSION OF EUROPE'S ROLE IN WORLD HISTORY
Internal Spanish "affairs"
reconquesting southern ibera from Muslims amalgamation of various dynasties conversion/expulsion of religious minorities -> followed up Portugal in discoveries; spanish started overseas exploration after portugal found a route to india
Gold Coast
region of the Atlantic coast of West Africa occupied by modern Ghana; names for gold exports to Europe from 1470s -> headquarters of Portugal's west african trade
EXAMPLE 2 little sustained resistance = Gujarat
resisted Portuguese attempts at monopoly at first 1509 - joined Egypt's failed attempt to sweep portuguese from Arabian sea 1535 - ruler of Gujarat decided to allow Portuguese to build a fort at DIU in return for their support -> portuguese gradually expanded their control...eventually licensed/taxed all Gujarati ships
small trading states of the region weren't as capable of challenging Portuguese domination head-on...
rivalries amoung smaller states didn't really allow for them to form a common front some cooperated with port. to maintain prosperity and security ...others engaged in evasion and resistance TWO EXAMPLES -> RANGE OF INDIAN OCEAN RESPONSES
samorin
ruler of calicut the samorin and his Muslim officials showed minor interest in Portuguese as trding partners...da Gamma's gifts provoked laughter
Settlers
several hundred settlers and missionaries returned to Hispaniola with Columbus in 1493 hoping to make fortunes settlers demanded natives to look for gold, stole gold, confiscated food, sexually assulted native women -> Arawak rebelled in 1495
Caravel
smaller that largest European ships/Zheng's Chinese junks small size = entered shallow waters and explore upriver -strong eough to withstand storms -could be equipped with triangular sials that could take wind on either side to increase movability -could use square atlantic sails -> greater speed with a following wind - small canon = good fighting ships ECONOMY, SPEED, AGILITY, POWER
what products did Benin trade with Portuguese
sold pepper, ivory tusks, stone beads, textiles, pows (resale at Elmina) Portuguese merchants provided benin with copper, brass, fine textiles glass beads, horse for king's royal procession Portuguese demand for slaves (sugar plantations) on Sao Tome (nearby island) grew...oba raised price of slaves and imposed restrictions limiting their sale
mix of commercial, military, and religious exchanges in early contacts
some African rulers appreciated advantage of European firearms over spears and arrows (sought trade here) African religions were generally not exclusive -> coastal rulers wanted to test value of Christian practices
the maritime revolution in the americas spain v portugal
spain held territorial empire in americas in contrast to the trading empires of portugal in africa/asia -spain had larger population and greater resources -outcome had little to do with differences btwn kingdoms - similar motives for expansion -used ideantical ships and weapons
Iberian Background
special history and gerograohy of Iberian kingdoms -> different dirrection than Italians - Muslim invaders captured most of the pennisula in 8th century -> warfare between christians and Muslims -> 1250: Portugal, Castile, Aragon reconquered all of Iberia except Granada - Spain and Portugal never had a huge share in Medi trade -> more willing to seek new routes to Africa and Asia through the Atlantic -Spain and Portugal participated in shipbuilding and gunpowder revolutions
conflicts between arawak and settlers
steel swords, horses, and body armour led to SPANISH VICTORIES and slaughter of 1000s 1000s others were forced into labor for spanish cattle, pigs,goats introduced by settlers devoured Arawak'sfood crops -> deaths from famine and disease 1502: a governor divided surviving Arawak among his allies as laborers
Portugal's ability to assert control of Indian Ocean
superiority of its ships and weapons over those of regional powers 9especcially the lightly-armed merchant dhows) 1505 - 81 portuguese ships and 7000 men bombarded Swahili Coast cities, then Indian ports 1510 - Goa (west coast of India) fell Portuguese also took Gujarat, other Malabar Coast cities, Hormuz ADEN resisted 1535 - GUJARATI PORT OF DIU consolidated Portuguese dominance of the western Indian Ocean
Ottoman Turks (response to Portugal)
supported Egypt against the portuguese with a LARGE fleet nd 15,000 men (1501 - 1509) Ottomans sent another large expendition against Portuguese (1538) -> both expeditions failed bc Portuguese vessels in open ocean were faster and better-armed
Asia and Africa consequences of Portuguese dominance in Indian Ocean
traders were at mercy of Portuguese warships individual responses of traders -> fate - some were devastated; others prospered PORTUGUESE SOUGHT TO CONTROL TRADE ROUTES NOT OCCUPY LARGE TERRITORIES -> little impact on Asian/African mainlands (compare to Portuguese/American events)
Moluccas
valuable spices were a foal of Iberian voyages...Spain or Portugal? -> found to be on Portugal's side
Port of Cochin
was once a dependancy of Calicut
Indian Ocean's trandformation
was previously an open ocean...used by merchants/pirates of all surrounding coasts portuguese crown wanted to make Indian ocean a portuguese sea/Portugal's private property
