Chapter 7 Review Questions

alcohol use disorder

(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Define psychoactive drug

A psychoactive drug is a chemical substance that alters perceptions and mood

ecstasy

a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.

manifest content

according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream

latent content

according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream

effects of marijuana

pleasurable effects: enhanced sensation, relief of pain, distortion of time, relaxation. adverse (harmful) effects: impaired learning and memory, increased risk of psychological disorders, lung damage from smoke.

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

Nicotine

a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco

withdrawal

the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug

THC

the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations

REM rebound

the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)

activation-synthesis theory

theory that dreams reflect inputs from brain activation originating in the pons, which the forebrain then attempts to weave into a story

psychoactive drugs

chemicals that affect the central nervous system and alter activity in the brain

Narcolepsy

A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.

Describe the near-death experience and the controversy over whether it provides evidence for a mind-body dualism

About one-third of those who have survived a brush with death, such as through cardiac arrest, later recall visionary near-death experiences. These sometimes involve out-of-body sensations and seeing or traveling toward a bright light. Dualists interpret these experiences as evidence of human immortality. Monists point out that reports of such experiences closely parallel reports of hallucinations and may be products of a brain under stress

Discuss the history of psychology's study of consciousness, and contrast conscious and unconscious information processing

Consciousness, currently defined as our awareness of ourselves and our environment, occurs in the normal states of seeing and hearing, reasoning, and remembering, but also in the altered consciousness of sleep, hypnotic states, and chemically induced hallucinations. Psychology began as the study of consciousness, then, under the behaviorists, turned to the study of observable behavior. Under the impact of discoveries in neuroscience and cognitive psychology, the scientific investigation of states of mind is again one of psychology's pursuits We process information on two levels. Our conscious processing in serial and relatively slow, but this focused state of awareness enables us to perform voluntary acts, solve novel problems, and communicate with others. In unconscious processing, we perform familiar tasks automatically, and our sensory systems and neural pathways register stimuli rapidly and simultaneously on multiple tracts.

Effects of LSD

Creates mood change, unexpected laughing or crying, hallucinations, visual/auditory disruption

Explain how depressant affect nervous system activity and behavior, and summarize the findings on alcohol use and abuse

Depressant, such as alcohol, barbiturates, and the opiates, reduce neural activity and slow body functions. Alcohol is a disinhibitor. It increases the likelihood that we will act on impulses-harmful or helpful- that we might not express in the absence of alcohol. It also slows nervous system activity, impairs judgement, reduces self-awareness, and disrupts memory processes by suppressing REM sleep. If people believe they have consumed alcoholic beverages, they will behave accordingly and explain their behavior as alcohol-induced.

Name the main categories of psychoactive drugs, and list three ways these substances can interfere with neurotransmission in the brain

Depressants, stimulants, and hallucinogens are the three main categories of psychoactive drugs. These substance interfere with neurotransmission by stimulation, inhibiting, or mimicking the activity of chemical messengers at synapses in the brain. The effects of psychoactive dregs also depend on the user's expectation

Freud's wish-fulfillment

Dreams provide a "psychic safety valve"—expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content—a hidden meaning.

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Compare the major perspective on why we dream

Freud believed that dream provide a safety valve, because their manifest content is a censored version of latent content. The information-processing perspective on dreaming is that dreams help us sort out the day's experiences and fix them in memory. Other physiological theories of dreaming propose that REM-induced regular brain stimulation helps develop and preserve neural pathways in the brain. The activation-synthesis explanation of dreaming is the REM sleep trigegers impulses in the visual cortex, evoking rendom visual images tha tour brain tries to weave into a story line. The brain-maturation/cognitive-development , knowledge, and understanding. Despite their differences, most sleep theorists agree that REM sleep and its associated dreams serve an important function, as shown by the REM rebound that occurs following REM deprivation

Describe the physiological and psychological effects of hallucinogens, and summarize the effects of LSD and marijuana

Hallucinogens, such as LSD and marijuana, distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absense of sensory input. LSD is chemically similar to one type of serotonin. The user's mood and expectations influence the effects of LSD, but common components are hallucinations and emotions varying from euphoria to panic. Marijuana's main active ingredient, THC, triggers a variety of effects, including disinhibition, a euphoric high, feelings of relaxation, relief from pain, and intense sensitivity to colors, sounds, tastes, and smells. It may also amplify feelings of anxiety or depression, impair motor coordination and reaction time, disrupt memory formation and -because of the inhaled smoke in which it travels-damage lung tissue

Discuss the characteristics of people who are susceptible to hypnosis, and evaluate claims that hypnosis can influence people;s memory, will, health, and perception of pain.

Highly hypnotizable people can focus attention totally on a task, become imaginatively absorbed in it, and entertain fanciful possibilities. Hypnosis does not enhance recall of forgotten vents and may evoke false memories. Hypnotize d people, like unhypnotized people, may perform unlikely acts when told to do so by an authoritative person. Posthypnotic suggestions have helped people harness their own healing powers to reduce headaches and other disorders but have not been effective in treating addictions

Misconceptions about drug addiction

Its easy to quit/get help. Addiction is a choice. People addicted to recreational vs prescription drugs are different. Addicts dont need help until theyve hit "rock bottom"

Explain why sleep patterns and duration vary from person to person

Many people, if allowed to sleep as long as they want, will average about 9 hours. But sleep is affected by age-newborns, for example, sleep twice as much as adults. People also differ in their individual sleep requirements, and two studies indicate these differences may be partly genetic. Cultural expectation about "the perfect sleep" also help determine the amount of sleep we feel is adequate

Distinguish four types of biological rhythms, and give an example of each

Our internal "biological clocks" create periodic physiological fluctuations. These cycles occur annually, every 28 days, every 24 hours, and every 90 minutes.

Discuss the nature of drug dependence, and identify three common misconceptions

Psychoactive drugs alter perceptions and moods. Continued use of these drugs produces tolerance and may lead to physical or psychological dependence. Addiction is compulsive drug craving and use. Three common misconceptions about addiction are that addictive drugs quickly corrupt; therapy is always required to overcome addiction; and the concept of addiction can meaningfully be extended beyond chemical dependence to a wide range of other behaviors

Discuss the biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors that contribute to drug use

Psychological factors and social factors combine to lead many people to experiment with-and sometimes become dependent on=drugs. Cultural and ethnic groups have differing rates of drug use. Twin and adoption studies, as well as animal and molecular genetic studies, indicate that some people are biologically more likely to become dependent on drugs such as alcohol. Each of these influences-biological, psychological, and social-cultural-offers a possible path for drug prevention and treatment programs

Define hypnosis, and not some similarities between the behavior of hypnotized people and that of motivated unhypnotized people

Psychologist now agree that hypnosis is a state of heightened suggestibility to which people are subject in varying degrees. Research indicates that the strength, stamina, learning, and perceptual abilities of hypnotized people many be matched by those motvated unhypnotized

Discuss several risks associated with sleep deprivation

Sleep deprivation puts people at risk not only for fatigue, but also for a depressed immune system; impaired concentration, creativity, and communication; irritability; and slower performance. Chronoic sleep deprivation can alter metabolic and hormornal functioning, creating condition that may contribute to obesity, hyptertension, and memory impariment

Identify four theories of why we sleep

Sleep may have played a protective role in human evolution by keeping people safe during potentially dangerous periods. Sleep gives the brain time to heal, as it restores and repairs damaged neurons. During sleep, we restore and rebuild memories of the day's experiences, and a good night's sleep promotes insightful problem-solving the next day. Sleep also encourages growth; the pituitary gland secretes a growth hormone in Stage 4 sleep.

Identify the major stimulants, and explain how they affect neural activity and behavior

Stimulants-caffeine, nicotine, the amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy- excite neural activity and speed up body functions. Methamphetamine is highly addictive, and continued use may permanently reduce dopamine production. Cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin at synapses in the brain and gives uses a 15- to 30- minute rush of intense high feelings, followed by a crash. Cocaine is highly addictive, and its risks include cardiovascular stress and suspiciousness. Ecstasy is a combine stimulant and mild hallucinogen. By releasing serotonin and blocking its reuptake at synapses, Ecstasy produces a euphoric high and feelings of intimacy. Its repeated use may suppress the immune system, disrupt the circadian clock, and destroy serotonin-producing neurons, and permanently damage mood and memory. Combine with physical activity, it can cause dehydration leading to potentially fatal overheating

Give arguments for and against hypnosis as an altered state of consciousness

The belief that hypnosis produces a dissociation-a split- between normal sensations and conscious awareness gains support from three sets of findings. Hypnotized people may carry out posthypnotic suggestions when no one is watching. Brain scans of hypnotized people told to "see" things that are not there show activity in brain areas that usually light up only when we are sensing real stimuli. People hypnotized for pain relief may show activity in brain areas that receive sensory information but not in areas that normally process that information. Those who reject the hypnosis-as-altered-consciousness view believe that hypnosis is a byproduct of normal social and cognitive process and that the hypnotized person is unknowingly acting out the role of "good subject." In one experiment supporting this interpretation, ,researchers tell hypnotized people that hypnosis reveals their gullibility and the participants stop responding as directed. Contemporary researchers are intrigues by the puzzle of how brain activity, attention, and social influences interact to create hypnotic phenomena

Describe the cycle of our circadian rhythm, and identify some events that can disrupt this biological clock.

The circadian rhythm's 24-hour cycle regulates our daily schedule of sleeping and waking. This cycle is in part a response to light striking the retina, signaling the suprachiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus to trigger alterations in the level of biochemical substances, including decreased output of sleep-inducing melatonin by the pineal gland. Time changes, long flights, shifts in sleep schedules, and exposure to light can reset this biological clock

List the stages of the sleep cycle, and explain how they differ

The cycle of five sleep stages totals about 90 minutes. Leaving the alpha waves of the awake, relaxed stage, we descend into transitional Stage 1 sleep, often with the sensation of falling or floating. Stage 2 sleep follows about 20 minutes later, with its characteristic sleep spindles. Then follows Stages 3 and 4, together lasting about 30 minutes with large, slow delta waves. Reversing course, we retrace our path through these stage-with one difference: About an hour after falling asleep, we begin approximately 10 minutes of REM sleep, in which most dreaming occurs. In this fifth stage, we are internally aroused but outwardly paralyzed. As this up-and-down cycle repeats during a normal night's sleep, periods of Stage 4 and then Stage 3 sleep progressively shorten and dreaming REM sleep lengthens

Identify the major sleep disorders

The disorders of sleep include insomnia, narcolepsy, sleep apnea, night terrors, sleepwalking, and sleeptalking. Sleep apnea mainly targets overweight men. Children are most prone to night terrors, sleepwalking, and sleeptalking

Describe the most common content of dreams

We usually dream of ordinary events and everyday experiences, 80 percent of them involving some anxiety or misfortune. Fewer than 10 percent of dream have any sexual content. Most dream occur during REM sleep; those that happen during non-REM sleep tend to be vague fleeting images

sleep apnea

a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings

Cocaine

a powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria

LSD

a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)

Methamphetamine

a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels

night terrors

a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered

near-death experience

an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations

addiction

compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences

substance abuse disorder

continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Barbiturates

drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment

Amphetamines

drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes

dream

hallucinations of the sleeping mind

information processing

humans accomplish this either in parallel (unconsciously) or in serial fashion (consciously)

Opiates

opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety

insomnia

recurring problems in falling or staying asleep

physiological function

regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways

cognitive development

the development of thinking, problem solving, and memory