Bio Exam 3
free energy (G)
(G=H-T) - Free energy that is available to do work - exergonic
ATP
(adenosine triphosphate) main energy source that cells use for most of their work
chemical reaction
(chemistry) a process in which one or more substances are changed into others
catalyst
(chemistry) a substance that initiates or accelerates a chemical reaction without itself being affected
NAD+
(nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) electron carrier involved in glycolysis. In glycolysis in the absence of oxygen, cells need a way to regenerate which compound?
gene regulation
- allows cell differentiation, ability of an organism to control which genes are transcribed in response to the environment
State the function of each of the three phases of the Calvin cycle
1 Carboxylation = the addition of CO2 to the 5 carbon compound, RuBP is catalyzed by the enzyme ribisco. Carbon fixation of CO2 to 3PG. 2 Reduction = NADPH transfer high-energy electrons; conversion to carbohydrate (G3P). 3 regeneration of RuBP = process, 3-C compound are reorganized and combined to produce RuBP
10. Describe the similarities and differences in chemiosmosis between oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria and photophosphorylation in chloroplasts
Electron transport chains built into a membrane pump protons across the membrane as electrons are passed down the chain in a series of redox reactions. The difference is that in respiration, organic molecules provide the electrons and chemical energy is transferred to ATP, whereas in chloroplasts water provides the electrons as light energy is transformed to the chemical energy of ATP.
kinetic energy
Energy of motion
potential energy
Energy that is stored and held in readiness
denature
A change in the shape of a protein (such as an enzyme) that can be caused by changes in temperature or pH (among other things).
citric acid cycle
A chemical cycle involving eight steps that completes the metabolic breakdown of glucose molecules to carbon dioxide; occurs within the mitochondrion; the second major stage in cellular respiration.
redox reaction
A chemical reaction involving the transfer of one or more electrons from one reactant to another; also called oxidation-reduction reaction.
endergonic
A chemical reaction that requires the input of energy in order to proceed. The reaction ADP + P --> ATP is a(n) _____ reaction.
pigment
A chemical that produces color
light harvesting complex
A complex of proteins associated with pigment molecules (including chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and carotenoids) that captures light energy and transfers it to reaction-center pigments in a photosystem.
thylakoids
A flattened membrane sac inside the chloroplast, used to convert light energy to chemical energy.
chemical energy
A form of potential energy that is stored in chemical bonds between atoms.
oxaloacetate
A four-carbon molecule that binds with the two-carbon acetyl unit of acetyl-CoA to form citric acid in the first step of the Krebs cycle.
absorption spectrum
A graph plotting a pigment light absorption.
photosystem I
A light-capturing unit in a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane or in the membrane of some prokaryotes; it has two molecules of P700 chlorophyll a at its reaction center.
entropy
A measure of the disorder of a system
photorespiration
A metabolic pathway that consumes oxygen, releases carbon dioxide, generates no ATP, and decreases photosynthetic output; generally occurs on hot, dry, bright days, when stomata close and the oxygen concentration in the leaf exceeds that of carbon dioxide. A process that occurs when rubisco binds with O2 instead of CO2; it is a dead-end process because no ATP is produced and no sugar formed
feedback inhibition
A method of metabolic control in which the end product of a metabolic pathway acts as an inhibitor of an enzyme within that pathway.
stomata
A microscopic pore surrounded by guard cells in the epidermis of leaves and stems that allows gas exchange between the environment and the interior of the plant.
Describe the induced fit model of enzyme function
A model for enzyme-substrate interaction to describe that only the proper substrate is capable of inducing the proper alignment of the active site that will enable the enzyme to perform its catalytic function. It suggests that the active site continues to change until the substrate is completely bound to it, at which point the final shape and charge is determined.
energy intermediates
A molecule such as ATP or NADH that stores energy and is used to drive endergonic reactions in cells.
photon
A particle of electromagnetic radiation with no mass that carries a quantum of energy
c4 plants
A plant that prefaces the Calvin cycle with reactions that incorporate CO2 into four-carbon compounds, the end product of which supplies CO2 for the Calvin cycle. plants that have adapted their photosynthetic process to more efficiently handle hot and dry conditions
c3 plants
A plant that uses the Calvin cycle for the initial steps that incorporate CO2 into organic material, forming a three-carbon compound as the first stable intermediate. Plants that ONLY use the Calvin Cycle
action spectrum
A profile of the relative performance of the different wavelengths in photosynthesis.
non-cyclic electron flow
A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves both photosystems and produces ATP, NADPH, and oxygen. The net electron flow is from water to NADP+. linear pathway that leads to NADPH, ATP, and O2 production, pathway is similar to Electron transport chain.
cyclic electron flow
A route of electron flow during the light reactions of photosynthesis that involves only photosystem I and that produces ATP but not NADPH or oxygen
electron transport chain
A sequence of electron carrier molecules (membrane proteins) that shuttle electrons during the redox reactions that release energy used to make ATP.
allosteric site
A site on an enzyme other than the active site, to which a specific substance binds, thereby changing the shape and activity of the enzyme.
substrate
A specific reactant acted upon by an enzyme
enzyme substrate complex
A temporary complex formed when an enzyme binds to its substrate molecule(s).
chlorophyll a
A type of blue-green photosynthetic pigment that participates directly in the light reactions.
feedback inhibition
A type of metabolic control in which high concentrations of the product of a metabolic pathway inhibit one of the enzymes early in the pathway. A form of negative feedback. example... keeps blood sugar levels regulated, neither too high or too low.
enzyme
A type of protein that speeds up a chemical reaction in a living thing
Acetyl CoA
Acetyl coenzyme A; the entry compound for the citric acid cycle in cellular respiration, formed from a fragment of pyruvate attached to a coenzyme.
metabolism
All of the chemical reactions that occur within an organism
electromagnetic spectrum
All of the frequencies or wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation
carotenoids
An accessory pigment, either yellow or orange, in the chloroplasts of plants. By absorbing wavelengths of light that chlorophyll cannot, carotenoids broaden the spectrum of colors that can drive photosynthesis.
affinity
An attraction to
NADPH
An electron carrier involved in photosynthesis. Light drives electrons from chlorophyll to NADP+, forming NADPH, which provides the high-energy electrons for the reduction of carbon dioxide to sugar in the Calvin cycle. After 3-PGA is phosphorylated, it is reduced by NADPH.
NADH
An energy-carrying coenzyme produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. NADH carries energy to the electron transport chain, where it is stored in ATP.
NADH
An energy-carrying coenzyme produced by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle. NADH carries energy to the electron transport chain, where it is stored in ATP. during glycolysis, NAD+ is turned into?
Describe the functions of Enzymes
An enzyme acts as a catalyst, which speeds up reactions. Enzymes are proteins in biological systems used to regulate the metabolism.
chloroplast
An organelle found in plant and algae cells where photosynthesis occurs
heterotroph
An organism that cannot make its own food.
autotroph
An organism that makes its own food
transition state
An unstable grouping of atoms that exists momentarily in the course of a reaction, when a system is highest in energy. when the activated complex is as likely to form reactants as it is to form products
Explain what happens to rubisco when oxygen concentration is much higher than CO2 concentration inside the cell
As more O2 than CO2 accumulates, rubisco adds O2 in places of CO2 to RuBP. The products splits, and a two-carbon compound leaves the chloroplast and is broken down to release CO2; photorespiration
Compare fermentation and cellular respiration, including conditions and ATP production
Both use energy released from redox reactions to make ATP. All use glycolysis to oxidize glucose and harvest chemical energy of food. In all three, NAD+ is the oxidizing agent that accepts electrons during glycolysis. The processes have different final electron acceptors: an organic molecule (such as pyruvate or acetaldehyde) in fermentation and O2 in cell respiration. Cellular respiration produces 32 ATP per glucose molecule while fermentation produces 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
induced fit
Brings chemical groups of the active site into positions that enhance their ability to catalyze the chemical reaction.
Describe two important photosynthetic adaptations that minimize photorespiration
C4 plants and CAM plants are the two most important photosynthetic adaptations that minimize photorespiration. In C4 plants, CO2 is first added to a three-carbon compound, PEP, with the aid of an enzyme (PEP carboxylase) that has a high affinity for CO2. The resulting four-carbon compound formed in the mesophyll cells of the leaf is transported to bundle-sheath cells tightly packed around the veins of the leaf. The compound is broken down to release CO2, which rubisco then fixes into the Calvin cycle. In CAM plants, they break down the compounds down to release CO2 during daylight so that the Calvin cycle can proceed. The process of succulent plants close their stomata during the day to prevent water loss, but open at night to take up CO2 and incorporate it into a variety of organic acids. The CAM pathway does not structurally separate carbon fixation from the Calvin cycle
energy
Capacity to do work
Explain the general reaction for photosynthesis in terms of water, light, oxygen and carbon dioxide and carbohydrate
Carbon dioxide+water (with light) <---> sugar+oxygen
Differentiate catabolic and anabolic pathways in cellular metabolism
Catabolic pathways release energy by breaking down complex molecules to simpler compounds. Anabolic pathways consume energy to build complicated molecules from simpler ones.
glycolysis
Catabolism of glucose or other monosaccharides to pyruvate and 2 molecules of ATP in the absence of oxygen or 34 molecules of ATP in the presence of oxygen.
exergonic
Chemical reactions that release energy, spontaneous. The reaction A --> B + C + heat is released in a(n) _____ reaction.
Explain how pigments are important to photosynthesis
Chlorophyll a is the most common and important pigment involved in photosynthesis. It participates directly in the light reactions. Also involved are the accessory pigments chlorophyll b, and the carotenoids. These pigments are used because they broaden the spectrum of light absorbed by the plant. Carotenoids are what give deciduous trees their pretty colors in the fall. More importantly, carotenoids engage in photoprotection - which means they are able to absorb and dissipate excessive light energy that would otherwise harm chlorophyll or react with oxygen and damage the plant cells.
biosphere
Consists of all life on Earth and all parts of the Earth in which life exists, including land, water, and the atmosphere.
photosynthesis
Conversion of light energy from the sun into chemical energy.
thermodynamics
Deals with the relations ship of heat transfer between other forms of energy. Study of the effects of work, heat and energy on a system. The transfer of energy through heat. The way heat is used as an energy resource
biochemical regulation
Feedback inhibition, product of pathway inhibits early steps to prevent over accumulation of product. binding of molecule to an enzyme to directly regulate its function.
Summarize the first and second laws of thermodynamics
First -- energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can be transformed from a more useful form to a less useful form, such as from wood to smoke and ashes Second -- Energy moves towards entropy -- the potential energy of a system will be less than the initial energy, if there are no inputs of energy.
reduction
Gain of electrons
what does NADH do in cellular respiration?
Gives its electrons up to pyruvate, becoming NAD+
Describe glycolysis in general terms, as well as its net versus total ATP production.
Glucose (input)-->Glycolysis--> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH (outputs)
chlorophyll
Green pigment in plants that absorbs light energy used to carry out photosynthesis
wavelength
Horizontal distance between the crests or between the troughs of two adjacent waves
adenosine triphosphate(ATP)
Important AF. -an energy containing compound made of nitrogen component adenine, 5-carbon sugar called ribose, and three phosphate group
Compare exergonic and endergonic reactions with regards to free energy change
In an exergonic reaction, energy leaves the system and the reaction is spontaneous, ΔG is negative. In an endergonic reaction, ΔG is positive -- energy was added to the system and it is not spontaneous. If ΔG is zero, the equation is in equilibrium
Describe fermentation in plant and animal cells and explain the importance of this process in terms of energy harvest and ATP production.
In the absence of O2, NADH reduces pyruvate (or a metabolite) to regenerate oxidized NAD+ (pyruvate reduced to ethanol or lactate)
primary electron acceptor
In the thylakoid membrane of a chloroplast or in the membrane of some prokaryotes, a specialized molecule that shares the reaction-center complex with a pair of chlorophyll a molecules and that accepts an electron from them.
Explain how ATP hydrolysis can drive other reactions
In this role, ATP transports chemical energy within cells for metabolism. It is produced as an energy source during the processes of photosynthesis and cellular respiration and consumed by many enzymes and a multitude of cellular processes including biosynthetic reactions, motility and cell division.
competitive inhibition
Inhibition of an enzyme's ability to catalyze a chemical reaction via a non-reactant molecule that competes with the substrate(s) for access to the active site.
non-competitive inhibition
Inhibitors that attach to an enzyme in the allosteric site, distorting the tertiary structure of the enzyme.
ATP synthase
Large protein that uses energy from H+ ions to bind ADP and a phosphate group together to produce ATP
Trace the movement of electrons in cyclic electron flow
Linear electron flow is the electrons that pass through the two photosystems from water to NADP+. Cyclic electron flow are the electrons excited from P700 in PSI are passed from Fd to the cytochrome complex and back to P700.
List the components of a photosystem and explain the function of each component
Located in the thylakoid membrane, contain a number of light-harvesting complexes and a reaction center complex, which is a protein complex with two special chlorophyll a molecules and a primary electron acceptor; The chlorophyll a molecule at the reaction center of photosystem II (PSII) is called P680, after the wavelength of the light (680 nm) it absorbs best. At the reaction center of photosystem I (PSI) is a chlorophyll a molecule called P700.
oxidation
Loss of electrons
Describe the structure of the chloroplast and basic leaf anatomy.
Mesophyll epidermal cells stomata mesophyll cells chloroplast outer membrane intermembrane space inner membrane thylakoid thylakoid lumen granum stroma
catabolic pathways
Metabolic pathways that release energy by breaking down complex molecules into simpler compounds.
photosystem I
NADPH is made
NAD+
Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, a coenzyme that cycles easily between oxidized (NAD+) and reduced (NADH) states, thus acting as an electron carrier.
Trace the movement of electrons in noncyclic electron flow.
Non-Cyclic Electron Flow - uses PS II and PS I. Photosystem II supplies electrons to the beginning of the electron transport chain. When photosystem II loses an electron (that is, when it is itself oxidized), it is able to pull electrons from water. In contrast, photosystem I energizes electrons with a second input of light energy so they have enough energy to reduce NADP+.
cofactor
Non-protein helpers that may be bound tightly to the enzyme as a permanent resident, or may bind loosely and reversibly along with the substrate.
photosystem II
One of two light-harvesting units of a chloroplast's thylakoid membrane; it uses the P680 reaction-center chlorophyll. the FIRST photosystem in the thylakoid membrane. Accepts electrons from water. It is a back up system involved in cyclic photophosphorylation when there is not enough NADH.
chlorophyll b
One type of chlorophyll that acts as an antenna pigment, expanding the wavelengths of light that can be used to power photosynthesis. A type of yellow-green accessory photosynthetic pigment that transfers energy to chlorophyll a.
pyruvate
Organic compound with a backbone of three carbon atoms. Two molecules form as end products of glycolysis
Describe the molecules that link the light reactions and the Calvin cycle
Photosynthesis depends on an interaction between two sets of reactions: the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. Chlorophyll and the other molecules responsible for the light reactions are built into the thylakoid membranes. The enzymes that catalyze the Calvin cycle are located in the stroma. Beginning with the absorption of light by chlorophyll, the light reactions convert light energy into chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH. The ATP provides the energy, and the NADPH supplies the electrons for the Calvin cycle, which converts carbon dioxide to sugar. The ADP and NADP+ that result from the Calvin cycle shuttle back to the light reactions, which regenerate ATP and NADPH.
Distinguish between kinetic and potential energy
Potential energy is stored energy; kinetic energy is energy in motion that is doing work.
substrate level phosphorylation
Process by which ATP is produced as a special enzyme moves a phosphate from one molecule to ADP. How energy is produced during glycolysis and the Krebs cycle.
chemiosmosis
Process by which a Hydrogen pump pumps protons into the thylakoid membrane. H+ passively flows through the ATP synthase which leads to the creation of ATP.
chemiosmosis
Process by which a Hydrogen pump pumps protons into the thylakoid membrane. H+ passively flows through the ATP synthase which leads to the creation of ATP. A process for synthesizing ATP using the energy of an electrochemical gradient and the ATP synthase enzyme.
cellular respiration
Process that releases energy by breaking down glucose and other food molecules in the presence of oxygen
Describe how food molecules other than glucose can be oxidized to make ATP
Proteins - amino acids can feed into the Krebs Cycle by transamination reactions. Fatty acids can feed into the Krebs Cycle via Acetyl CoA which is produced by the beta oxidation. Glycerol, derived from lipids, can feed into glycolysis at the 3-carbon stage (glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate).
Anaerobic respiration
Respiration in the absence of oxygen. This produces lactic acid. The anaerobic breakdown of glucose into pyruvic acid with the release of a small amount of ATP.
aerobic respiration
Respiration that requires oxygen
photoexcited electron
Stage 3 in photosystem 1. Cyclic Electron Flow.
Explain how temperature, pH, and enzyme inhibitors can affect an enzyme
Temperature affects enzyme activity because enzymes are made of proteins and as the temperature raises, the protein's molecular structure will be more and more unstable until it denatures and breaks apart. The pH works essentially the same where the enzyme will denature if it is in too acidic or too basic of an environment. Cofactors are molecules that will fit into the active site of an enzyme and active/deactivate. Enzyme inhibitors are little molecules that will fit into an enzyme and prevent the cofactor from reaching it and activating it.
ribulose biphosphate
The Calvin cycle produces a molecule that is able to reenter the cycle as a reactant. Which of the following molecules is used as a reactant in the beginning of the Calvin cycle and is then produced at the end?
mitochondrial matrix
The compartment of the mitochondrion enclosed by the inner membrane and containing enzymes and substrates for the Krebs cycle.
NADH
The conversion of pyruvic acid into lactic acid requires
Explain what happens to electrons when pigments absorb light energy.
The energy from the light excites an electron from its ground energy level to an excited energy level. This high-energy electron can have several fates. For most compounds that absorb light, the electron simply returns to the ground state and the absorbed energy is converted into heat. However, if a suitable electron acceptor is nearby, the excited electron can move from the initial molecule to the acceptor
light reactions
The first of two major stages in photosynthesis (preceding the Calvin cycle). These reactions, which occur on the thylakoid membranes of the chloroplast or on membranes of certain prokaryotes, convert solar energy to the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH, releasing oxygen in the process.
intermembrane space
The fluid filled space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes
mesophyll
The ground tissue of a leaf, sandwiched between the upper and lower epidermis and specialized for photosynthesis. Leaf cells specialized for photosynthesis. In C3 and CAM plants, mesophyll cells are located between the upper and lower epidermis; in C4 plants, they are located between the bundle-sheath cells and the epidermis.
carbon fixation
The initial incorporation of carbon from CO2 into an organic compound by an autotrophic organism (a plant, another photosynthetic organism, or a chemoautotrophic prokaryote). The conversion of inorganic carbon (for example, CO2) into organic forms (for example, sugars).
oxidation
The loss of electrons
phosphorylation
The metabolic process of introducing a phosphate group into an organic molecule.
active site
The part of an enzyme or antibody where the chemical reaction occurs.
thylakoid membrane
The photosynthetic membrane within a chloroplast that contains light gathering pigment molecules and electron transport chains.
1st law of thermodynamics
The principle of conservation of energy. Energy can be transferred and transformed, but it cannot be created or destroyed.
2nd law of thermodynamics
The principle whereby every energy transfer or transformation increases the entropy of the universe. Ordered forms of energy are at least partly converted to heat, and in spontaneous reactions, the free energy of the system also decreases.
photophosphorylation
The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis. ATP is formed utilizing the energy of sunlight The process of generating ATP from ADP and phosphate by means of a proton-motive force generated by the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast during the light reactions of photosynthesis.
oxidative phosphorylation
The production of ATP using energy derived from the redox reactions of an electron transport chain; the third major stage of cellular respiration
Describe the role of ATP and NADPH in the Calvin cycle
They are from the light reactions that supply the reducing power and chemical energy needed for the Calvin cycle.
visible spectrum
Wavelengths of light that humans can see: 380 nm to 750 nm. the scale of different wavelengths the eye can see
Understand how a photosystem harvests light energy
When a photon strikes a pigment molecule in a light-harvesting complex, the energy is passed from molecule to molecule until it reaches the reaction-center complex. Here, an excited electron from the special pair of chlorophyll, a molecules is transferred to the primary electron acceptor.
H+ electrochemical gradient
When the concentration gradient of H+ is higher outside of the matrix than inside and an excess of positive charge exists outside the matrix...
NADPH
Which of the following molecules is the primary product of photosystem I?
anabolic reactions
Which of the following types of reactions would decrease the entropy within a cell?
photosystem I
Which photosystem is able to boost electrons to the very high energy level needed to make NADPH from NADP+?
non-competitive inhibition
a molecule that binds to an enzyme at a location outside the active site and inhibits the enzyme's function.
spontaneous reaction
a reaction that favors the formation of products at the specified conditions; spontaneity depends on enthalpy and entropy changes
metabolic pathways
a series of enzymatic reactions that converts one biological material to another.
specificity
an enzyme and substrates specific fit.
Describe the balance between respiration and photosynthesis that sustains life in the biosphere
an important energy cycle between photosynthesis and cellular respiration. Photosynthesis uses light, co2, and h2o to produce 02 and organic molecules. the organic molecules can be broken down to co2 and h2o via cellular respiration to supply energy in the form of ATP;o2 is reduced to h20
coenzyme
an organic cofactor required for enzyme activity
Explain the difference between the basic function of Light Reactions and Calvin Cycle (what goes "in" and what goes "out" Figure 8.3) and where each occurs in the chloroplast
an overview of the two stages of photosynthesis:Light reactions and the calvin cycle the light reactions, through which ATP, NADPH, and O2 are made, occur atg the thylakoid membrane. The calvin cycle, in which enzymes use ATP and NADPH to incorporate CO2 into carbohydrate, occurs in the stroma
cellular regulation
cell-signaling pathways (i.e. hormones) take signals from environment and react accordingly (regulation of metabolic pathways)
What does FADH2 do in cellular respiration?
electrons are passed to the next more electronegative carrier and the protons (H+) move to the intermembrane space.
Explain the ways an enzyme can lower activation energy
enzyme molecule holds one of the reactants in an orientation appropriate for successful collision. The other reactant molecule approaches, and most collisions result in a reaction.
FAD
flavin adenine dinucleotide. flavin adenine dinucleotide; combines with two hydrogen atoms during cell respiration to form FADH2
formula for cellular respiration
glucose+ oxygen (goes to)---- ATP +water+ carbon dioxide C6H12O6+ + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ENERGY
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate
glycerol enters glycolysis as this molecule. A three-carbon carbohydrate that is the direct product of the Calvin cycle; it is also an intermediate in glycolysis.
list the colors of light that are least effective for photosynthesis
green, or the color of the plant
Explain the insides of a Chloroplast
inner membrane, inner membrane space, outer membrane space, stroma, granum, thylakoid, lamella, lumen(inside of thylakoid) A double membrane surrounding a dense fluid called the stroma and elaborate membrane system called thylakoids, enclosing the thylakoids space. Thylakoid sacs may be stacked to form grana. Chlorophyll is embedded in the thylakoid membrane.
Explain how enzyme structure determines enzyme specificity
its like a lock and key mechanism where the substrate (this substance the enzyme acts on) is the lock and the enzyme is the key; so only the enzymes with the structure that fits perfectly into the substrate can act on the substrate; hence specific enzymes act on specific substrates.
photosystem II
makes ATP from H+ gradient and Oxygen
photoautotroph
organism that uses energy from sunlight to convert carbon dioxide and water to carbon compounds
cam plants
plants close their stomata during the day, collect CO2 at night, and store the CO2 in the form of acids until it is needed during the day for photosynthesis. Store the organic acids made at night in vacuoles and use them for photosynthesis during the day when stomata are closed
metabolic cycle
plants convert energy into matter and release oxygen gas; animals then absorb this oxygen gas in order to run their own metabolic reactions, and in the process release carbon dioxide. This carbon dioxide is then absorbed by plants in the photosynthesis conversion of energy into matter; full circle.
FADH2
produced in the Krebs cycle, it is a reduced form of FAD, it is an electron carrier capable of creating 2 ATP from releasing its electrons to the electron transport chain
calvin cycle
reactions of photosynthesis in which energy from ATP and NADPH is used to build high-energy compounds such as sugars. The process in which carbon dioxide, ATP, and NADPH are turned into glucose, ADP, and NADP+
list the colors of light that are most effective for photosynthesis
red is better for absorption, blue is better for rate of photosynthesis, white reflects all colors of the spectrum
Summarize the 3 basic steps of the light reactions and know what 3 products are made
step 1 as light energy is absorbed It excited the electrons in clorophyll a, chlorophyll b, and cartenoids electrons pass through the pigments by jumping along the photosystems in light reactions. tep 2 That high-energy e- finally reaches a molecule of chlorophyll a that will pass it along to the PEA molecules in the thylakoid membrane in light reactions step 3 The e- energy moves through the electron transport chain (ETC) proteins located along the thylakoid membrane in light reactions step 4a The e- from PS II that moved down that portion of the ETC have replenished the e- that left PS I in light reactions step 4b water spliting occurs here in calvin cycle in light reactions step 5 All of these less energetic e- that moved down the ETC from PS I are paired with a H+ in the stroma to form H (hydrogen atom) in light reactions step 6 : The H+ within in the thylakoid space create a high concentration gradient compared to the low concentration of H+ in the stroma in light reactions Step 1 a CO2 molecule is added to a five-carbon atom (Calvin Cycle) step 2 three resulting six-carbon compounds split to form a total of six three carbon compounds (Calvin Cycle) step 3 one 3 carbon sugar molecule is used to make organic compounds (Calvin Cycle) step 4 the other 5 three carbon sugars regenerate the five-carbon compound that began the cycle (Calvin Cycle)
activation energy
the minimum amount of energy required to start a chemical reaction
9. Compare the products of noncyclic and cyclic electron flow
the products of linear electron flow are ATP, oxygen (from water) and NADPH (from NADP+). Cyclic electron flow just produces ATP
prosthetic groups
tightly bound cofactors or coenzymes that are necessary for enzyme function
Write and define each component of the equation for free-energy change.
ΔG = ΔH - TΔS Gibbs free energy equation determines if a chemical equation will be spontaneous or not. If ΔG comes out negative, it is spontaneous, if positive, it's not spontaneous. ΔH is change in enthalpy, or energy in a system, and TΔS is difference in entropy multiplied by temperature, and entropy is the energy that is not used for work and accumulates as waste heat. So if difference in enthalpy is greater than difference in entropy times temperature, that means that energy was added to the system, and if difference in enthalpy is less than difference in temperature times difference in entropy, that means that energy left the system.
