COGNITION FINAL

Describe how these two aspects of language (SYNTAX & SEMANTICS) have been studied using: -The event-related potential.

***ERP and brain imaging studies have shown syntax and semantics are associated with different mechanisms*** -ERP is measure by the rapid electrical response recorded with small disc electrodes placed on a persons scalp. Measures # of items placed in Working Memory and Study of Language. -ERP investigates process of understanding conversation, where speakers say an average of 3 words/minute. -ERP consists of waves that occur at diff. delays AFTER a stimulus is presented, which can be linked to different functions. (i.e. waves (sensors) coming from different areas of brain when triggered by stimulus) -2 components to diff. aspects of language: N400 component and P600 component (N=negative/P=Positive) (400/600=time of response in milliseconds) -"The cats won't bake" results in a larger N400 response. This component of the response is sensitive to the meaning of words in a sentence; it is larger when words don't fit the sentence -The N400 response is associated with structures in the temporal lobe. (i.e. damage to areas in the temporal lobes reduces the larger N400 response that occurs when meanings don't fit in a sentence) -"The cats won't eating" results in a larger P600 response. This response is sensitive to the form of a sentence; it is larger when the FORM is incorrect -The P600 response is associated with structures in the frontal lobe. (i.e. Damage to areas in the frontal lobe reduces the larger P600 response that occurs when the form of a sentence is incorrect) *****These studies illustrate different physiological responses to syntax and semantics

After Watson's experiment, How does Confirmation Bias act like a pair of blinders?

*The confirmation bias acts like a pair of blinders—we see the world according to rules we think are correct and are never dissuaded from this view because we seek out only evidence that confirms our rule • How does this relate to hypothesis testing? - Inferential statistics is using judgment of probability that an observed difference between two groups is a dependable one or happened by chance. • NEED to Test the Alternative Hypothesis; Reject, and accept, the null hypothesis as NULL=NOT VALID.

Describe how the following can cause errors in reasoning: -heuristic

- Heuristics: "Rules of thumb" that are likely to provide the correct answer to a problem, but are not foolproof - i.e. examples in perception • Principles of perceptual organization explain the way elements are grouped together to create larger objects - a.k.a. Gestalt laws of perceptual organization

Describe the interactionist approach to parsing. How does it differ from the syntax-first approach?

- Information provided by both Semantics and syntax is taken into account simultaneously as we read or listen to a sentence. - Both semantics and syntax influence processing as one reads a sentence -Parsing can be influenced by factors in addition to syntax. -Some sentences that have the same structure but that, depending on the meanings of the words, can be either ambiguous or not ambiguous.

What are some errors with eye witnessing testimony

- Jurors carry these misconceptions about memory into the courtroom, and many judges and law enforcement officials also share these conceptions of memory. •Witnesses 'observations and there porting of their memories are often made under the less than ideal conditions that occur at a crime scene and then afterward, when they are talking with the police. •Identifications are difficult even when subjects in laboratory experiments have been instructed to pay close attention to what is happening.

SIMPLE CONNECTIONIST APPROACH

- Network responds to stimulus - Provided with correct response - Modifies responding to match correct response

What are garden path sentences?

- Sentences that begin by appearing to mean one thing, but then end up meaning something else -The phrase: "leading a person down the garden path," which means MISLEADING the person -it illustrates temporary ambiguity because the initial words of the sentence are ambiguous (they can lead to more than one meaning), BUT the meaning is made clear by the end of the sentence.

Define Category

-1. A specifically defined division in a system of classification; a class. -2. A general class of ideas, terms, or things that mark divisions or coordination within a conceptual scheme, especially

Describe the syntax-first approach to parsing. Be sure you understand the principle of late closure.

-As people read a sentence, their groupings of words into phrases is governed by the number of rules that are based on syntax. -The approach to parsing that emphasizes the role of syntax(context, grammar). PRINCIPLE OF LATE CLOSURE: states when a person encounters a new word, the person parsing mechanism assumes that this word is part of the current phrase, so each new words is added to the current phrase as long as possible. EXAMPLE: Initially we see: "after the musician played the piano was wheeled off of the stage." DOESNT MAKE SENSE. -1ST: When reading the sentence in the beginning we see: "After the musician played..." -2ND: So far all words are the same, BUT we need to add "the piano." B/C according to LATE CLOSURE, parsing assumes "the piano" is part of the current phrase, so now it becomes: "After the musician played the piano..." -3RD: Then we take a look at the word "was," & see LATE CLOSURE adds this to the phrase to create: ""After the musician played the piano was..." -4TH: "wheeled" is added to make an even longer phrase, it becomes obvious something is wrong. ***BECAUSE LATE CLOSURE HAS LED US ASTRAY(DOWN THE GARDEN PATH)*** SO, we need to reconsider, take meaning of sentence into account, rephrase sentence so "the piano" is not added in first phrase, and be put into second phrase. *LATE CLOSURE IS USEFUL IT LEADS TO CORRECT PARSING*

What is the basic idea behind the semantic network approach?

-Basic Idea: concepts are arranged in networks. -How categories and concepts are organized in the mind. -Proposes that concepts are arranged in networks within the mind.

What is the exemplar approach to categorization? How does it differ from the prototype approach, and how might the two approaches work together?

-Both involved determining whether an object is similar to other objects. -The prototype approach is a SINGLE "AVERAGE" member of the category. -The EXEMPLAR approach is MANY examples, each one called an exemplar. -The exemplar approach can explain many of Rosch's experiments which were used to support the prototype approach. -For Example: the exemplar approach explains the typicality effect (in which reaction times on the sentence verification task are faster for better examples of a category than poor examples) by proposing that objects, like exemplar objects, are classified faster. [i.e. sparrows are similar to many bird exemplars, so it is classified faster than an penguin. Penguin are similar to FEWER bird examples] -This is BASICALLY similar to idea of family resemblance, describing prototypes, which states that "better" objects will have higher family resemblance.

What is the confirmation bias? Describe Wason's experiment on sequences of numbers.

-Broader than the myside bias because it holds for ANY situation (not just for opinions & attitudes), in which information is favored that confirms hypothesis. -tendency to selectively look for information that conforms to our hypothesis and overlook information that argues against it. -Confirmation bias can affect how people approach solving a problem. TEST: "You will be given three numbers (2, 4, 6) which conform to a simple rule that I have in mind.... Your aim is to discover this rule by writing down sets of three numbers together with your reasons for your choice of them. After you have written down each set, I shall tell you whether your numbers conform to the rule or not. When you feel highly confident that you have discovered the rule, you are to write it down and tell me what it is." -Wason told subjects only whether their numbers fit his rule. -The subjects did not find out whether their rationale for creating the three numbers was correct until they felt confident enough to actually announce their rule. -The most COMMON initial hypothesis was: "increasing intervals of two." -But because the ACTUAL rule was: "three numbers in increasing order of magnitude," the rule "increasing intervals of two" is incorrect even though it creates sequences that satisfy Wason's rule. RESULTS: -The secret to determining the correct rule is to try to create sequences that don't satisfy the person's current hypothesis, but do satisfy Wason's rule [satisfy Watson rule, NOT YOURS, if not, causes you to be bias] -Subjects whose rule was correct on their first guess followed the strategy of testing a number of hypotheses themselves before giving their answer. They created sequences that were designed to disconfirm their current hypothesis. -Subjects who didn't guess the rule correctly on their first try tended to keep creating sequences that confirmed their current hypothesis.

Describe how Broca studied SYNTAX (grammar) in neuropsychology.

-Broca identified area in frontal lobe aka "Broca's area," which he proposed was involved in language production:SYNTAX. (frontal=language production=syntax/grammar) EXPERIMENT: -Tested patients who had strokes w/ damage to FRONTAL lobe. -Found that speech was slow and labored and often has jumbled sentence structure known as BROCAS APHASIA. (ie. "Alright.... Uh ... stroke and un.... I ... huh tawanna guy.... H ... h ... hot tub and.... And the.... Two days when...) -Patients with BROCAS APHASIA also had difficulty understanding some sentences. -Brocas aphasia have trouble understanding sentences in which meaning depends on order, such as "the boy was pushed by the girl," can't figure out if the girl pushed the boy or the boy pushed the girl. They have difficulty processing connecting words such as "was" and "by." GRAMMAR difficulty.

What does it mean to say that there are different levels within a category?

-Categories contain smaller categories. (i.e. levels of categories for "furniture" & "vehicles")

Why are categories useful?

-Categories help to understand individual cases/objects not previously encountered • "Pointers to knowledge" - Categories provide a wealth of general information about an item -Allow us to identify the special characteristics of a particular item

Why is the use of categories so important for our day-to-day functioning?

-Categorization is something we do every time we place an object into a category, and once we have assigned an object to a category, we know a lot about it. -Being able to place things in categories can also help us understand behaviors that we might otherwise find odd. (For example, if we see a man with the left side of his face painted black and the right side painted gold, we might question the appearance) -However, once we note that the person is heading toward the football stadium on a Sunday afternoonà categorize the person as a "Pittsburgh Steelers fan." -Placing him in that category explains his painted face and perhaps other strange behaviorsthat happen to be normal on game day in Pittsburgh.

What factors contribute to the strength of an inductive argument?

-Characteristics of inductive reasoning is that the conclusions we reach are probably, but not definitely, true. -Reasoning and observation are factors that contribute to inductive reasoning. -Representativeness of observations: "How well the observations about a particular category represent all of the members of that category" EXAMPLE of OBSERVATION: -Observation: All the crows I've seen in Pittsburgh are totally black. When I visited my brother in Washington, DC, the crows I saw there were black too. - Conclusion: I think it is a pretty good bet that all crows are black. ? - Observation: Here in Tucson, the sun has risen every morning. - Conclusion: The sun is going to rise in Tucson tomorrow.? • Strong inductive arguments result in conclusions that are more likely to be true, and weak arguments result in conclusions that are not as likely to be true. If you assume all subjects have the same characteristic, what sample of the population have you observed? • Further research reveals that the hooded crow, found in Europe, is gray with black wings and tail, and the home crow, from Asia, is gray and black. -So it turns out that: the conclusion: "All crows are totally black" is not true. - Quality of observations: • Stronger evidence results in stronger conclusions.

Describe the definitional approach to categories.

-Cognitive Psychologists have been determined to figure out process in categorizing objects. -Time-honored approach to determining the characteristic of an object is to look up its definition, referred to as "DEFINITIONAL APPROACH;" which doesn't work. -We can determine whether something is a member of a category by determining whether a particular object meets the definition of the category.

What is is a concept?

-Concept has been defined in a number of ways, including "the mental representation of a class or individual" and "the meaning of objects, events, and abstract idea." (i.e. we can say the concept "cat" is the answer to "what is a cat?" If you say that a cat is an animal that is furry and makes noises, then you described the concept of a cat.)

Define Categorization

-Concepts and categories are often discussed together and forms a process of Categorization. The process of which things are placed into categories.

What is a conditional syllogism?

-Conditional syllogisms: "two premises and a conclusion LIKE categorical BUT it is in the form of "if..then.." -used in everyday life. (EXAMPLE: You lend Steve $20, but he never paid you back. Knowing how Steve is, you maybe would say to yourself that you knew he wouldnt pay you back. IF looked at as Syllogism: 1: IF I lend steve $20 2: THEN I won't get it back CONCLUSION: I lent steve $20, Therefore, I won't get my $20 back.)

What is the conjunction rule? Describe the experiment involving Linda the bank teller and indicate how it relates to both the representativeness heuristic and the conjunction rule.

-Conjunction rule: probability of two events cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents. FOR INSTANCE, possibility of conjunction two events (A and B) cannot be higher than the probability of the single constituents (A alone or B alone). [Example: because there are more "bank tellers" (A), then there are "feminist bank tellers" (B), stating that Linda is a bank teller includes the possibility that Linda is a feminist bank teller.] People tend to violate the conjunction rule even when it is clear that they understand it. Representativeness heuristic--> the subjects saw Linda's characteristics as more REPRESENTATIVENESS of "feminist bank teller " than "bank teller." BECAUSE people make errors in reasoning by ignoring the size of the SAMPLE on which observations are observed. GRAPH: BIG circle is the population. The SMALL is the SAMPLE=LINDA.

What is a connectionist network?

-Connection networks are based on neural networks but are not necessarily identical to them. One of the KEY properties of a connectionist network is that a specific category is represented by activity that is distributed over many units in the network.

Source monitoring errors provide an example of the constructive nature of memory. -Describe what source monitoring and source monitoring errors.

-Constructive nature of memory consists of what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as the persons knowledge, experiences, and expectations. JOE: "Did you hear about the mob scene at the movie theatre for the opening of The Hunger Games: Catching Fire?" BOB: "Yes, I heard about it on the evening news." JOE: "I head about it from Bernita, who read the book, or what it Susan? I can't remember." -Source monitoring is the process in determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs. (i.e.---> "YES I HEARD ABOUT IT FROM THE EVENING NEWS.") -Error Source Monitoring: Misidentifying the source of the memory, sometimes referred to as Source Misattributions (memory is attributed to the wrong source). (i.e. JOE: "I head about it from Bernita, who read the book, or what it Susan? I can't remember.")

What is the evidence, both from "real life" and from laboratory experiments, that eyewitness testimony is not always accurate? Describe how the following factors have been shown to lead to errors in eyewitness testimony: weapons focus, familiarity, leading questions, feedback from a police officer, and postevent questioning.

-DNA exonerated 341 people in US who had been wrongly convicted of crimes & served an average of 13 yrs in prison. 75% of these wrongful convictions consisted of eyewitness testimony. -This assumption about the accuracy of testimony is based on the popular conception that memory works like a camera or video recorder. -LABORATORY: -Ronald Cotton, Convicted of the rape of Jennifer Thompson, she was positive he was the man who raped her. DNA exonerated him and claimed it being another man, but she swore it was him. DNA saved him after serving 10 yrs. EYEWITNESS: -Charles Clark: went to prison for murder in 1938 due to eyewitness testimony, after 30 yrs, was found to be inaccurate. -David Webb: 50 yrs in prison for rape, attempted rape, & attempted robbery based on eyewitness testimony. After serving 10 months, he was release when someone else confessed to crimes.

Describe the following examples of how memory errors can occur because of a person's knowledge of the world: -False recall and Recognition ("sleep" experiment).

-Deese, Roediger, & McDermott -They illustrated fast recall of items that were not actually presented. EXPERIMENT: -Read a list of words at about one item per second, THEN cover the list and write down as many words as possible. [i.e. " 1. bed, rest, awake, tired, dream; 2. wake, night, blanket, doze, slumber; 3. "snore, pillow, peace, yawn, drowsy"] RESULTS: -A lot of subjects reported the word "sleep." -Remembering "sleep" is a false memory b/c its not on the list. This occurs b/c people associate the word "sleep" with the other words on the list. -This is similar to schema b/c people make false memories for office furnishing that aren't really present -CONSTRUCTIVE PROCESSES HAVE CREATED AN ERROR IN MEMORY -FALSE MEMORIES ARISE FROM the SAME CONSTRUCTIVE MEMORY THAT PRODUCES TRUE EXPERIMENTS

Why does definitional approach initially seem like a good way of thinking about categories, but then become troublesome when we consider the kinds of objects that can make up a category?

-Definitions work well for something such as geometric objects. Such as defining a square as "a plane figure having 4 equal sides, with all internal angles the same" works. -HOWEVER, for most natural objects (such as birds, trees, and plants) & many human made objects (like chairs), definitions do not work well at all. -Not all members of everyday categories have the same features. So, although dictionary definition of a chair as "a piece of furnitures consisting of seat, back, legs, and often arms, made to accommodate a person." There are DIFFERENT kinds of chairs that DON'T meet those definition requirements.

Difference between prototype & exemplar V Semantic Network.

-Definitions, prototypes, and exemplars are ways in which we categorize information on a cognitive level. -Semantic is the MIND

How is connectionist approach similar to the distributed representations in the brain?

-Differences in activation, and the pattern of activity they create, are responsible for a basic principle of connectionism: -A stimulus presented to the input units is represented by the pattern of activity that is distributed across the other units.

What is deductive reasoning? What does it mean to say that the conclusion to a syllogism is "valid"? How can a conclusion be valid but not true? True but not valid?

-Draw conclusions from observations. Reasoning that involves syllogisms in which conclusion is logically allowed by a premises. • Syllogism (ARISTOTLE): A series of 3 statements: - Two statements called premises - Third statement called conclusion -conclusion follows from the premises based on rules of logic. EXAMPLE OF SYLLOGISM: [• Categorical syllogism - Describes relation between two categories using all, no, or some • Premise 1: All birds are animals. (All A are B) • Premise 2: All animals eat food. (All B are C) • Conclusion: -Therefore, all birds eat food. (All A are C): This is a syllogism that is both valid and true] It is valid because it follows the premises and TRUE because all animals DO EAT food.

What can affect "flashbulb memories"?

-Emotions and rehearsal & media coverage affect flashbulb memories -Emotions can enhance subjective sense of remembering: the vividness of the memory, confidence that is accurate and sense of reliving an event, while at the same time causing a decrease in memory of details of a scene.

Describe the following examples of situations that involved source monitoring errors: -Familiarity ("Becoming Famous Overnight" experiment) Be sure you can describe the experiments related to each example.

-Experiment by Larry Jacoby -Demonstrated an effect source of monitoring errors by testing subjects' ability to distinguish between famous and non-famous names. -They were told that names in first group were not real famous people. -Acquisition part of experiment, read a bunch of made-up non-famous names(i.e. Valerie Marsh). -IMMEDIATE TEST GROUP: subjects tested IMMEDIATELY after seeing the non-famous names, THEN asked to pick out list of names that had JUST seen, new names of non-famous people they had never seen before, and names of REAL famous people. RESULT: -People who were tested right after reading, IMMEDIATE TEST GROUP, the lists were able to correctly identify between non-famous and famous. -People from the DELAYED TEST GROUP, were tested after 24hrs, identified the non-famous names as being famous. *THUS, calling the experiment: becoming famous overnight.

Define Eyewitness Testimony and its acceptance

-Eyewitness testimony: testimony by a person who was present at the crime about what he or she saw during commission of the crime. -ACCEPTANCE: 1.) witness was clearly able to see what happened, and 2.) Eyewitness was able to remember his/her observations & translate them into accurate description of what happened and an accurate identification of the perpetrator. One of the most convincing types of evidence to a jury: -Assume that people see and remember accurately But, like other memory, eyewitness testimony can be inaccurate: - Mistaken identity - Constructive nature of memory

Define Premises

-FIRST 2 statements in a syllogism. -The Third is a conclusion EXAMPLE: • Premise 1: All birds are animals. (All A are B) • Premise 2: All animals eat food. (All B are C) • Conclusion: Therefore, all birds eat food. (All A are C) This is a syllogism that is both valid and true

How has it been shown that suggestion can influence people's memories for early events in their lives?

-False memories can be created from misinterpretation effect. -IRA HYMAN: created false memories for long ago events in an experiment in which they contacted parents of their subjects and asked them to provide actual events that happened when subjects were children. -These experiments also had descriptions of events that never happened. (Ex: birthday that included clown and pizza, spilling of bowl with punch at wedding, etc..) -College students, far removed from these experiences, were given some info and asked to explain them. Also, given FALSE info and asked to explain them as well. -Subject was asked about an event with false info, THE FIRST time, then and denied the false info, but confirmed the event. (spilled punch at a wedding) -2 days later, same subject interviewed again, was asked about a wedding. Subjects describes wedding and incorporated the false info about the punch without being asked. RESULTS: 20% "recalled" and described false events. Subject didn't remember the event the 1st time, but did remember the 2nd. Apparently hearing about the event and then waiting has caused the memory to emerge as a false memory. SIMILAR TO FAMILIARITY: when questioned the 2nd time about the wedding, the first time EXPOSURE caused him to accept the wedding being actually happened.

explain INPUT units, Hidden units, and output units

-INPUT UNITS are activated by stimuli from the environment (or stimuli presented by experimenter). -INPUT units send signals to HIDDEN units, which sends signals to OUTPUT units. (i.e. input --> hidden-->output) -- Hidden units: receive input from input units --Output units: receive input from hidden units

Describe how the following can cause errors in reasoning: -illusory correlations & stereotypes

-Illusory correlation: Correlation appears to exist, but either does not exist or is much weaker than assumed -Stereotypes: Oversimplified generalizations about a group or class of people that often focuses on the negative A stereo type about the characteristics of a particular group may lead people to pay particular attention to behaviors associated with that stereotype, and this attention creates an illusory correlation that reinforces the stereotype. (i.e. stereotype causes people to focus on that when looking a certain people causing an illusion when observing these people to think that the stereotype is true. "black people don't wash their hair." You see a person with black hair and make yourself believe their heads smell bad, confirming the stereotype based on an illusion) - related to the availability heuristic--->selective attention to the stereotypical behaviors makes these behaviors more "available" - Whatever the reason, selectively taking into account only the situations that support the person's preconceptions can create the illusion that a correlation exists, when there may be only a weak correlation or none at all.

Explain the PDP Network showing Input, hidden, and output units.

-Incoming stimuli is represented by the arrows. The arrows indicate the stimuli, which activate the input units. -Signals then travel through network, activated hidden and output units. -ACTIVITY of units are represented by shading, with darker shading indicating more activity. -Patterns of activity that occur in hidden & output units are determined by the INITIAL activity of input units AND by the connection weights that DETERMINE how strongly a unit will be activated by incoming activity.

What is a disadvantage of Cognitive Interview?

-It takes longer than standard interviewing procedures

Describe the following lines of evidence that support the interactionist approach to parsing: 4. How predictions based on knowledge of language structure affect parsing

-Knowledge of how language is constructed. "The experienced soldiers warned about the dangers before the midnight raid." (MV) "The experienced soldiers warned about the dangers conducted the midnight raid." (RC) - Garden path sentence, because after reading dangers, you realized that the correct grouping for this sentence is: • [The experienced soldiers warned about the dangers] [conducted the midnight raid]. -The reason you didn't predict that the words would be grouped in that way is that a verb like warned can occur either as a main verb (MV) or be contained in a relative clause (RC) -The MV construction is more likely. Thus, according to the idea that our experience with language leads us to predict the most likely construction, we become "garden pathed" when our experience leads us to predict the MV construction when reading the second sentence. -words in the ambiguous sentences took longer to read than the same words in the unambiguous sentences. -The longer time for the RC ambiguous sentences, compared to the unambiguous RC sentences, is the ambiguity effect.

Chapter 9: Define Conceptual Knowledge.

-Knowledge that enables us to recognize and understand the objects in the street scene and the world. -Knowledge that enables us to recognize objects and events and to make inferences about their properties. -This knowledge exists in the form of concepts.

What is hierarchical organization and how is related to categorization?

-Larger, more general categories are divided into smaller, more specific categories, creating a number of levels of categories. -consists of levels arranged that more specific concepts are at the bottom and more general concepts are at the top.

Describe HOW connection weights are adjusted in connection networks.

-Learning occurs through training. -Training involves adjusting networks connection weights. -Untrained network (all connection weights = 1. 0.): Stimulating the "canary" and 'can' units sends activity to the representation units and to the hidden units. If connection units are the same, then MANY of the units in network would be activated by "canary" and 'can'. including INCORRECT property units like "daisy, tall, and green." -For the network to operate PROPERLY: the connection weights have to be adjusted so activating the concept unit "canary" and the relation unit can only activates the property units grow, move, fly, and sing. This adjustment of weights is achieved by a learning process. -DESIRED OUTCOME: The answer to "A canary is a..." is REPRESENTED in the network by ACTIVATION of the property units plus the PATTERN of activation of the network's representation & hidden units. BUT, a connectionist network needs to be trained for this result to occur.

What does it mean to have memory "overload"?

-Memory is designed to selectively remember things that are important to us or that occur often in our environment. -The resulting system does not record everything we experience, BUT it does operate well enough to have enabled humans to survive as a species.

What is the difference between "memory" and "rehearsal"?

-Memory is referred to as when it was FIRST heard about -Rehearsal is referred to AFTER it was heard about

What is parsing?

-Mental grouping of words in a sentence into phrases. -Parsing is a central process for determining the meaning of a sentence (i.e. adding a comma in a sentence makes the correct parsing) -As we read or listen to a sentence, we encounter a series of words, one following another. - As this happens, the meaning of a sentence unfolds, derived from both the meanings of the words and how the words are grouped together in phrases.

Describe how the following factor has been shown to lead to errors in eyewitness testimony: -ERROR DUE TO SUGGESTING and FEEDBACK FROM A POLICE OFFICER, :

-Misinformation effect, police officer asking the question: "did you see the white car?" could influence eyewitness testimony later on. -Suggestibility can influence on a minor level too EXAMPLE: Witness to a crime is looking through a one-way window at a lineup of 6 men standing on stage. The police asks, "which one of these men did it?," BUT something is wrong with how the police ask the question to the witness!!!! -PROBLEM: how officer implies that criminal is in lineup, which influences the witness to pick someone who "LOOKS" like the criminal, rather than the actual criminal himself. EXAMPLE#2: Line up is presented to witness. She can't choose between the first and the second man. After 30 min, she says "I think it was number 1." Officer then says, "okay." Months later in trial, defense attorney asks witness if she's positive that is was number 1. Witness says "yes, positive." Because of the officers original response of "okay," it has left the witness to BELIEVE that it was NUMBER 1, even if it really wasn't.

CHAPTER 8: What is the narrative rehearsal hypothesis? How is the result of the Princess Diana study related to the effect of media coverage on memory?

-Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis: The idea that we remember some life events better because we rehearse them. Proposed by NEISSER as an explanation of flashbulb memories. -Consider events that followed Diana. Pictures of the limo crashing were presented endlessly. Its aftermath was covered EXTENSIVELY for months afterward by the media. **-NEISSUR argues that if rehearsal is the reason for our memories of significant events, then the flashbulb analogy is misleading.**

What is coherence?

-Narrative refers to texts in which there is a story that progresses from one event to another, although stories can also include flashbacks of events that happened earlier Coherence: it is a very important part of "narrative." -Representation of the text in one's mind so that information from one part of the text can be related to information in another part of the text

Which works better? Exemplar Approach or Prototype Approach?

-One advantage exemplar has over prototype is that by using real examples, it can more easily be taken into account atypical cases such as flightless birds. -exemplar approach doesn't discredit info that could be used later on. -Exemplar can deal more easily with variable categories like games. (i.e. difficult to imagine prototypes for different game categories, but the EXEMPLAR approach requires ONLY that we remember varying examples.) -When we INITIALLY learn about a category, we may average exemplars into prototype; then, later in learning, some of the exemplar info becomes stronger. (i.e. in EARLY learning we would be "poor" at taking into considerations the exceptions of certain categories. Such as, "what makes a penguin a bird." After learning EXEMPLARS, we can take into consideration what a penguin is a bird.) RESULT: -Exemplar is better for smaller categories such as "U.S. President" or "mountains taller than 15,000 ft," & Prototype would be better for larger categories such as "bird" or "automobiles." -We generally know what cats are (prototype), but we know on our own specific cat the best (exemplar).

What is inductive reasoning?

-One of the PRIMARY mechanisms involved in making judgments: INDUCTIVE REASONING. • Inductive reasoning: - Reasoning that is based on observation - Reaching conclusions from evidence - Inductive reasoning is the basis of scientific investigations in which observations are made, data are collected, and conclusions are drawn -Inductive reasoning provides the mechanism for using past experience to guide present behavior.

Describe NAMING Effect. (MERVIS)

-People are more likely to list some objects than others when asked to name objects in a category. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT: -High-prototypical items are named first when people list examples of a category

How is language considered universal?

-People's need to communicate is so powerful (i.e. When deaf kids find themselves in a place where no one uses sign languages, they invent a sign language themselves.) -All humans w/ normal capacities develop a language & learn to follow its complex rules, even though they're usually not aware of these rules. (i.e. grammar is hard to learn, but people have no trouble using it) -Langauge is universal across cultures (i.e. no culture w.o a language. People developed their own if needed, even settlers) -Language development is similar across cultures (i.e. no matter the culture or language, all kids begin babbling at 7 months, a few meaningful words by 1st birthday, and multiwords at 2.) -All languages are "unique, but the same." (i.e. all have different words and sounds, and also rules for combining words. SAME b/c all languages have words that serve as functions of nouns & verbs, and all languages include a system to make things negative, to ask questions, and to refer to the past and present. )

Describe PRIMING Effect. (ROSCH)

-Presentation of one stimulus affects responses to a stimulus that follows EXPERIMENTAL RESULT: -Faster same-different color judgments for high-prototypical items.

Explain Rosch's experiment with Prototypes and Priming.

-Priming occurs when presentation of one stimulus facilitates the response to another stimulus that usually follows closely in time. -Demonstrated that prototypical members of a category are more affected by a priming stimulus than are non-prototypical members. EXPERIMENT: -Subjects first heard the prime, which was name of color such as "green." 2 seconds later they saw a pair of colors side by side and indicated, by pressing a key as quickly as possible, whether the two colors were the same or different. -COLORS "side by side" were presented in different ways: 1. colors were exactly the same :Green&Green 2. colors were same, but poor quality: Lime green&Lime Green 3. Colors were exactly the opposite: Red&Purple -RESULTS: -2 same groups (1&2) resulted in faster time judgments than for the non-prototypical (poor colors). -Thus, when subjects heard the word green, they judged 2 patches of PRIMARY green being the same QUICKER than the different shades of green they were not initially exposed to. -PRIMING results in faster "same" judgements for prototypical colors than for non prototypical colors.

Define Family Resemblances.

-Proposed by Wittgenstein -Deals with the problem that definitions often do not include all members of a category. -DEFINITION: Idea that things in a particular category resemble one another in a number of ways. Example: "games." board games, card games, ball-games, etc. If you look at them, they do not have anything in common, but share some similarities, relationships, and whole series of them at that. -Categorize these similarities as "family resemblances."

How does Rosch describe Typicality prototype?

-Rosch describes typicality in different variations within categories. -High typicality: A category member closely resembles the category prototype ("typical member of category) -Low Typicality: category member doesn't closely resemble a typical member of the category.

How does Rosch's experiment of "NAMING" things illustrate different levels?

-Rosch found that people tended to name things according to basic level rather than superordinate/global or subordinate level/specific. [i.e. people are more likely to say guitar (basic) rather than musical instrument (global) or electric (specific)]. -Showed subjects a category label, such as car or vehicle. After brief delay, presented a photo. Subject has to indicate whether the photo belonged to the category. RESULTS: Accomplished the task more rapidly for basic level categories (such as car) than for global (such as vehicle). Responded quicker when picture was asked in regards to a car than to a vehicle.

What is semantics? What is Syntax?

-Semantics: meanings of words and sentences (i.e. -The cats won't eat "into" The cats won't bake" is an error of SEMANTICS because the MEANING doesn't make sense) -Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences (i.e. Changing the sentence to "The cats won't eating" is an error of SYNTAX because the GRAMMAR is not correct.) (i.e. "The cat chased the bird" follows the rules of English syntax, BUT "Cat bird the chased" does not.)

Why can we say that memory is highly functional but that it may not be perfectly suited to all situations?

-Sometimes the requirements of modern life create situations that humans have not been designed to handle. (i.e. driving a car. Evolutions has not equipped our PERCEPTUAL & MOTOR SYSTEMS to deal with weaving in & out of traffic, speeding, talking on phone while driving) -Our perceptual & memory systems have not evolved to handle demands such as providing eyewitnesses testimony in court. -Just like car accidents, memory accidents happen as well.

How does the way choices are presented affect the decisions people make? Describe the example of car insurance policies

-Staus Quo bias- The tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision. People's tendency to do NOTHING when faced with the need to "OPT-IN." -Some states give drivers the option to buy expensive car insurance that allows the driver to sue or cheap insurance that restricts the drivers ability to sue. -(i.e. 1. In PA, drivers are given expensive plans by DEFAULT. If the driver wants a cheaper plan they have to CHOOSE it. 2. In NJ, CHEAP plan is given by default. They have to CHOOSE the expensive plan if they want it; in most cases people just stick with the "DEFAULT=STATUS QUO BIAS."

How do meaning dominance and context determine how the meanings of ambiguous words are accessed while reading a sentence?

-Studied by eye movement -FREQUENCY: 1. Sentence uses "cast," which has balanced dominance: ("The cast worked into the night." Control word: Cooked) -When looking at the word "cast," both definitions are triggered [members of play or plaster cast]. -B/c two meanings are mentally activated, the person will LOOK LONGER at the word "cast," rather than the word "cook." This is because "cook" has ONE meaning as a noun. -THEREFORE, after reading the sentence, it then becomes clear the CONTEXT of which the word is used. 2. "the tin was bright and shiny" CONTROL WORD: GOLD -people see the BIASED word "tin" as QUICKLY as they see the word "gold." This is because the DOMINANT BIASED meaning has been activated. -AMBIGUOUS WORDS: "cast" and "tin" *Frequency and context determine the accessibility of a word* CONTEXT: -3. Miners went to store and saw they had beans in "tin." (Control word: CUP) -The context indicated the LESS frequent meaning of "tin." RESULT: -Frequency of word determines HOW LONG it takes to process its meaning. -Context determine which MEANING we access, if the word has more than one meaning. -Accessing the meaning of ambiguous words while reading a sentence is determined by the word's dominance and the context created by the sentence

How does in Rosch's experiments in "Listing Common Features" illustrate different levels?

-Subjects asked to list as many features as possible relating to the objects in the category (i.e. for "table" you list "has legs"). -List: 1. Furniture(superordinate/global level) 2. Table (basic level) 3. Kitchen Table (Subordinate level/specific level) -Many subjects found that FEW features were common in ALL types of furniture, but MANY features were common in ALL types of tables. -3 common features in Global "furniture," 9 features for basic level "table," and 10.3 for specific level "kitchen table." RESULT: Basic level is psychologically special b/c going above it to (global) results in large LOSS of information (9 features at basic V. 3 at global) & going below it (specific level) results in LITTLE gain of info. Therefore, basic level is special because that where memory of specific characteristics come into play. Specific level requires fewer recall.

-How does Bartlett's "War of the Ghosts" experiment provide an example of source monitoring errors?

-Subjects had to read a story from a Canadian Indian Folklore. Once subjects were done they were asked to recall it as accurately as possible. -Then Bartlett, ONE OF THE FIRST TO USE a technique called "Repeated Reproduction." Where subjects has to remember the story at longer and longer intervals from when they first read it. -Considered important experiment because of the errors made by subjects. -At longer times, subjects reproduction of the story was shorter than the original and contained many omissions and inaccuracies. -The "remembered story" tended to reflect the subjects own culture. -One source, for subjects recreating the story after repeated reproduction, was the original story plus similar stories from their own culture. **RESULT: These ideas that memories are compromised of details from various sources invovles a phenomenon called "source monitoring," which is at the heart of the constructive approach to memory. ** -When we remember something and then determine where it came from results in constructive.

What is the basic assumption of the expected utility approach to decision making?

-The basic properties of decision making: Decisions involve both benefits and costs. -

What does the constructive property of memory reflect?

-The creative nature of our mental processes

Describe how a connectionist network learns, considering specifically how connection weights are adjusted.

-The error signal that are sent back to the hidden units and representation units provide info. about how the connection weights should be adjusted so that correct property units will be activated. (i.e. child see "robin; bird" sitting on a branch, when the robin flies away he makes observation that between "robin" and "can fly," which involves ACTIVATION. But, if child sees a canary and say "robin," the parents may correct child and say "that is a canary" and "robins have red breasts." The info from parents is similar to FEEDBACK provided by back propaganda) THEREFORE, connectionists network learning about concepts begins with incorrect connection weights, which is slowly modified in response to ERROR SIGNALS. THEN, the network LEARNS that things that look birds can fly, things that look like fish can swim, and things that look like three are places where robins and other bird may perch.

What is the word frequency effect?

-The frequency in which a word appears in a language. -refers to the fact that we respond more rapidly to high-frequency words like "home," more rapidly than low-frequency words like "hike."

What did Sanfey Conclude in his experiments and how?

-The right anterior insula, an area located deep within the brain between the parietal and temporal lobes in frontal cortex, was activated about three times more strongly when responders rejected an offer than when they accepted it HOW: • The fact that the insula responded during rejection is not surprising when we consider that this area of the brain is connected with negative emotional states, including pain, distress, hunger, anger, and disgust. • The insula is thought to mediate the emotional consequences of decisions - Role in addiction • Lesions of insula reduce urges and cravings in response to cues. -Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation reduces cravings and amount of cigarettes in smokers.

What is the evidence for and against the Collins and Quillian Hierarchical model?

-Theory could not explain the typicality effect. B/c in using sentence verification technique, "A canary is a bird" is verified more quickly than "An ostrich is a bird," The hierarchical model predicts equally fast reaction times because "canary" and "ostrich" are both one node away from"bird." -People questioned cognitive economy due to the fact that people may store properties that they see for "birds" than to notice the properties for "canary". (i.e. Bird: they have wings... go down and see Canary: "can't fly." Some may not notice, or realize.) -Some sentence-verification results are problematic for the model: A pig is a "mammal" should be verified more quickly because a link leads directly from "pig" to "mammal," but we need to travel one link past the "mammal" node to get to "animal." (i.e.: Reaction time for pig being a mammal is quicker than pig being an animal because pig is closer to "mammal") -Long the travel, longer the reaction time

What is syntactic priming?

-This copying the form/sentence in the same context. -Syntactic Priming is hearing a statement with a particular syntactic construction increases the chances that a sentence will be produced with the same construction. - Syntactic priming is important because it can lead people to coordinate the grammatical form of their statements during a conversation. - Reduces computational load in conversation (i.e. an persons grammatical structure influences the other person in using the same kind. ) -Produces the hallmark of successful conversations

Define Viewpoint Invariance.

-Viewpoint Invariance: the ability to recognize an object regardless of the viewpoint -This is a difficult task for computers to perform -Viewpoint invariance assists in categorization of objects

How is inductive reasoning involved in everyday experience?

-We are constantly making judgments about things in our environment, including people, events, and behaviors. One of the primary mechanisms involved in making judgments is inductive reasoning -Although inductive reasoning usually is "academic" in nature (by learning through observation), it is used in every day language as well. EXAMPLES: • Sarah observed in a course she took with Professor X that he asked a lot of questions about experimental procedures on his exams. Based on this observation, Sarah concludes that the exam she is about to take in another of Professor X's courses will probably be similar. • Sam has bought merchandise from Internet company Y before and gotten good service, so he places another order based on the prediction that he will continue to get good service. -We make so many assumptions about the world based on past experience that we are using inductive reasoning constantly, often without even realizing it. EXAMPLES: • Why did you come to class at 1:15PM? • What did you choose the chair you sat in today? • When will you start studying for the final? Why? • These all follow the principles of inductive reasoning.

How is a concept related to categorization?

-We organize concepts in the term of categories. -A category includes all possible examples of a particular concept. (i.e. Concept: Cat contains categories of different examples of cats: Siamese cats, Persian Cats, etc.. ) -Concepts provide rules for sorting objects into categories

Describe how Wernicke studied SEMANTICS (meaning) in neuropsychology.

-Wernicke identified area in temporal lobe which was involved in language comprehension:SEMANTICS. (temportal=comprehension=SEMANTICS/meanings) TESTED: -Wernicke's aphasia: individuals have damage in Wernicke's area in temporal lobe - Speak fluently and grammatically correct, BUT the content is disorganized and not meaningful - They also have difficulty understanding others and word deafness may occur in extreme cases. -Modern researchers link Broca's area to syntax (the structure of sentences) and Wernicke's area to semantics (understanding meaning). (EXAMPLE: "It just suddenly had a feffort and all the feffort had gone with it. It even stepped my horn. They took them from earth you know. They make my favorite nine to severed and now I'm a been habed by the uh stam of fortment of my annulment which is now forever." -Words are fluent and grammatically correct, but NO MEANING)

Why are SOURCE MONITORING and SOURCE MONITORING ERRORS (misattributions) considered "constructive.

-When we REMEMBER something we retrieve the memory ("I heard about the crowd at the Hunger Games movie") -and then DETERMINE where the memory came from ("It was either Benita or Susan can't remember b/c talked to them both recently, but it has to be Bernita because she read the book recently").

What is biased dominance?

-When words have 2 or more meanings with DIFFERENT dominances, such as "tin," these words have BIASED DOMINANCE. -Usually assume its the definition of term used more than the other. RARELY people refer to "tin" as a small metal container -When 2 words are used frequently there cannot be any bias. You can't JUST assume one OVER the other. You have to look at the context in which it was used as OPPOSED to biased.

What is balanced dominance?

-Word has more than 1 meaning but equally likely to occur or be used. -For example: "cast" (members of a play) and "cast" (plaster cast) are equally likely to be used. -When 2 words are used frequently there cannot be any bias. You can't JUST assume one OVER the other. You have to look at the context in which it was used as OPPOSED to biased.

Also consider how the way information is represented in a connectionist network DIFFERS from the way it is represented in a semantic network.

-connectionist networks contrasts with semantic networks, in which specific categories are represented at individual nodes. -Semantic network: concepts such as "canary, salon, etc." are shown in blue. Properties of concepts are indicated in both networks by the following four relation statements: "is a, is, can, & has." -Semantic is hierarchical and represents properties at networks nodes -Connectionist indicates same properties by attribute units on the far right, & also by pattern activity in the "representation and hidden units" in the middle of the network.

Define Semantic Category Approach

-describes how semantic info is represented in the brain, proposing that there are specific neutral circuits in the brain for some specific categories. (i.e. specific parts of brain respond to specific types of stimuli such as faces, places, and bodies)

What does INFERENCE mean?

-determining what text means using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text.

How has it been shown that suggestion can influence people's memories for early events in their lives?

-false memories for early childhood experiences can be created by suggestion causing serious implications for some real-life cases with patients going through therapy. (i.e. Gary Romona, his 19 yr old child, Holly, went to therapy for eating disorder. Received suggestion by therapist that disorder could have been caused by sexual abuse. After many sessions of "suggestions," Holly swore her father had raped her when she was a child. This caused him to lose his job, friends, and family; This set the basis for "RECOVERED MEMORY" causing numerous CONVICTIONS TO BE REVERSED after Gary sued Holly therapist)

Describe the following lines of evidence that support the interactionist approach to parsing: 2. How information in a visual scene affects parsing (the visual world paradigm)

-interpretation of sentence isn't only influence by meaning of words, but also by the meaning of a scene we may be observing. **Study by Tanenhaus: -Developed a technique called visual word paradigm, which is determining how subjects process info. as they're observing a visual scene. Result: Subjects interpret the sentence, as indicated by their eye movements, is determined by the scene they're observing. (THE APPLE EXPERIMENT) -If parsing is always based on the structure of a sentence, then changing the scene should have no effect on eye movements.

What is the prototype approach?

-membership in a category is determined by comparing the object to a prototype that represents the category. -Comparing an object to a prototype in that category & describe what member of the concept are like.

CHAPTER8: What is the flashbulb memory "believed to be."

-refer to a person memory for the circumstances surrounding about HEARING about shocking, highly charged events. It has been claimed that such memories are particularly vivid and accurate. -Flashbulb memories appear to be based at least partly on the fact that people think the memories are stronger and more accurate; however, this study found that in reality there is little or no difference between flashbulb and everyday memories in terms of the amount and accuracy of what is remembered.

Describe the following examples of how memory errors can occur because of a person's knowledge of the world: Scripts (dentist experiment)

-schemas can lead to erroneous decisions in memory experiments which can be referred to as "scripts." -SCRIPT: the conception of the sequence of actions that usually occurs during a particular experience. (Ex: your script for visiting the post office might include waiting in line, filling out forms if you want to send letter by registered or certified mail, giving your letter to the post office employee, buying stamps, etc; SET UP expectations about what usually happens in a particular situation) -EXPERIMENT: "Bill had toothache. It took a while to get to the Dentist office. Bill observed the room and saw posters. Dental Hygienist check and x-rayed teeth. He wondered was the dentist was doing. Dentist told Bill he had many cavities. He made another appointment, then left." -Subjects read many passaged about different activities and situations. -after a delay, subjects were given titles to these stories and write down what they remembered -They wrote down a lot from original stories, but included things that didn't happen due to the "script for the activity" described. (i.e. people reported that bill checked in w/ receptionist, but that was never stated in the passage; they're going off of what normally happens when you go to Dr. appointments). RESULT: -Knowledge of Dentist script caused subjects to add on info that wasn't originally provided. -Scripts can influence our memory by setting up expectations about what usually happens in a particular situation.

Define mental model

-specific situation represented in a persons mind that can be used to help determine the validity of syllogisms in Deductive Reasoning. -People create a model, or representation of the situation, for reasoning problems. -They look for exceptions that could falsify the model -if an exception is found, then they modify the model. -if no more exceptions are found, and current model matches the conclusion, then they can determine that the Syllogism is VALID. Premise 1: None of these artists are bookkeepers Premise 2: All of the bookkeepers are chemists Conclusion: SOME of the chemists are not artists. -we envision a meeting of some sort (Honor Society). To be a member you must be either an artist, chemist, or bookkeeper and they must abide by rules. -Artists cannot be bookkeepers -All bookkeepers must be chemists Therefore, SOME of the chemists are not artists, WHICH is VALID.

Which of the four types of syllogisms described in the chapter are valid, which are not valid, and how well can people judge the validity of each type? How does changing the wording, while keeping the form the same, influence the ability to determine whether a syllogism is valid?

-use p and q INSTEAD of A and B -q and p is then replaced in 4 types of syllogisms with more -real-life examples. EXAMPLE 1: Conditional 1: "if I study, Ill get good grades." "I studied." "Therefore, I'll get a good grade." This is called modus ponens, roughly translated to "the way that affirms by affirming"- is VALID. EXAMPLE 2: If I study, Ill get a good grade I didn't get a good grade Therefore, I didn't study -Modus Tellens: the way that denies by denying= VALID EXAMPLE 3: If I study, Ill get a good grade I got a good grade Therefore, I studied -" I studied" is not valid because even if you didn't study you could've gotten a good grade. THEREFORE, INVALID. EXAMPLE 4: If I study then ill get a good grade I didn't study Therefore, I didn't get a good grade. -IS NOT VALID: "I didn't get a good grade." Could have gotten good grade even if someone studied.

Describe the following lines of evidence that support the interactionist approach to parsing: 3. How predictions based on world knowledge affect parsing

-we use knowledge of the environment to make predictions about what we are about to read or hear. -we take the "statistics" of the environment, our knowledge of what is most likely to occur, into account of determining meaning. (i.e. similar to how words affect our interpretation of a sentence, like the BIRDS. With knowledge of birds, we know they can't look through binoculars.) -For example: "Getting himself & his car to work on the neighboring island was time consuming. Every morning he drove for few minutes, and then boarded the..." -Many ways to complete sentence, most people said "ferry." -This goes beyond syntax and semantics. This depends on a persons knowledge of what it is like or how it is possible to travel from one island to another. -Therefore, "ferry" seems appropriate to determine as a reasonable answer due to knowledge.

Describe the different types of inference that help achieve coherence.

1. ANAPHORIC inference: -inference that connect an object or person in one sentence to an object or person in another sentence. (EXAMPLE: "Rifi, the most famous poodle, won the dog show. She won the last three shows she entered" -Make inference that "she" in second sentence is "Rifei.") -ANAPHORIC also Adds information from knowledge of the world to information on text. 2. INSTRUMENTAL: information about Inference about tools or methods. (i.e. "William Shakespeare wrote Hamlet while he was sitting at his desk" a.) What was Shakespeare writing with? b.) What did his desk look like? we infer from what we know about the time Shakespeare lived that he was probably using a quill pen (not a laptop computer!) and that his desk was made of wood) 3. CASUAL: Inferences that the events described in one clause or sentence were caused by events that occurred in a previous sentence. EXAMPLE: "Sharon took an aspirin. Her headache went away." 2 inferences? -Anaphoric--->Her - Causal-->inference that taking the aspirin caused the headache to go. This is an example of a fairly obvious inference that most people in our culture would make based on their knowledge about headaches and aspirin. SECOND EXAMPLE OF CASUAL: "Sharon took a shower. Her headache went away." Can you infer that the shower had something to do with her headache going away? -The causal connection between the shower and the headache is weaker than the connection between the aspirin and the headache in the first pair of sentences. -Making the shower-headache connection requires more work from the reader. -You might infer that the shower relaxed Sharon, or perhaps her habit of singing in the shower was therapeutic. Or you might decide there actually isn't much connection between the two sentences.

How does the way choices are presented affect the decisions people make? Describe the examples of organ donations

1. Opt-in Procedure: you have the CHOICE to be a part of something or to make a decision; requires a person to take an active step to be involved. (i.e. - 85 % of Americans approve of organ donation, only 28 % have actually granted permission by signing a donor card) 2. Opt-out Procedure: requires the person to take an active step and NOT be involved. (I.E. In France and Belgium-->99% consent rate of organ donor; everyone is potential donor unless request not to be - is a potential organ donor unless he or she requests not) RESULT: The opt-in versus opt-out results indicate that the procedure used to identify people's willingness to be organ donors does have an effect. SHOWS POSSIBLE POTENTIALS as opposed to Utility Approach.

Describe the following lines of evidence that support the interactionist approach to parsing: 1. How meanings of words in a sentence affect parsing

1. Sentences can have the same structure but different meanings if put together differently. EX: "The spy saw the man with the binoculars." (This sentence has 2 meanings, which represent different relationships) *1st Meaning: [The spy saw the man] [with the binoculars] -The spy w/ the binoculars is looking at the man *2nd meaning: [The spy saw] [the man with the binoculars] -The spy is looking at a man who has a pair of binoculars THEREFORE, many possible reasonable ways to phrase. BUT, IF there is a CHANGE to ONE word, only one meaning could be possible: EX: "The bird saw the man w/ the binoculars." -if we group it together, [the bird saw the man] [w/ the binocular] it would never make sense as "The bird w/ the binoculars is looking at the man," as in the 1st meaning. Birds don't use binoculars. Therefore, if we group the bird like me did in the 2nd meaning, "the bird is looking at a man who has a pair of binoculars," then knowledge of properties of species and birds influence the way we interpret relationships between the words in a sentence.

What is the word superiority effect? How has it been demonstrated?

1. Word Superiority Effect: Letters are easier to recognize when they are contained in a word than when they appear alone or are contained in a nonword 2. Demonstrated: (REICHER) -Subjects asked to choose which of the two letters were in the original stimulus. -Thus creating a faster reaction time for letter = part of a word, than when the letter had been presented alone, or as part of a nonword. -The word superiority effect shows that letters in words are not processed one by one but that each letter is affected by the context within which it appears. -Just as context affects how we hear phonemes and words in spoken sentences, context affects how we see letters in printed words

Why has connectionism gained favor among researchers?

1. based on how all info is represented in the brain 2. explains a number of findings, including how concepts are learned and how damage to brain affects people's knowledge about concepts.

Explain what the idea of connectionism supports.

1. the operation of connection networks is not totally disrupted by damage. -b/c info in network is distributed across many units, damage to system doesn't completely disrupt its operation. -GRACEFUL DEGRADATION in which disruption of performance occurs only gradually as parts of the system are damaged. (i.e. similar to cases of brain damage. Damage to brain only cause partial loss of functioning. Suggested studying way networks respond to damage as potential strategy for rehabilitation of human patients.) 2. Connectionist networks can explain generalization of learning. -b/c similar concepts have similar patterns, training a system to recognize properties of one concept (i.e. "canary) also provides info about other, related concepts (such as "robin"). -Similar to the way we actually learn

What do activation of units DEPEND on?

1. the signal that ORIGINATES in the input unit (the effect of incoming stimulus has on input/incoming circles) 2. Connection weights throughout the network.

What are the two components of words?

1.Phonemes (refers to sounds): -Shortest segments of speech that if changed, it could change the meaning of the entire word. (EXAMPLE: the word bit contains the phonemes /b/, /i/, and /t/ - we can change bit into pit by replacing /b/ with /p/ - bat by replacing /i/ with /ae/ - bid by replacing /t/ with /d/.) -PHONEMES refer to sounds therefore they are not the same as letters: [(i.e. the same letter can have different phonemes. LIKE "e" sound in "we" and "wet", and can be silent in certain situations (the "e" in "some").] -Different languages use different sounds the number of phonemes varies in different languages. (i.e.: Only 11 phonemes in Hawaiian, about 47 in English, and as many as 60 in some African dialects.) 2. Morphemes (refer to meanings): Morphology linguistics = study of the forms of words and the ways in which words are related to other words. Morphemes: smallest units of language that has meaning or grammatical function (i.e. "truck" consists of a number of phonemes, but only ONE morpheme b/c components of the word "truck" have no separate meanings. "BEDROOM" has 2 morphemes because "bed" has a meaning and "room" and another meaning, & together they form their own meaning.) ****Phonemes refer to sounds, morphemes refer to meanings. A bound morpheme: is a morpheme (or word element) that cannot stand alone as a word. (i.e. "ing, ed, en")

What are 2 major principles of cognition according psycholinguists?

4 major principles of psycholinguistics = two major principles of cognition. 1. Context: Whether we are considering letters in a word or the meaning of something being said in a conversation, the context within which letters, words, or sentences appear helps us perceive or understand them 2. Knowledge: Our ability to understand both written and verbal communication depends not only on what is written or said but also on the knowledge we bring to the situation. -As we progress from words to conversations, we will encounter principles of context and knowledge many times along the way. -amazing things about words is how many we know and how rapidly we acquire them. -Children produce their first words during their second year (sometimes a little earlier, sometimes later)

DEFINE EXEMPLAR.

ACTUAL MEMBERS of the category that a person HAS encountered in the past. (i.e. if a person has actually encountered sparrows, robins, and blue jays in the past, each of these would be exemplar for the category "birds.")

What are some advantages of constructive memory?

Advantages: - Allows us to "fill in the blanks" - Cognition is creative (i.e. when a someone says "we went to a ball game," you have good idea of things that happened in addition to the game. Hot dogs and other ball park food was likely involved due to your experience of going to a ball game). • Understand language • Solve problems • Make decisions

Give an example of situations where memory is highly functional BUT not perfectly suited to all situations.

Alexandria Luria- virtual limitless memory. He has trouble forgetting what he had just remembered, but his PERSONAL life was a haze. He not good at reasoning that involved drawing inferences or filling in the blanks based on partial information. He could RECORD massive amounts of info, but never erase it. -AJ: highly superior autobiographical memory- memories happened automatically w/o conscious control. When given a date she would relate them to personal experiences that happened on that exact date, exactly how it happened. DIFFERENCE between the 2: -Alexandria/S could not erase numbers or name. -AJ had trouble forgetting personal life info, whether they were happy or sad memories. -AJ had impaired performance on testing with organized material, abstract thinking, working with concepts such as creative thinking.

Describe how the following can cause errors in reasoning: -availability heuristic

Availability heuristic: events more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than those less easily remembered -The past experience or knowledge on terms cause people to choose certain explanations over others. (ex: "would a person be more likely to die from homicide or Appendicitis?") CONCLUSION: The explanation for these misjudgments seem linked to availability: -When thinking of word that begin with "r" or that have "r" in the 3rd position---> easier to think of words that start with "r." (i.e. run, rain, real) -Harder to think of words with "r" in third positions (i.e. word, car, arranged) -When people die of botulism or in a tornado, it becomes front-page news, whereas people dying from asthma goes unnoticed to public CAUSING availability heuristic to mislead us into making wrong conclusions when LESS FREQUENCY events occur causing them to NOT STAND OUT in our MEMORY. -The availability heuristic doesn't always lead to errors, however, because there are many situations in which we remember events that actually do occur frequently

What events are associated with the beginning of the modern study of language in the 1950s?

B.F. Skinner, studied behaviorism, published a book called verbal behavior. -Proposed language was learned through reinforcement. -People are rewarded for "good" or "bad" behavior (reinforcement) -Child learns language by being rewarded for using correct language and punished for using incorrect language. Chomsky: Linguist -published book called syntactic structure -proposed human language is coded in genes -human language is genetically programmed, like they are programmed to walk -Viewed studying language as a way of studying the properties of the mind and therefore DISAGREED with BEHAVIORIST (SKINNER) idea that the mind isn't a valid topic of study for psychology.

What does the "fixing the birdhouse" experiment indicate about inference?

BRANDSFORD & JOHNSON: -subjects read passages & tested to determine what was remembered "John was trying to fix the birdhouse. He was pounding the nail when his dad came out to watch and help do the work." -After reading, subjects like to INDICATE they had previously seen "John was using hammer to fix birdhouse when his father came out to watch him and help him to the work." They reported a hammer even though it was never stated that a hammer was being used. -They inferred that John was using a hammer due to information of "pounding the nail." -People use inferences to create connections between parts of a story.

Define Cognitive Interview. What procedures have cognitive psychologists proposed to increase the accuracy of eyewitness testimony?

Based on what is known about memory retrieval. -One of the most successful developments in psychology and law research in the last 25 yrs. -Involves letting the witness talk with a minimum of interruption -uses techniques that help witnesses recreate the situation present at the crime scene by having them place themselves back in the scene and recreate things like emotions they were feeling, where they were looking and how the scene might have appeared when viewed from different perspectives. -DECREASES suggestive input by the person conducting the interview. -RESULTS: in a large increase in reports of correct details, as well as a smaller increase in incorrect details

How are memory reports influenced?

By a persons experiences and knowledge

Describe how connectionist network is operated by connection weights.

CONNECTION WEIGHTS: determine how signals sent from one unit either increase or decrease the activity of the next unit. -connection weights respond the SAME WAY to how what happens at a synapse that transmits signals from one neuron to another; (connection weight = synapse) (EXAMPLE: Synapse can transmit signals more strongly than others and therefore cause a high firing rate in the next neuron; OTHER synapse can cause decrease in firing rate of the next neuron) -High connection result in strong tendency to excite the next unit. -Low connection result less excitation -Negative weights can decrease excitation or inhibit activation of the RECEIVING UNIT.

What is a categorical syllogism? What is the difference between validity and truth in categorical syllogisms?

Categorial Syllogism: premises and conclusion are statements that begin with "all, No, or Some." EXAMPLE: • Categorical syllogism - Describes relation between two categories using all, no, or some • Premise 1: All birds are animals. (All A are B) • Premise 2: All animals eat food. (All B are C) • CONCLUSION: -Therefore, all birds eat food. (All A are C): This is a syllogism that is both valid and true 2. A syllogism is valid when the form of the syllogism indicates that its conclusion follows logically from its two premises, BUT IT DOESNT say "TRUE." -Even if they are "valid," it does not mean that they are true. EXAMPLE: • Premise 1: All birds are animals. (All A are B) • Premise 2: All animals have 4 legs. (All B are C) • CONCLUSION: -Therefore, all birds have 4 legs. (All A are C): This syllogism is VALID, but not TRUE because all birds do not have 4 legs. THEREFORE: -Because the syllogism's form is what determines its validity, and we saw that Syllogism 1 is valid, we can therefore conclude that the conclusion of Syllogism 2 follows from the premises, so it is also valid

What is category specific agnosia? How is it explained by the sensory functional hypothesis?

Category specific associative agnosia: -AGNOSIA: inability to process sensory information -Case Study: Warrington and Shallice (1984) found patients with bilateral temporal lobe damage showed loss of knowledge specific only to LIVING organisms -Patients K.C. and E.W., both of whom had were able to correctly name pictures of NONLIVING things (such as car and table) and fruits and vegetables (such as tomato and pear), but performed POORLY when asked to name pictures of animals.

How does Chomsky relate to psycholinguists?

Chomsky (1959)àwrote criticism of Skinner 's "Verbal Behavior" Chomsky's most persuasive arguments: -Children LEARN language, they produce sentences that they have never heard and that have never been reinforced. [i.e. many children and that is unlikely to have been taught or reinforced by parents="I hate you, Mommy."] •Chomsky's criticism of behaviorism was an important event in the cognitive revolution and began changing the focus of the young discipline of psycholinguistics, the field concerned with the psychological study of language.

What is cognitive economy defined as in Hierarchial Model?

Cognitive Economy: Properties of a category are shared by many members in the category so therefore, stored at the HIGHER-LEVEL node in the network. (EX: property: "can fly" would be stored at the node for "bird" rather than at the node for "Canary," which is a TYPE of bird) -Using this caused features to no longer be needed to defined when referring to other types of birds; eliminate redundancy -This causes a problem because not all birds can fly. To eliminate the problem "exceptions" were added to each lower nodes of specific animals: "can't fly."

What should people consider before categorizing objects?

Cognitive psychologists questioned whether there a "basic" level in hierarchical organization that is more psychologically important or "privileged" than other levels. -THEREFORE, It is possible to demonstrate that there is a basic level of categories with special psychological properties, BUT the basic level may not be the same for everyone. •To fully understand how people categorize objects, one must consider - 1. Properties of objects - 2. Learning and experience of perceivers

Define connectionism. How is connectionism related to parallel distributed processing?

Connectionism: Approach to creating computer models for representing cognitive processes. -Connectionist models are designed to represent concepts, as a result these models are often referred to parallel distributed processing (PDP). -Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) models propose that concepts are represented by activity that is distributed across a network. -PDP Represent concepts - PDP contains knowledge represented in the distributed activity of many units •Weights determine at each connection how strongly an incoming signal will activate the next unit

What does the connectionist learning network learning process consist of?

Consists of INITIALLY weak and undifferentiated activation of property units, with many errors (i.e. the input "canary" causing activation of the property unit "tall"). -Error signals are then sent back through the network, which result in changes in connection weights so the next activation of "canary" results in a new activation pattern. -Each learning experience causes only a small change in the connection weights, but after many repetitions, the network assigns the correct properties to "canary."

What does the corpus of a language tell us?

Corpus is the FREQUENCY with which specific words are used and the frequency of different meanings and grammatical constructions in a particular language. -Corpus reflects how people typically use their language. -Determines how words are used in a particular language. Corpus influences prediction because we can predict what words, sentences, or passages mean based on what we know about the properties of our language. -Our experience/regularities with the environment influences cognition and knowledge that influences perception. -Our ability to perceive written words depends on how frequently they appear in our lexicon.

Define Cryptoamnesia.

Cryptoamnesia: Unconscious plagiarism of another's work due to a lack of recognition of its original source - i.e. plagiarism of melodies in pop songs

What are some examples of situations in which people do not behave to maximize the outcome, as the utility approach proposes?

Decision-Making Experiment by Denes-Raj and Epstein: -Subjects were given a dollar every time they picked a read bean from a bowl. -One bowl had 1 red & 9 white; Second: 7 red & 93 white -Small bowl 1:9 had 10% chance of choosing red SMALL=HIGHER PROBABILITY -Large bowl 7:93 had 7% chance of choosing red LARGE= LOWER PROBABILITY -Many subjects chose the larger bowl with the less favorable probability because seeing MORE red overpowered their knowledge that the probability was lower. (they went for the bow that had the highest red, rather than highest probability) -Subjects preference for lower probability shows that they're influences by CONSIDERATIONS other than their KNOWLEDGE. RESULT: -LACK RATIONAL choice making due to misconstrued observations or knowledge, which in return can be making a MISTAKEN utility decision. NOT paying enough attention to probability and only focusing on abundance.

How does context affect decisions? Describe the prescribing medication experiment.

Decisions can be influenced by context: -adding alternatives to be considered as possible choices can influence decisions Redelmeier & Shafir, 1995 • Physicians posed with two different questions - Would you prescribe medication A) for arthritis to 67 year old man? • 72%yes - Would you prescribe: 1.) medication A, 2.) medication B, or C.) nothing? • 53% yes (A,B) RESULT: Being faced with a more difficult decision can lead to making no decision at all

How does the way choices are presented affect the decisions people make?

Decisions depend on how choices are presented: -Difference between opt-in and opt-out procedures has important implications for the theory of decision making -Opt-in procedure: requires the person to take an active step (I.E. • Active step to be organ donor) - Opt-out procedure: requires the person to take active step not to be involved (i.e. in France you have to sign to NOT BE ONE or else it is automatic). -According to the utility approach, people make decisions based on expected utility value. Therefore, their decisions shouldn't depend on how the potential choices are stated. -But, the opt-in & opt-out procedure does the exact opposite causing to have an effect on people decisions with showing possible potentials.

Common Ground Effect

Description -Mutually recognize common knowledge Conclusion -Speakers tailor information to the listener's level of knowledge. People work together to achieve common ground in conversation.

Syntactic Coordination Effect

Description -Similar grammatical constructions in sentences during conversation Conclusion -A person's speech patterns are influenced by the grammatical constructions used by the other person in a conversation

Given-New contract Effect:

Description -Speaker should provide both given and new information in a sentence Conclusion

Link between actions words & brain activity

Description -motor areas of cortex are activated by action words Conclusion -Readers responses to words include stimulation of actions

Making inferences

Description -subjects infer meaning that extends beyond the wording of a sentence -anaphoric, instrument, casual Conclusion: -creative process based on passed experience adds meaning -creative process help create coherence

predictions based on knowledge of a situation

Description -Readers access most likely word to fit story, and also related words Conclusion -Readers experiences with situations lead to predictions

Creating situation models

Description -listeners stimulate perceptual and motor characteristics of objects and actions in a story. Conclusion: -Readers create perceptions that match the situations described in sentences

Simply define: Phonemic Restoration

Description: -A phoneme in a spoken word in a sentence can be perceived even if it is obscured by noise (i.e. coughing in the middle of saying a word, but the sound causing a letter to be missed: "Indep (cough) ndent"=missed the "e.") Conclusion: -Knowledge of meanings help "fill in the blanks."

Simply define: Speech Segmentation

Description: -Individual words are perceived in spoken sentences even though there are no breaks between words in speech stimulus. Conclusion: -Knowledge of the meanings of words in a language and knowledge of other characteristics of speech, such as sounds that usually go together in a word, help create speech segmentation. (i.e. "be a big girl and eat the veggies" VS. "big earl likes books." KEY WORD: "big girl" & "big earl." they sound/pronounced the same way, but hearing them differently depends on the overall meaning of the sentence. "You scream, I scream, We all Scream for Ice Cream.")

Simply define: Words Isolated from Conversational Speech

Description: -It is difficult to perceive the isolated word. Conclusion: -The context provided by the surrounding words aids in the perception of a word. (i.e. "did you go to Class today?" would you say "did you" or "Di-jooo?" People have their own way of producing words and phonemes (hearing/sound), and you have your own ways. People have sloppy pronunciation in conversational speech. -THEREFORE: ability to perceive words in conversations is AIDED by the CONTEXT provided by the words and sentences that make up the conversation.")

Simply define: Word Superiority

Description: -Letters presented visually are easier to recognize when in a word. Conclusion: -Letters are affected by their surrounding. (letters in a word are not processed by one, but that each letter is affected by the context within which it appears.) "HOW WE SEE LETTERS"

Define the Family Resemblance Effect. (ROSCH)

Description: -Things in a category resemble each other in number of ways. EXPERIMENTAL RESULT: Higher ratings for higher prototypical items when people rate how "good" a member of the category it is.

What is the evidence from clinical case studies that "super memory" may have some disadvantages?

Disadvantages: - Sometimes we make errors - Sometimes we misattribute the source of information • Was it actually presented, or did we infer it? -We forget many of the things we have experienced, and it has lead people to wish that their memory were better.

How is our knowledge of concepts intertwined with action in the brain?

Embodied approach: Knowledge of concepts is based on reactivation of sensory and motor processes that occur when we interact with the object. (i.e. when we use a hammer: -sensory areas are activated in response to the hammer's size, shape, and color -Motor areas are activated when ACTUALLY using the hammer, like banging in a nail) • Mirror neurons: (Premotor cortex) Neurons that fire when we do a task or when we observe another doing that same task; specialized to response to ONE action: grasping or placing. (i.e. when a monkey performed actions such as picking up food or a toy, their neurons in premotor cortex fired. When monkey grasped food or saw someone else grasping food premotor cortex neuron fired too; they are called mirror neurons b/c neurons response to watching someone else grasp an object is similar to the the response that occurs when the monkey is carrying out the action himself.) -Link between perception (neurons fires when watching someone else pick up food) and motor response (same neuron fired when monkey itself picks up food) is central to embodied approach that THINKING about concepts causes ACTIVATION of perceptual and motor areas assoc. w/ these concepts.

What is the relation between anxiety, optimism, and decision making?

Emotions affect decisions: -Personal qualities unrelated to brain damage have also been linked to decision making. (i.e.: Anxious people tend to avoid making decisions that could potentially lead to large negative consequences, a response called risk avoidance) Expected emotion: emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcome [I.E. Optimistic people are more likely to ignore negative information and focus on positive information, causing them to base their decisions on incomplete information.) - Too much optimism can therefore lead to poor decision making? • People inaccurately predict their emotions

What is some evidence that incidental emotions affect decisions?

Emotions that are not specifically related to decision making. Could be related to one's general disposition or personality. Also, experience and environment/surroundings have an affect. -Incidental emotions can affect one's overall decision making process, even if they're not directly related to the decision. How a person is currently "FEELING" affects their decision. (i.e. having a bad day can cause someone to naturally make bad decisions/negligent)

Define Error Signal. Define Back Propaganda. How do these two need one another?

Error signal: during learning in a connectionist network, the difference between the output signal generated by a particular stimulus and the output that actually represents that stimulus. Back Propagation: a process by which learning can occur in a connectionist network. In which an "error signal" is transmitted backward through the network. This backward transmitted error signal provides the information needed to adjust the weight in the network to achieve the correct output signal for a stimulus. -The adjustment of weights is achieved by a learning process. -The learning process occurs when the ERRONEOUS RESPONSES in the property units cause an "error signal" to be sent back through the network, by a process called "back propagation."

Describe how the following factor has been shown to lead to errors in eyewitness testimony: -FAMILIARITY

FAMILIARITY: (Source monitoring & process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs). -Crimes not only involve perpetrator and victim, but often innocent bystander (someone who is seen, but often no where near the crime). -There is a chance that bystander could be mistaken as perpetrator b/c of familiarity of some other context. (Ticket agent was robbed, claimed it was a sailor. Sailed had reliable alibi, but was blamed because agent has seen him a few times purchasing ticket. Sailer lives near by: example of source monitoring error) -Experiment: video of teacher reading to class. 2nd video of male teacher reading to class. In woman video, she was robbed by a man who LOOKED like the male teacher. When given photos to pick out the robber, the male teach photo was included, people picked the male teacher over the real robber due to familiarity.

What is another kind of experiment that Rosch did to demonstrate connection between prototypicality and behavior?

FAMILY RESEMBLANCE: -Prototypical objects have high family resemblance -List as many characteristics and attributes as you can that you feel are common to these objects. (i.e. Bicycle: 2 pedals, wheels, handlebars, something to ride on) -When 2 different objects have large amount of overlap w/ characteristics of many other items in a category, this means that the family resemblance of these items are high (i.e. characteristics & attributes of a chair and sofa have many similarities). -When looking at 2 objects that have less overlap even though they're considered in the same category, is considered low resemblance. (i.e. telephone and mirror have minimal similarities but still considered "furniture.") RESULT: Strong relationship between proto-typicality & family resemblance. Good examples of the category "furniture," such as chair & sofa share similar attributes with other members of the category. Poor examples, such as mirror and telephone, do not.

What are some examples of situations in which people do not behave to maximize the outcome, as the utility approach proposes?

Fear of flying Travel by car or plane? -Although it is well known that the odds are far greater of being killed in a car accident than in a plane crash, a decrease in air travel and an increase in driving occurred following the 9/11 terrorist attacks. -According to one calculation, the number of Americans who lost their lives on the road by avoiding the risk of flying was higher than the total number of passengers killed on the four hijacked flights (Gigerenzer, 2004) -LACK RATIONAL choice in something that is beneficial due to lack of relevant information from observations or knowledge, which in return can be making a MISTAKEN utility decision. NOT ENOUGH RESEARCH.

Explain how specific concepts are represented in more complex connectionist network.

For example: -Activation of an item unit "canary" and relation unit (CAN) causes activity to travel through the network that eventually results in activation of the property units "grow, move, fly, and sing" associated with "CANARY CAN." -Shading indicated that activity of units, darker shading implies more activity. -The activation from "canary" and 'can' spread along the connections so that some of the representation units are activated and some of the hidden units are activated. -The connection weights, cause some units to be activated strongly and others more weakly, as indicated by the shading of the units. -If the network is working properly, this activation in the hidden units activates the grow, move, fly, and sing property units. IMPORTANT:::****Concept "Canary" is represented by the pattern of activity in all of the units in the network*********

Define the Farming Effect and Risk Taking Strategy.

Framing effect: decisions are influenced by how a decision is stated - Can highlight one aspect of situation • Tversky and Kahnemann (1981) • When situations are framed in terms of gains, people tend toward a risk-aversion strategy: - Risk-aversion strategy used when problem is stated in terms of gains • When situations are framed in terms of losses, people tend toward a risk-taking strategy: - Risk-taking strategy when problem is stated in terms of losses

Explain "PRODUCING SPEECH."

Given-new contract-speaker constructs sentences so they include: - Given information: information that the listener already knows - New information: information that the listener is hearing for the first time - New can then become given information EXAMPLE: • 1st: "Ed was given an alligator for his birthday." -Given information (from previous conversation): Old INFO: PREVIOUS INFO: Ed had a birthday. - New information: He got an alligator. • 2nd: "The alligator was his favorite present." - Given information (from sentence [1]): Ed got an alligator. - New information: It was his favorite present. RESULT: -Notice how the new information in the first sentence becomes the given information in the second sentence.

What is the goal of Semantic Network Approach? How did the network created by Collins and Quillian accomplish this goal?

Goal: Develop a computer model of human memory How: -The Network: consists of nodes that are connected by links. THEN, Each node represents a category or concept, and concepts are placed in the network so that related concepts are connected. AS A RESULT, number of properties are indicated for each concept. -The Links: links connecting the concepts indicate that they are related to each other in the mind. SIMPLIER TERMS: - Node = category/concept - Links: Concepts are linked - a number of properties are indicated for each concept It is a hierarchical model, because it consists of levels arranged so that more specific concepts, such as "canary" and "salmon," are at the bottom, and more general concepts are at higher levels.

Describe a connectionist network and how it can relate to the brain?

HOW: -The circle are UNITS. These units are inspired by NEURONS found in the brain. Concepts and their properties are represented in the network by the pattern of activity in these units. -The lines are connections that transfer info between units, & are roughly equivalent to AXONS in the brain. -Like NEURONS, some units can be activated by STIMULI from the environment, and some can be activated by signals received from other units.

Explain an experiment used to: "UNDERSTAND TEXT & STORY."

Hauk and coworkers (2004): measuring brain activity using fMRI under two conditions: -as subjects moved their right or left foot, left or right index finger, or tongue; -as subjects read "action words" such as kick (foot action), pick (finger or hand action), or lick (tongue action). • Physiology of simulations - Approximately the same areas of the cortex are activated by actual movements and by reading related action words - The activation is more extensive for actual movements

How accurately was Collins and Quillian's model of how concepts are organized in the mind using Sentence-verifcation technique.

Hierarchical organization: -general concepts are at the top and specific ones at the bottom, is that it results in the testable prediction that the time it takes for a person to retrieve information about a concept should be determined by the distance that must be traveled through the network. -Model predicts that when using sentence verification technique, where subjects answered "yes" or "no" to statements about concepts, it should take longer to answer "yes" to "A canary is an animal" than to "a canary is a bird." -It takes 2 links to travel from canary to animal, but one link from canary to bird. -THEREFORE: Greater distances (nodes) are associated with longer reaction times, both when verifying statements about properties of canaries (top) and about categories of which the canary is a member

Define misinformation effect

How Misleading information presented AFTER a person witnesses an event, causes a CHANGE in how the person describes the event later.

How does language provide a sequence of signals?

Human language goes far beyond a series of fixed signals that transmit a single message such as "feed me," "danger," or "go that way for flowers." • Language provides a way of arranging a sequence of signals—sounds for spoken language, letters and written words for written language, and physical signs for sign language—to transmit, from one person to another, things ranging from the simple and commonplace

Define Constructive Nature of Memory.

Idea that what people report as memories are constructed based on what actually happened plus additional factors, such as expectations, other knowledge, and other life experiences. -Memory = What actually happens + person's knowledge, experiences, and expectations -Re count as much information from the story as possible.

Describe how the following factor has been shown to lead to errors in eyewitness testimony: -POST EVENT QUESTIONING. What is post-identification feedback?

Increase is confidence due to confirming feedback after making an identification. EXAMPLE: -WELLS & BRADFIELD- had subjects view video of actual crime and asked them to identify perpetrator from photo spread. Spread didn't ACTUALLY contain the photo of criminal. Once subjects made a choice, they received feedback (either GREAT JOB, or "no, sorry it was actually #5"). SHORTLY AFTER, subjects were asked how confident they were in their decision. Based on their feedback, those who received good feedback were more confident than those who received negative feedback.

How does interactionist approach to parsing differ from the syntax-first approach?

Interactionist believe that If parsing is always based on the structure of a sentence, then changing the scene should have no effect on eye movements. -SYNTAX: believes grammatical and FORMATION errors change a sentence meaning Interactionist: KNOWLEDGE and CONSTRUCTION changes a sentence.

What is the mental model approach to determining the validity of reasoning?

JOHNSON-LAIRD -easy method for determining whether a syllogism is valid or invalid. "On a pool table there is a black ball directly above the cue ball. The green ball is on the right side of the cue ball, and there is a red ball in between them. If I move so the red ball is between me and the the black ball, the cue ball is to the ___ of my line sight." CONCLUSION: -problem can be solved by applying logical rules, but most people solve by how balls are arranged on a pool table. -People can imagine situations is the basis of mental models to solve deductive reasoning problems.

-What is the readers task when reading a story? -What is an important part of creating a COHERENT.

Just as sentences are more than the sum of the meanings of individual words, stories are more than the sum of the meanings of individual sentences. In a well-written story, sentences in one part of the story are related to sentences in other parts of the story. The reader's task is to use these relationships between sentences to create a coherent, understandable story. • An important part of the process of creating a coherent story is making inferences—determining what the text means by using our knowledge to go beyond the information provided by the text. - unconscious inference-->perception - constructive nature of memory-->make inferences, often without realizing it, as we retrieve memories of what has happened in the past.

Experiments showing that memory can be affected by suggestion have led to the proposal of the misinformation effect. -How has the misinformation effect been demonstrated, and what mechanisms have been proposed to explain this effect?

LOFTUS - In a typical memory experiment, a person sees or hears some stimulus, such as words, letters, or sentences, or observes pictures or a film of an event, and is asked to report what he or she experienced -Subjects were shown slides of a car accident with a stop sign. Subjects saw a series of slides where a car stops at stop sign and turns corner, hitting a pedestrian. -Then experimenters introduce a Yield Sign( which is used as the MPI): "How did the car approach the yield sign?" CAUSING Participants remember what they heard (yield sign) not what they saw (stop sign). -MPI group were more likely to say they had seen the picture of the car stopped at the yield sign (which, in actuality, they had never seen) than were subjects who had not been exposed to MPI(the MENTION of a yield sign). -Researchers asked subjects if the cars "smashed" or merely "hit" one another. Those who were asked if the cars "smashed" into one another claimed that the drivers were going much faster than those who were asked it the car "hit" into one another. -There were no signs of broken glass in the slide, subjects who heard "smashed," before thinking about the speed claimed to have seen broken glass. Less subjects claimed to have seen broken glass when they heard the word "hit."

What is special about human language? Consider why human language is unique and what it is used for.

Language: system of communication using sounds or symbols - To express feelings, thoughts, ideas, and experiences - Animals, using this definition could have "language." (i.e. Cats "meow" when their food dish is empty; monkeys have a repertoire of "calls" that stand for things such as "danger" or "greeting"; bees perform a "waggle dance" at the hive to indicate the location of flowers) Human language has properties that make it unique.

Describe the male and female births experiment. How do the results of this experiment relate to the law of large numbers? Describe how the law of large numbers factors into statistics in psychology?

Law of Large Numbers: - the larger the number of individuals randomly drawn from a population, the more representative the resulting group will be of the entire population (b/c everyone has equal and unbiased chances of selection) • associated with power of sample size in statistical analysis (I.e. imagine that there is a very small hospital that records only one birth each day. Over a period of a year there will be 365 births, with about 50 percent being boys and 50 percent being girls. However, on any given day, there will be either 100 percent boys or 100 percent girls—clearly the percentages that are not representative of the overall population.) -People believe that representativeness holds for small samples, and this ERRORS in REASONING.

Consider Lerner's experiment on the relationship between mood and setting buying and selling prices. How are they related to Incidental Emotions Affect?

Lerner: 3 films 1. a person dying (sadness); 2. a person using a dirty toilet (disgust); 3. Fish at the Great Barrier Reef (neutral). Highlighter and pens? 1. the price for which subjects would be willing to sell the set (sell condition) and 2. the price at which they would be willing to choose the set instead of accepting the money (choice condition). **RESULT:** -Disgust and sadness groups were willing to sell the set for less. -Disgust is associated with a need to expel things and sad emotions are associated with a need for change. -Sad group were willing to pay more for the set. This also fits with the idea of sadness being associated with a need for change

What are "LEXICONS?" What are some factors that influence how we understand the meaning of words?

Lexicon: words people know the meaning of -Need to Determine how words are used in a particular language (corpus); figure out the corpus. -Large representative sample is taken of utterances or written text from a particular language. -Corpus indicates the frequency with which diff. words are used & the frequency of diff. meanings and grammatical constructions of a language.

Example of MPI AS SOURCE MONITORING ERROR

Lindsey (1990) - Heard a story; two days later again with some details changed - Told to ignore changes -Difficult conditioning group: heard misleading narrative shortly after seeing the presentation. Read by the same female speaker who described slide show. (i.e. in slide show, subjects saw coffee was Foldger's, in NARRATIVE said coffee was Maxwell House). TWO DAYS LATER, subject group was to return for memory test on slide show. Just before the test, they were informed that narrative version had errors & to ignore the narrative version. -Easy Conditioning group: heard misleading story, but was delayed 2 days, being presented right before taking memory test. In addition, story was read by male speaker. SAME as DIFFICULT GROUP, were told to ignore the story read by narrative. RESULT: - -Same voice for both stories created source monitoring errors (DIFFICULT GROUP). - Changing voice (male to female) did not create as many errors. (EASY GROUP)

What is the belief bias?

Many errors in evaluation - Belief bias: The tendency to think that a syllogism is valid if its conclusions are believable - the idea that some students are irritable is believable. But "Some of the students are millionaires," isn't as believable. Evans et al. (1983) -The belief bias also works the other way in which an unbelievable conclusion makes it more likely the syllogism will be considered invalid. I.e. we know birds don't have four legs so it must be invalid?

Describe the following examples of situations that involved source monitoring errors: -World Knowledge (gender stereotype experiment). Be sure you can describe the experiments related to each example.

Marsh: -Showed that people's performance on a source monitoring task can be influenced by gender stereotypes. HOW: -Subjects read series of statements on computer screen for 5 sec. -Some statements were associated with stereotypes for males, females, and neutral gender. Each statement was mentioned with a name. Then subjects were told to remember the statement and the person who said it. (i.e. "I swore at the guy who insulted me."-NAME, "I am very easy going."- NAME, "I made a centerpiece for the table."-NAME) -After seeing the pairs, subjects did a puzzle for 5min & were told that Chris was heterosexual male and Pat was heterosexual female. (SUBJECTS DID NOT KNOW THE GENDER ASSOCIATED WITH NAMES UNTIL NOW) -Once they knew the genders, they were given the source monitoring task, which was to read the statements they had originally seen and indicate whether they were said by CHRIS or PAT. RESULT: -If subjects could not remember who said the statements, then they became biased on gender opinions of who they assumed would make the statement. (i.e. only a woman would say that...) The influence of real-world knowledge therefore resulted in source monitoring errors.

How are expected utility theory, Utility approach, and Maximum Monetary Payoff all intertwined?

Most early theorizing on decision making was influenced by "expected utility theory." -Expected utility theory assumes that people are basically rational. - If they have all relevant information, they will make a decision that results in the maximum expected utility -If a person is rational, with all relevant information, then the outcome that is desired occurs because it is in that persons "best interest," (desired goals) results in UTILITY. - Maximum monetary payoff: • The economists who studied decision making thought about utility in terms of monetary value • The goal of good decision making was to make choices that resulted in the maximum monetary payoff. How many of you used maximum monetary payoff as a factor in career goals? (i.e.: Making a career choice in something that makes you money" b/c you are rational, with relevant information from observations or knowledge, which in return can be making a utility decision because it is in your best interest to be rich for your future.)

What is neuroeconomics?

Neuroeconomics: combines research from the fields of psychology, neuroscience, and economics to study how brain activation is related to decisions that involve potential gains or losses. •Objectives: find areas of brain which regulate decision making. - One finding: decisions are influenced by emotions, and those emotions are associated with activity in specific areas of the brain.

Example of MPI as causing interference.

Original info is forgotten because of retroactive inference. -Retroactive inference: occurs when more recent learning (MISINFORMATION) interferes with memory for something that happened in the past (ACTUAL EVENT); More recent learning interferes with memory for something in the past -ORIGINAL MEMORY trace is not replaced, but sometimes forgotten because of retroactive interference. EXAMPLE of retroactive interference: -Studying for Spanish exam made it more difficult to remember some of the vocabulary words you studied for your French exam earlier in the day. -Similarly, MPI could interfere with remembering what happened when you originally viewed a stimulus. The misinformation effect shows not only that false memories can be created by SUGGESTION, but also provides an example of how different researchers can interpret the same data in different ways.

Where do we store words and knowledge of them?

Our knowledge about words is stored in our lexicon, which is a person's knowledge of what words mean, how they sound, and how they are used in relation to other words. Lexicon: all words a person understands; internal dictionary Found in Wernicke's area; located in temporal lobe lateralized to left hemisphere (in most individuals).

What experiment did Rosch do that demonstrated connection between prototypicality and behavior?

PROTOTYPE: -Presented subjects with a category title, such as "bird" or "furniture," & a list of about 50 members of the category. -Subjects had to rate the extent to which each member represented the category title on a 7-point scale, with a rating of 1 meaning that the member is a very good example of what the category is, and a rating of 7 meaning that the member fits poorly within the category or is not a member at all. -RESULT: Due to the rating of the sparrow in terms of a "Bird", its LOW rating suggested it to be a good example of a kind of bird. The HIGH ratings for bats and penguins suggest that they aren't good examples of birds. Similarly, chairs & sofas are good examples of furniture. A telephone is a poor example of furniture.

How does the way choices are presented affect the decisions people make? Describe the examples of making judgments about the violence of mental patients.

Paul Slovic: • Subjects showed forensic psychologists and psychiatrists a case history of a mental patient, Mr. Jones, and asked them to judge the likelihood that the patient would commit an act of violence within 6 months of being discharged. • When they were told that "20 out of every 100 patients similar to Mr. Jones are estimated to commit an act of violence," 41 percent refused to discharge him. • When told that "patients similar to Mr. Jones are estimated to have a 20 percent chance of committing an act of violence," only 21 percent refused to discharge him. • Why did this difference occur? - One possibility is that the first statement conjures up images of 20 people being beaten up, whereas the second is a more abstract probability statement that could be interpreted to mean that there is only a small chance that patients like Mr. Jones will be violent.

Describe the Typicality Effect. (SMITH)

People react rapidly to members of a category that are "typical" of the category. Experimental Result: -Faster reaction time to statements like "a ____ is a bird" for high-prototypical items (like robin) than for low-prototypical items (like ostrich).

Describe the following demonstrations of how context helps with the perception of words and components of words: -Phonemic restoration effect

Phonemic restoration effect: occurs when phonemes are perceived in speech when the sound of the phoneme is covered up by an extraneous noise - "Fill in" missing phonemes based on context of sentence and portion of word presented - phonetic bottom up processing. - Our knowledge of the meanings of words and the likely meanings of sentences affects speech perception is another example of top-down processing. EXAMPLE: -Warren's phonemic restoration effect could be influenced by the meaning of the words that follow the missing phoneme. (i.e. "there was time to *ave.." [the * represents a cough or sound], causing the word to be shave, save, wave, or rave) -Subjects heard the word wave when the remainder of the sentence had to do with saying good-bye to a departing friend.

Describe the following demonstrations of how context helps with the perception of words and components of words: -Isolating words from conversations (Pollack and Pickett experiment)

Pollack and Pickett (1964): - Recorded conversations of subjects who sat in a room waiting for the experiment to begin. - When the subjects were then presented with recordings of single words taken out of their own conversations, they could identify only half the words, even though they were listening to their own voices! - The fact that the people in this experiment were able to identify words as they were talking to each other, but couldn't identify the same words when the words were isolated, illustrates that their ability to perceive words in conversations is aided by the context provided by the words and sentences that make up the conversation. -Causing the result of speech segmentation!!

Describe what the behavior of contestants on Deal or No Deal tells us about what determines their decisions.

Post and coworkers (2008) analyzed contestants' responses in 100's of games and concluded : -Contestants' choices are determined not just by the amounts of money left in the briefcases but by what has happened leading up to their decision. -If things are going well (they have opened a number of small money briefcases) and the bank begins offering more and more, the contestant is likely to be cautious and accept a deal early. -In contrast, when doing poorly (having opened a number of large denomination briefcases, taking those amounts out of play) and the bank's offers go down, they are likely to take more risks and keep playing.

Describe the following examples of how memory errors can occur because of a person's knowledge of the world: -Making Inferences (pragmatic inference; baseball experiment)

Pragmatic Inference: -Occurs when reading a sentence leads a person to expect something that is not explicitly stated or implied by a sentence EXAMPLE: -Reading that a baby stayed up all night doesn't include any info about crying, BUT KNOWLEDGE about babies might lead a person to infer that the baby was crying. -BASEBALL (ARKES & FREEDMAN): In a baseball game, score is tied 1-1. The home team has runners on 1st and 3rd, with one out. A ground ball is hit to the short stop. The short stop throws to second base, attempting a double play. The runner who was on third scores, now 2-1 in favor of the home team. RESULTS OF THIS: -Subjects asked to indicate whether "the batter was safe at first" was part of the first passed. Those who didn't know baseball answered correctly. Those who knew baseball, assuming the game and how it is played, agreed that the sentence was stated. -THEREFORE: KNOWLEDGE, resulted in correct INFERENCE about what probably happened in the game, but an INCORRECT inference about the sentence that was presented in the passage.

What is psycholinguistics? What are its concerns, and what part of psycholinguistics does this chapter focus on?

Psycholinguistics IS the field concerned with the psychological studyof language. 1. Comprehension: -How do people understand spoken and written language? How people process language sounds; how they understand words, sentences, and stories expressed in writing, speech, or sign language; and how people have conversations with one another. 2. Speech Production: -How do people produce language? This includes the physical processes of speech production and the mental processes that occur as a person creates speech. 3. Representation: How is language represented in the mind and in the brain? This includes how people group words together into phrases and make connections between different parts of a story, as well as how these processes are related to the activation of the brain. 4. Acquisition: How do people learn language? This includes not only how children learn language but also how people learn additional languages, either as children or later in life.

Describe how the following can cause errors in reasoning: -representativeness heuristic.

Representativeness heuristic: the probability that A is a member of class B can be determined by how well the properties of A resembles properties normally associated with class B EXPERIMENT [Tversky and Daniel Kahneman (1974)]: "We randomly pick one male from the population of the United States. That male, Robert, wears glasses, speaks quietly, and reads a lot. Is it more likely that Robert is a librarian or a farmer?" -Most people guessed librarian -Description of Robert as wearing glasses, speaking quietly, and reading a lot matched these people's image of a typical librarian -Thus, they were influenced by the fact that the description of Robert matches their conception of what a librarian is like Representative heuristic: -**Use base rate information if it is all that is available** • The base rate is the relative proportion of different classes in the population: - Then and now: **Farmers are more common than librarians in population these days.** -if Robert was randomly chosen from the population,it is much more likely that he was a farmer.

What arguments did Rosch present to support the idea that one of these levels within a category is "privileged"?

Rosch distinguished three levels of categories: 1. the superordinate level = global level: (for example, "furniture") 2. the basic level: (for example, "table") 3. the subordinate level = the specific level: (for example, "kitchen table").

Describe the following examples of how memory errors can occur because of a person's knowledge of the world: Schemas and Scripts (office experiment; dentist experiment);

SCHEMA: person's knowledge about the environment (i.e. a person's schema of a post office might include what a post office building usually looks like from the outside, what is inside, and what services are provided) -They can be developed through experiences in diff situations such as visiting a post office, going to ball game, or listening to lectures in class. EXPERIMENT(Brewer & Treyen: -subjects asked to wait in an office, while experimenter went to check if "previous hour subjects had completed the experiment." After 35 sec, subjects were called into another room and the purpose of the experiment was to test their memory of the office and write down what they remembered in the 35sec while they were waiting. -Subjects recalled many things that were there, but ALSO a lot of things that WERE NOT there based on what offices usually have inside. (i.e. no books in THIS office, but many reported that there were) RESULT: -Info in schemas can provide a guide for making inferences about what we remember.

Describe Sanfey and coworkers' (2003) experiment, and indicate what it adds to our understanding of decision making.

Sanfey and coworkers (2003): Ultimatum game: • Two players, a proposer and responder. Proposer given $10. -According to utility theory, the responder should accept the proposer's offer no matter what it is. This is the rational response, because if you accept the offer you get something, but if you refuse it you get nothing (remember that the game is only one trial long, so there is no second chance). THEN: Subjects played 20 separate games as responder: -10 with 10 different human partners, and -10 with a computer partner, -All offers predetermined by experimenters. RESULT: -Often rejected low offers because they became angry that offers were unfair -Less angry with an "unfair " computer

How are categories and concepts organized within the brain?

Sensory-functional hypothesis: Our ability to differentiate living things and artifacts depends on a semantic memory system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes function. (i.e.[Living things V. Artifacts]) Multiple factors approach: - Looks at how concepts are divided up within a category rather than identifying specific brain areas of networks for different concepts (i.e. Organizing a closet) Crowding: -When different concepts within a category share many properties. (i.e. "animals" all share "eyes," "legs," and "the ability to move") -Therefore damage to an area representing one concept may interfere with the processing of other concepts within a category.

How does context affect decisions? Describe the parole board study.

Shai Danziger et al. (2011:) - 1,000 judicial rulings on parole requests - probability of a favorable response (parole granted) was 65 % when judges heard a case just after taking a meal break - Almost 0% when heard just before taking a break. - Extraneous variables (whether the judge is hungry or tired) can affect judicial decisions lends credibility to a saying coined by Judge Jerome Frank (1930) that "Justice is what the judge had for breakfast."

What is meaning dominance?

Some meaning of words occur more frequently than others. (i.e. "tin"(type of metal) is HIGH dominance b/c it occurs more frequently than "tin"(small metal container of food), which is considered LOW dominance.)

Define source monitoring

Source monitoring error: misidentifying source of memory - Also called "source misattributions" - the experience of remembering that one person told you about something but later realizing you had heard it from someone else— or the experience of claiming you had said something you had only thought -Source monitoring: Primary source of information for memory is information from the actual event, including perceptual experiences, emotions, and thoughts that were occurring at the time. -Additional sources of information that influence memory include people's knowledge of the world, and things that happened before or after the event that might become confused with the event.

Describe the following demonstrations of how context helps with the perception of words and components of words: -Speech segmentation.

Speech segmentation: - Our ability to perceive individual words even though there are often no pauses between words in the sound signal is called speech segmentation. - Reliant upon: • Context • Understanding of meaning • Understanding of sound and syntactic rules • Statistical learning -One of the challenges posed by the problem of perceiving words is that not everyone says words in the same way: • People talk with different accents and at different speeds, and, most important, people often take a relaxed approach to pronouncing words when they are speaking naturally. • Everyone has their own ways of producing various words and phonemes, and other people have theirs. • (Waldrop, 1988) 50 different ways to pronounce the word "the."

How does spreading activation affect Collins and Quillian Hierarchical mode

Spreading activation is activity that spreads out along any link that is connected to an activated node. - Activation is the arousal level of a node (i.e. "bird" becomes center of attention cause all other node that are connected to a "bird") - When a node is activated, activity spreads out along all connected links [For example, moving through the network from "robin" to "bird" activates the node at "bird" and the link we use to get from robin to bird. But according to the idea of spreading activation, this activation also spreads to other nodes in the network, as indicated by the dashed lines.] Thus, activating the canary-to-bird pathway activates additional concepts that are connected to "bird," such as "animal" and other types of birds *******Concepts that receive activation are primed and more easily accessed from memory*******

Describe the Kermer experiment in which subjects rated their expected happiness before gambling and their actual happiness after the results were known.

Subjects given $5 and told them that if they won they'd received an additional $5 or lose $3. -Measured happiness before toss & predicted happiness would be affected if they won the $10 or walked away losing with $2. -Before the toss, Negative effect of losing was measured HIGHER than Positive effect of winning; More people expected to lose more than to win. -After the gamble: some wins/loses, subject measured happiness again. *Measures showed that the ACTUAL EFFECT of losing was lower than the PREDICTED EFFECT. *Measures showed POSITIVE EFFECT of winning was ALSO less than predicted. RESULT: people are never right when predicting their emotions on how they'd feel if something were to happen in the future.

Define Syntax Coordination:

Syntactic coordination: - The process by which people use similar grammatical constructions.

-False memories arise from the same constructive process that produces true memories.

TRUE

How has research on categorization by experts led to modifications of Rosch's ideas about which category is "basic" or "privileged"?

Tanaka &Taylor (1991): -bird experts and nonexperts to name pictures of objects. -There were objects from many different categories (tools, clothing, flowers, etc.) but were interested in how the subjects responded to the four bird pictures. -Experts responded by specifying the birds' species (robin, sparrow, jay, or cardinal), but the nonexperts responded by saying "bird." -Experts learned to pay attention to features of birds that nonexperts were unaware of. RESULT: people who know more about an object can specify a lot more in detail what features correspond to this object. Thus, the level that is "special," meaning which tends to be more focused on, is not the same for everyone. -GENERALLY: people with more expertise & familiarity with a particular category tend to focus on more specific info that Rosch associated with "specific level." Our ability to categorize is learned from experience. We tend to categorize objects we've been subjected to differently than those we haven't. -People who know MORE about something tend to be more "specific level," compared to those who know LESS info resort to "basic."

Define Misleading post event information (MPI)

The misleading INFORMATION that CAUSES the misinformation effect. (i.e. seeing a picture with a "stop sign," but LATER asked questions about the picture using a "yield sign" instead of what was REALLY there FIRST)

Define Source Memory.

The process of determining the origins of our memories, knowledge, or beliefs

Chapter 11: How do we study language mirroring the way that it is learned>

The way we study language mirrors the way we learn language. 1. We start with small units of language—sounds and words 2. and to work toward larger units—sentences, stories 3. And finally, conversations with other people. -We are not concerned with the development of language, grammatical rules and order, but more, cognitive psychology is interested IN HOW we comprehend, organize, and utilize language. -Language encompasses our ability to create tens of thousands of meanings with words, to string these words together to create more complex descriptions and thoughts, and to string these descriptions and thoughts together to create a story, a conversation, or even a cognitive psychology book.

What is the typicality effect? How does it relate to how we know and recall members of a category?

Typicality effect is the ability to judge HIGHLY prototypical objects more rapidly. -Sentence SENTENCE METHOD VERIFICATION TECHNIQUE (SMITH&CoWorkers): -Subjects presented with statements and determine whether it is "true" or "false." (i.e. "An apple is a fruit." TRUE) -Subjects responded faster to objects that are high in prototypicality (like apple in the "fruit" category) than for objects in LOW prototypicality (like a pomegranate is a fruit). -Subjects asked to list as many objects in a category as possible, they tend to list the most prototypical members of the category first. (i.e. sparrows would be named before penguins for "birds.")

Describe how the following factor has been shown to lead to errors in eyewitness testimony: -WEAPONS FOCUS

WEAPONS FOCUS: -The tendency to focus attention on a weapon that results in the narrowing of attention. (i.e. STANNY&JOHNSON:found that subjects were more likely to recall details of perpetrator, the victim, and the weapon in the "no-shoot" condition [weapon present, not fired] than in the "shoot" condition [gun was fired].) -The presence of weapon that fired distracted attention from other things happening.

Consider the relationship between the weather and university admissions. How are they related to Incidental Emotions Affect?

WEATHE& ADMISSIONS: "clouds make nerds look good" BY Simonsohn: -university admissions decisions found that applicants academic attributes were more heavily weighted on cloudy days, rather than on sunny days (nonacademic attributes WON out on sunny day). -ALSO, found that student visiting an academically high university is more likely to enroll on a rainy day. RESULT: 1. Admissions are stricter on cloudy days, and 2. Smart Student more likely to enroll in school on cloudy days.

Explain The Phonemic Restoration Effect.

Warren (1970) -Subjects listen to a recording of the sentence "The state governors met with their respective legislatures convening in the capital city." -Warren replaced the first /s/ in "legislatures" with the sound of a cough and asked his subjects to indicate where in the sentence the cough occurred RESULT: -No subject identified the correct position of the cough, and, even more significantly, none of them noticed that the /s/ in "legislatures" was missing. -This effect was experienced evenby studentsandstaffin the psychology department who knew that the /s/ was missing.

Explain the Sensory Function Hypothesis experiment.

Washington & Shallice: -4 patients suffered encephalitis/memory loss -They had category specific memory impairment, which means they had lost the ability to identify one type of object but retained ability to identify other types of objects. (i.e. able to identify non-animals, like furniture & tools, as well as fruits and veggies, but impaired ability to identify living animals) -noted that distinguishing LIVING THINGS depends on perceiving their sensory features. (i.e. distinguishing between tiger and leopard depends on perceiving stripes and spots) -Distinguishing artifacts, distinguished by function. (i.e. screw driver, chisel, or hammer are all tools but used for different purposes [turning screws, scraping, and pounding nails]). RESULT: -showed that patients had impaired sensory & impaired functional ability -living things are distinguished by sensory properties and artifacts by functions. -SENSORY FUNCTIONAL HYPOTHESIS: states that our ability to differentiate living and artifacts depends on a semantic memory (i.e. meaning words) system that distinguishes sensory attributes and a system that distinguishes function. PROBLEM? people believed sensory functional hypothesis was too simplified; lacked detail.

What are some examples of coping mechanisms people use to deal with adversity when making emotional predictions?

When making their prediction, people don't take into account the various coping mechanisms they may use to deal with adversity. - For example, a person who doesn't get a job he wanted might rationalize the failure by saying " The salary wasn't what I really wanted" or "I'll find something better." -In Kremer's experiment, when subjects predicted how they would feel if they lost, they focused on losing $5, but after the outcome was determined, subjects who actually lost focused on the fact that they still had $2 left. -The inability to correctly predict the emotional outcome of a decision can lead to inefficient decision making

How can failure to take into account base rates cause errors in reasoning? Be sure you understand how the judging occupations experiment relates to the representative heuristic and base rates.

When only base rate information is available, people use that information to make their estimates, BUT.... - However, when any descriptive information is available, people DISREGARD the base rate information, and this can potentially cause errors in reasoning. -People pay more attention to description of a person rather than the BASE RATE. (i.e. description of Robert was that of a librarian, BUT the base rate is that it is less common to find librarians these days.) -(i.e. The probability of being a bank teller is greater than the probability of being a feminist bank teller.)

What does semantic category approach focus on?

While the semantic category approach focuses on areas of the brain that are specialized to respond to specific types of stimuli, it also emphasizes that the brain's response to items from a particular category is distributed over a number of different cortical areas. Identifying faces may be based on activity in the face area in the temporal lobe, but it also depends on activity in areas that respond to emotions, facial expressions, where the face is looking, and the face's attractiveness.

What is lexical ambiguity?

Words have more than one meaning & could affect our ability to access their correct meaning (i.e. "bug" can be an insect, hidden listening device, or someone being annoying)

How has WORD FREQUENCY been studied: (a) using the lexical decision task and

a.)Subjects are asked to read stimuli and decide whether they are words or non-words -Given two lists with words OR letters jumbled together to look like words. List 1 contained more low-frequency words(rarely used/heard words) than list 2, which consisted of high-frequency words (everyday words). THEREFORE: response rate for list 2 was higher. -this is called lexical decision task b/c subjects had to decide whether each group of letters was a word from their "lexicon" (words people know meaning of/memory)

What are incidental emotions?

are emotions that aren't caused by having to make a decision. -Can be related to a person's general disposition (a person being naturally happy), something that happened earlier that day, or general environment.

How has WORD FREQUENCY been studied: (b) by measuring eye movements?

b.) Rayner and coworkers: Studies Peoples eye movements as they're reading. -Studies Saccadic eye movements, which means the eye movements from one fixation point to another -Studies where eyes briefly stop to look at a particular scene (fixations) -These movements are measures by eye tracking devices (i.e. someone people use that look like binoculars when looking at screen/image). RESULT: - Look at low-frequency words longer - if a person pauses for a long time on a particular word, we can infer that he or she is taking longer to perceive that word or to process its meaning -past experience with words influences our ability to access their meaning. (i.e.: -"Sam wore the horrid coat though his pretty girlfriend complained" ---> high-frequency target word pretty. -"Sam wore the horrid coat though his demure girlfriend complained ---> low frequency target word)

How do actual elements in semantic network correspond to the actual operation of the brain?

concerned with HOW concepts and their properties are ASSOCIATED in the mind.

what is hierarchical language?

consists of a series of small components that can be combined to form larger units. (i.e. words can be combined to create phrases, which in turn create sentence, which can then become components to a story). -the RULE-BASED nature of language is that these components can be arranged in certain ways ("what is my cat saying?"=GOOD; "Cat my saying what?"=NO) -These 2 properties- a hierarchical structure and rules-endow humans w/ the ability to go far beyond fixed calls & signs of animals to communicate w/e we want to express.

Describe how these two aspects of language (SYNTAX & SEMANTICS) have been studied using: -Neuropsychology

syntax and semantics are processed in diff. areas of the brain.

What is the myside bias? Describe Lord's experiment on attitudes about capital punishment.

tendency for people to generate and evaluate evidence and test their hypotheses in a way that is biased toward their own opinions and attitudes. Lord Experiment: -Identified one group in favor of capital punishment & another group against it. -Some provided evidence that capital punishment had deterrent effect on murder and others provided evidence that is had no deterrent effect on murder. -SO, when subjects reacted to their studies they showed the same attitudes they had begging of experiment. (EX: article shows evidence supporting deterrent effect of capital punishment was "rated" as convincing, by proponents of capital punishment and "unconvincing" by those against capital punishment) As a RESULT: -causing myside bias. people tend to generate and hypothesize on their own beliefs, disregarding opposing side.

What are some ADVANTAGES and DISADVANTAGES to the Utility Approach?

• Advantages: - Specific procedures to determine the "bestchoice" -Playing a slot machine or buying a lottery ticket -> utility approach? • How many here are Big jackpot players? - 1 in 292,201,338.00 • Problems: - Just because it is possible to predict the optimum strategy doesn't mean that people will follow that strategy. -People regularly behave in ways that ignore the optimum way of responding based on probabilities. - Not necessarily money, people find value in other things - Many decisions do not maximize the probability of the best outcome - On average most people do not follow the decision-making procedures proposed by expected utility theory.

What are expected emotions? Describe how expected emotions are related to risk aversion.

• Expected emotion: emotions that people predict that they will feel concerning an outcomes. -Expected emotions are one of the determinants of risk aversion—the tendency to avoid taking risks. • One of the things that increases the chance of risk aversion is the tendency to believe that a particular loss will have a greater impact than a gain of the same size: (I.e. if people believe it would be very disturbing to lose $100 but only slightly pleasant to win $100, then this would cause them to decline a bet for which the odds are 50-50, such as flipping a coin)

CHAPTER 13: Define how Judgements, Decisions, and Reasoning are all intertwined.

• Judgments: conclusions based on available information and material combined with one's own thoughts and experience - We make judgments all the time: "I met John yesterday. He seems like a nice guy." • Decisions: "The process of making choices" between alternatives - {usually} Based on judgments • Reasoning: "The process of drawing conclusions" based on some form of evidence. • Decisions are based on judgments we make, and applying these judgments can involve various reasoning processes

How does context affect decisions? Describe the cesarean delivery experiment.

• Question: Recommend Caesarean delivery? 1. Control: The test case was presented first. 2. Serious previous cases: -The test case was preceded by four other cases in which there were serious complications that would usually call for a cesarean section. 3. Not Serious previous cases: -The test case was preceded by four other cases that were fairly routine and usually wouldn't call for a cesarean section. Result: more than 1/2 of physicians on control & serious conditions recommended a caesarean delivery. It is more serious to those that are not PROCEEDED by complicated situations to recommend. Also, physician experiences with this surgery cause a decision making process solution.

Define sensory function hypothesis.

• S.F. hypothesis - (1) conceptual knowledge is organized in the brain by modality (visual, olfactory, motor/functional, etc.) - (2) sensory and functional properties are differentially important in identifying members of the living and nonliving categories, respectively. - Crucial assumption of the SFT is that the visual properties of concepts are much more important for distinguishing among members of living than nonliving things. ******- A consequence of these assumptions is that selective damage to the visual semantic subsystem should result in disproportionate impairment for the living category*********

Errors associated with perception and attention.

• Wells&Bradfield(1998): A number of experiments have presented subjects with films of actual crimes or staged crimes and then asked them to pick the perpetrator from a photo spread - Participants view security videotape with gunman in view for 8 seconds - Everyone identified someone as the gunman from photographs afterwards - The actual gunman's picture was not presented RESULTS: -Difficult to accurate identify someone after viewing a videotape of a crime. -Emotions run high during commission of a crime, and can affect what a person pays attention to and what the person remembers later.

Explain the experiment that test the idea that areas of the brain are innately specialized for specific categories of concepts.

• Wilmer and coworkers (2010) tested the idea that areas of the brain are innately specialized for specific categories of concepts by measuring face recognition ability in monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal) twins. - Correlation of scores between identical twins was more than 2x greater than fraternal twins (0.70 vs. 0.29)---> there is a genetic basis for the mechanisms that support face recognition.

Define Exemplar Approach.

•Concept is represented by multiple examples, rather than an average or single prototype. Exemplars: Examples are actual category members (not abstract averages) - if a person has encountered sparrows, robins, and blue jays in the past, each of these would be an exemplar for the category "birds." - Name as many colors as you can. - these were exemplars.... •To categorize an encountered stimulus, compare the new item to stored examples •The exemplar approach takes into account the wide variation among items that belong to a particular category.

Define Semantic Somatotopy.

•Correspondence between words related to specific body parts and the location of brain activation associated with that part of the body. (i.e. leg words and leg movements elicit activity in center of brain, whereas arm words and finger movements elicit activity farther away from center of brain) - mirror touch synesthesia: Hyperactivity and excessive connections of mirror neurons and somatomotor networks

Define Prototype.

"typical" member of the category. -Rosch proposed that a typical prototype is based on an average of members of a category that are commonly experienced. (i.e. prototype for category birds might be based on some of the birds you usually see, such as sparrows, robins, and blue jays, but doesn't exactly look like any one of them.) -PROTOYPE is not an ACTUAL member of the category, but is an "AVERAGE" representation of the category.

Define a Typical Prototype.

-An average of category members encountered in the past