developmental psychology final

period of the fetus

"growth and finishing stage" 1. third month: lungs begin to expand and contract; sex evident 2. second trimester: movements; brain weight increases tenfold from 20th prenatal week until birth 3. third trimester: cerebral cortex enlarges; fetus spends more time awake

more conformity in (early childhood/middle childhood/adolescence)

(early) adolescence

contributions of attachment theory

1. Early relationships form the foundation and internal working model for all later relationships 2. Importance of caregiver in regulating and organizing infant behavior

children growing up in homes high in negative emotion

1. Express high levels of negative emotion 2. Poor social skills 3. Aggression and other behavior problems

children growing up in homes high in positive emotion

1. Express high levels of positive emotion themselves 2. Socially skilled 3. Low in aggression 4. High self-esteem 5. Understand others' emotions

erikson's theory of identity formation

1. Formation of identity = main crisis in adolescence 2. identity-status categories: identity-diffusion status, foreclosure status, moratorium status, identity-achievement status

psychoanalytic theories of social development

1. Freud's theory of psychosexual development 2. Erikson's theory of psychosocial development

genetic and environmental influences on temperament

1. G: responsible for about half of individual differences 2. E: cultural variations; non-shared environment 3. goodness of fit: combines genetics and environment not static, can be modified over time

conscience

1. Promotes compliance with adult rules and standards even when no one is monitoring 2. Constrains antisocial behavior and promotes prosocial behavior by causing child to feel guilty when engages in uncaring behavior or doesn't live up to internalized values 3. Earlier than TOM, etc and around age 2 bc self-conscious emotions (18 mos) is a prerequisite and need to compare self to standards

inhibited, shy temperament

1. React negatively, withdraw from new stimuli 2. High heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms 3. Higher right hemisphere frontal cortex activity

uninhibited, sociable temperament

1. React positively, approach new stimuli 2. Low heart rates, stress hormones, and stress symptoms 3. Higher left hemisphere frontal cortex activity

differences in language style

1. Referential: speech strategy analyzing speech stream into individual phonetic elements & words - first utterances tend to be monosyllabic 2. expressive: giving more attention to overall sound of language (sounds conversational) 3. wait and see style: late talkers who then have a large quickly growing vocabulary

Kohlberg's applications to non-Western societies

1. Specific ideas about what moral behavior is and what the universal moral principles are vary by culture (e.g. India vs. US) 2. Individuals who occupy a subordinate position (e.g. Arab women) tend to view themselves as having few choices and under greater moral obligation to obey authority

levels of categorization

1. Subordinate level: The most specific level within a category hierarchy 2. Superordinate level: The general level within a category hierarchy 3. Basic level: The middle level, and often the first level learned, within a category hierarchy

Kohlberg's stage 4

"Law and Order" Orientation 1. Moral behavior is fulfilling your duties, upholding the law, and contributing to society 2. Importance of preserving the social order.

interactional synchrony

"emotional dance" which predicts secure attachment is caregiver attends to babysit state, provides playful interaction when baby is alert and attentive, and avoids over-stimulating a tired or over-excited infant

Kohlberg's stage 3

"good girl, nice boy" orientation 1. Moral behavior is what pleases, helps, or is approved of by others 2. Actions are evaluated on the basis of motives and maintaining good relationships with others

cultural influences on gender (Sweden)

1. Sweden committed to gender equality: "equal roles family model", paid paternity leave, quality child care available 2. results: young people view gender traits as learned and domains of expertise, rather than inborn traits or rights and duties; adults hold more favorable attitudes toward maternal employment; 90% of Swedish fathers take some form of parental leave

developmental approaches to emotions

1. Three basic emotional systems at birth: joy/pleasure, anger/frustration, and wariness/fear 2. Emotional systems change from primitive forms to more differentiated forms during the first few years of life through biological maturation, cognitive development, and social experience

heteronomous morality (5-8 yrs)

1. View rules as handed down by authorities, permanent, unchangeable, require strict obedience 2. Judge wrongness by outcomes, not intentions

Influences on Gender Stereotyping and Gender-Role Adoption

1. biology: evolutionary adaptiveness (hunters vs nurturers, compete for mate) 2. environmental: perceptions and expectations of adults, observational learning, peers, siblings 3. hormones: estrogen tends to make people more emotional; test tends to make people more aggressive

sex differences are due to

1. biology: hormones, evolutions 2. environment: perceptions and expectation of adults, observational learning, peers and siblings

sensorimotor stage

1. birth to 2 years 2. building schemas through sensory and motor exploration

sex differences in friendships

1. boys = activities, status; friendships more variable; depends on gender identity 2. girls: emotional closeness; get together to "just talk"; danger of corumination 3. other-sex friends: either very popular or very unpopular adolescents

sex differences in aggression

1. boys are more physically aggressive: differences in verbal and relational aggression less clear 2. biological influences: androgen hormones --> prenatally shaped and then further in puberty 3. environmental influences: family, consequences, peers

cliques to dating

1. boys' and girls' cliques come together 2. groups off several couples form and spend time together 3. graph of percentage of each gender in relationships (girls are in more relationships earlier because they tend to date older boys in high school)

speech perception in infants

1. can detect sounds of any human language (prefer slow, clear, high-pitched sounds and own mother's voice) 2. statistical learning capacity for speech patterns and sounds 3. can discriminate languages of different rhythmic families 4. ~ 4 months: discriminate within same rhythmic family 5. by 12 months: segment speech into words, pair word with object

mechanism of change in vygotsy's theory

1. children are social beings shaped by their cultural contexts. content varies greatly across culture 2. cognitive change originates in social interaction

nature nurture interaction in ethological and evolutionary theories

1. children inherit biologically based abilities and predispositions 2. focus on aspects of behavior that serve an adaptive function

theory of mind delays

1. children with sensory impairments (deaf or blind) - due to inability to communicate effectively (e.g., does not occur with deaf children of deaf parents) 2. maltreated children (esp neglected children)

Criticisms of Piaget's Theory

1. children's thinking is not as consistent as the stages suggest 2. infants and young children are more competent than Piaget recognized 3. Piaget understates the contribution of the social and cultural world to cognitive development

cognitive and social influences that contribute to the development of self-concept

1. cognitive development (end of P's sensorimotor period) 2. secure attachment related to a more positive idea of self-concept 3. parents' conversations: providing descriptive information, evaluating child's behavior, constructing autobiographical memories

sex differences in depression

1. common in adolescence but twice as likely in girls: willingness to endorse sx? sx are shown differently and thus less likely to think of mens' depression as depression 2. biological and environmental factors: heredity, stressful life events, gender-typed coping styles, girls with androgynous/masculine gender identity show low rates 3. adults often minimize as "typical"

early semantic development

1. comprehension before production (5 month lag) 2. vocabulary spurt (18-24 months): fast-mapping, form networks of related concepts 3. underextensions, overextensions, and word coinages

first speech sounds

1. cooing: 2 months, vowel sounds (oo aa) 2. babbling: 6 months, consonant-vowel combination (ma da), universal timing

sociocultural context/factors

1. current vs former sociocultural factors (e.g. daycare, historical setting) 2. cross-cultural comparisons (sleeping patterns and situations) 3. multicultural societies (e.g. ethnicity, race, SES)

components of an emotion

1. desire to take an action: frontal cortex, hypothalamus 2. autonomic response: hypothalamus, associated structures 3. facial expression: motor cortex 4. subjective feelings (recognition): amygdala, frontal cortex 5. thoughts/cognitions: prefrontal cortex, hippocampus (memories) (preschooler capable, 3-month old is not)

five key historical controversies about child development

1. development due to nature or nurture? 2. are children actively involved in the developmental process, or are they passive recipients of social and biological influences? 3. is development continuous or discontinuous? 4. is there one course of development or many? 5. how can we tell how much infants and young children really "know"?

object permanence

1. develops in substage 4 (8-12 mos) 2. understanding that objects continue to exist when out of sight

sexual dimorphism

1. differential development of brain areas in the two sexes 2. male & female hormones (androgen & estrogen) act on the brain to produce a distinctly female or male brain

two views of infant emotion

1. differential emotions theory 2. developmental approaches

parental influences on peer relations

1. direct: arrange informal peer activities, guidance on how to act toward others, monitoring activities 2. indirect: secure attachment, authoritative parenting, parent-child play, parents' own social networks (shy, social butterfly, a small close knit group of friends, large one → all modeling to child)

two reasons why correlation does not equal causation

1. direction-of-causation problem: the concept that a correlation between two variables does not indicate which, if either, variable is the cause of the other 2. third-variable problem: the concept that a correlation between two variables may stem from both being influenced by some third variable

ethics code includes

1. doing no psychological or physical harm to children 2. obtaining informed consent and/or assent 3. preserving participant anonymity 4. discussing research results with parents or guardians 5. taking action to counteract unforeseen negative results that may arise from the research 6. being honest with the child and explaining the findings of the research to the child in a way they can understand

development of gender stereotyping

1. early childhood: stereotypes begin around 18 months; strengthen and become rigid through early childhood 2. middle childhood/adolescence: extend stereotypes to include personalities and school subjects; more flexible about behavior

phonological development phases

1. early phase: first words - can only pronounce few sounds, related to semantic development, understand more than they can say 2. later: refine syllable stress patterns - related to meaning

disengaging attention from emotional faces

1. infants will look quickly at a distractor but return attention to face 2. by 7 mos, if a fear face, takes a long time to rip away attention from face to target (adult-like gaze fixation)

instrumental vs expressive

1. instrumental: masculine; traits reflecting competence, rationality, and assertiveness 2. expressive: feminine; traits emphasizing warmth, caring, and sensitivity 3. humans, no matter their gender, identify with traits on both sides

achievements of the sensorimotor period

1. intentional behavior 2. object permanence 3. categorization 4. mental representations 5. deferred imitation

benefits of make-believe play

1. practice representational schemas 2. emotional integration 3. social, language skills 4. attention, memory, logical reasoning 5. imagination, creativity

acquiring emotional display rules

1. preschoolers have some ability (inability to suppress their emotion but know the rule) 2. parents encourage suppressing negative emotion (boys encouraged to suppress more, girls encouraged to display more) 3. cultural teaching (collectivist vs individualistic)

social referencing

1. relying on another person's emotional reaction to appraise an uncertain situation; toddlers progress from just reacting which helps evaluate safety and security, guides actions, aids in gathering information about others 2. still happens as adults and we all look to each other

the self in toddlers: self recognition

1. rouge test: put a red dot on their nose and place child in front of mirror 2. 18-24 mo olds would recognize the reflection is themselves 3. self-conscious emotions and emergence of the categorical self 4. personal pronouns

morality of cooperation (9 yrs+)

1. rules as socially agreed-on, flexible principles 2. standard of ideal reciprocity 3. judge on outcomes and intentions

four attachment categories

1. secure attachment: pattern of attachment in which an infant or child has a high-quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with his or her attachment figure 2. insecure/resistant (or ambivalent): pattern in which infants or young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore the environment 3. insecure/avoidant: pattern in which infants or young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid their caregiver 4. disorganized/disoriented attachment: have no consistent way of coping with stress; behavior is often confused and they often appear dazed or disoriented

Piaget's theory of moral judgment

interviewed children that were playing together regarding different moral dilemmas 1. stage theory in which cognitive and social development both play a role in the development of moral judgements 2. heteronomous morality (5-8 yrs) then morality of cooperation (9 yrs+)

natural (or quasi) experiments

investigator measures the impact of a naturally occurring event that is assumed to affect people's lives (e.g. institutional rearing, natural disasters)

newborn reflexes

involuntary, stereotyped movement responses controlled by the brainstem; present in 3rd trimester and first 4-6 weeks, then begin to fade away

heritability

measure of the extent to which individual differences on a given trait in a specific population are attributable to genetic differences among those individuals (e.g., people in same neighborhood probably have the same access to education, tutors etc so the difference between IQs is purely genetic)

gender identity in middle childhood x mental health

mental health and risk taking behaviors linked to: 1. gender typicality (matching sex and stereotypes) 2. gender contentedness 3. pressure to conform to gender roles (i.e., being gender atypical in an open-minded family is not as bad on mental health) 4. for transgender youth, gender affirming model

families are a part of which social system

mesosystem

perspectives on moral development

modeling: kids copy what you do, not what you say; even if there was no reward for the behavior

higher rate of private speech on ____ task difficulty

moderate

social scaffolding

more competent people provide temporary frameworks that lead children to higher-order thinking (part of V's theory)

4 month olds' neural processing of adult gaze

more likely to follow adults' gaze when they are actually looking at something

infant reflexes

most do not last beyond the first year due to inhibition by maturing brain

partial reinforcement

most people repeat behaviors partially reinforced (do not always end up in favorable behaviors) and they become addictive in trying to get that outcome (gambling, superstitions)

core knowledge: children as

naive theorists (children actively organize their understanding of the most important domains into informal theories)

methods in developmental research

naturalistic observation, structured observation, clinical interviews, structured interviews/tests/questionnaires, neurobiological measures, case study, ethnography

development of visual acuity in newborns

only shapes 3-6 month but then gets much clearer; they can see best 12-18 inches away; focus on hairline earlier on in age

child's genotype-child's phenotype

only some genes are expressed and some genes have 2 or more different forms (alleles)

factors influencing attachment security

opportunity for attachment during sensitive period; quality of caregiving (interactional synchrony, parental sensitivity); cultural norms; infant characteristics; family circumstances; parents' internal working models

moral reasoning as discontinuous stages or overlapping?

overlapping because children and adults often regress to a lower moral reasoning stage even when they have acquired a high stage of moral reasoning (multiple stages co-exist)

disorganized/disoriented attachment results from

pathogenic care: caregiver is simultaneously source of danger and source of comfort (abuse)

breast milk

perfect for providing all key nutrients

nurture

physical and social environments (e.g., womb, homes, community, people)

domains of core knowledge

physical, numerical, linguistic, psychological, biological

hormones may affect _______ and thereby promote gender ____ in play

play style; segregation

protoimperative (eye contact)

pointing and reaching as in give me that right now

affordances

portion of Gibson's theory of perceptual learning in that infant's discover the possibilities for action offered, or afforded, by objects and situations

positive/negative 1 correlation coefficient

positive 1: strong relationship bn two variables negative 1: strong negative relationship bn two variables 0: no relationship

four pieces of newborn's tool kit

reflexes, sleep, ability to learn, and caregivers

negative aspects peer culture can include

relational aggression and exclusion

nativist view of theory of mind

support an idea for TOMM: a hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings

functions of reflexes

survival, practice for future voluntary movements

key mechanism for word learning

syntactic bootstrapping: using grammar (verbs, nouns, etc) to understand what a new word means

reciprocal teaching

teacher and students take turns leading dialogue (ask, summarize, clarify, predict)

emerging adulthood (21st century)

technical adults are not necessarily ready for adulthood; certain aspects of childhood carrying into adulthood for a little

which lobe is involved in recognizing faces

temporal (6 month olds' temporal lobe shows a different response to faces than to objects, and to mom's vs. stranger's face)

steps in pattern perception

tested using subjective boundaries in visual patterns

phonological development

the acquisition of knowledge about the sound system of a language (i.e., english uses 45 of the 200 or so sounds in the world's languages)

timing of female maturation and cognitive organization

the age at which gonadal hormones affect the brain may be an important factor for cognitive development: timing of the hormonal rise could be more important than type of hormone (i.e., sex)

effects of nutrient deficiency depend on

timing, dose and duration, and are region-specific

plantar grasp

touch sole of foot and toes curl downwards; must disappear before baby can stand/walk

active gene-environment correlation

children select environments ben suited to their genetic predisposition

19th century Native American boarding school

children were separated from their families early on in an attempt to make them more Westernized; mainly for the privileged children whose families did not need the extra financial support

pragmatic development

gradual increase in related turn-taking and decline in collective monologue (2 yos can have effective conversations)

what is a teratogen? measles virus, maternal age, iron deprivation, all of the above

measles virus

transitional period (7-10 yrs)

(Piaget) a period of increased interaction with peers, through which children: 1. learn that rules can be changed by the group 2. learn cooperation and perspective taking 3. learn to value fairness

evolutionary psychology

1. Darwinian view - genes that predispose individuals to behave adaptively are selectively passed down 2. play as an evolved platform for learning 3. parental investment theory: evolutionary basis of parental behavior, sacrifice to perpetuate genes

bullies

1. they are mostly boys 2. physically, relationally aggressive 3. high social status, powerful 4. popular but eventually become disliked correlation

contributions of psychoanalytic theories of social development to modern psychology

1. Developmental tasks 2. Role of internal states 3. Focus on early experience being important for later development

maltreated children and emotions

1. Difficulty in emotion labeling and emotion perspective taking 2. Maltreated kids are exposed to an atypical emotional environment. 3. Mom's emotion expression predicts kid's emotion understanding, even among kids who are all maltreated 4. more easily detects anger expression and also more biased to perceive emotions as anger

development of empathy

-Newborns sense other babies' distress -requires self awareness -increases over school years -adolescence: can empathize with general life conditions

kinetic cues

0-1 month; sensitivity to motion (looming effect)

timeline for emotion processing circuits

1. 0-5 months: structural formation of neural circuitry 2. 5-7 months: experience-expectant functional development 3. 8+ months: experience-dependent functional development

perceptual narrowing effect ages in speech and faces

1. 0-6 months, can distinguish speech sounds in all languages 2. by 9 months, less sensitive to speech distinctions in non-native languages 3. 6 month olds can learn to recognize monkey faces, 9 month olds don't

distinguishing living from non-living things

1. 1 year: can distinguish people from inanimate objects & animals 2. 3-4 years: can assess properties of living & non- living things 3. 7-9 years: understand plants are living things

nutritional deprivation causes what effects based on timing

1. 2nd trimester: fewer neurons 2. 3rd trimester: impaired neuronal growth 3. first 3 years of life: reduced brain size, impaired myelination

deferred imitation development

1. 6 weeks = deferred facial imitation 2. 6-9 months = deferred copying actions with objects 3. 12-18 months = deferred imitates skillfully *Piaget states it develops at 18 months*

Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development

1. 8 age-related stages of development characterized by crises that the individual must resolve before moving on to the next stage 2. need to resolve each crisis in order to move along to the next stage (Freud believed you could get stuck at one of the stages but still continue on)

developmental course of theory of mind

1. Age 3 - 3 1⁄2 years: Desire Theory of Mind (a person's actions are assumed to reflect his/her desires - there is recognition that another person's desires may differ from the child's own desires) 2. Age 4 - 5 years: Belief-Desire Theory of Mind (a person's actions are understood to be determined by both desires and beliefs, and the child realizes that people will often act on beliefs which may differ both from reality and from the child's own beliefs)

does moral reasoning predict moral conduct?

1. As children get older, and moral reasoning develops, prosocial behavior tends to increase 2. Individuals at higher stages of moral reasoning are more likely than peers at lower stages to behave prosocially and conscientiously 3. These relationships are only moderate

contributions of Piaget's theory of moral judgment

1. As kids get older, they increasingly take motives into account in moral reasoning 2. cognitive level matters for moral reasoning 3. parenting matters (authoritarian style associated with less advanced moral reasoning & less moral behavior, kids do not develop idea that rules are flexible) 4. peer interactions matter (quality of interaction may matter more than quantity of interaction)

development of fear

1. Clear evidence of fear in multiple situations at about 7 months of age (heights, novel objects and noise, strangers, separation anxiety) 2. some decline during 2nd year of life *evolutionary value*

the self in adolescence

1. Higher order, abstract traits and categorizations (e.g. extrovert, cynic, atheist) --> formal operations 2. Focus on psychological self-concept and peer status continues to intensify 3. Imaginary audience 4. See self as unique, others "don't understand" 5. Can see self as different in different contexts or with different people (see image)

correlates of identity status

1. Identity Diffusion Status: apathy, depression, risk for drug abuse, social isolation; not looking for one or trying to achieve a clear one 2. Foreclosure Status: Strong belief in obeying authority, rely on others to make life decisions; committed to identity without any moratorium/exploration 3. Moratorium Status: High self-esteem AND high anxiety, exploring, question authority, drug experimentation, unprotected sex 4. Identity Achievement Status: social maturity, achievement motivation; after moratorium and finally decide what is more important

identity vs self-concept

1. Identity: more stable and don't arrive at until at least adolescence; more enduring concept of who you are 2. self-concept: things you think of when you think of yourself but doesn't need to incorporate your goals, morals, etc

influences on identity formation

1. Individual factors (e.g. early drug use can undermine identity achievement) 2. Family context (overprotective, overcontrolling parents increase likelihood of foreclosure) 3. Sociocultural and historical context 4. Negative identity: not researched but essentially completely going against what people expect for you (i.e., parents want you to be a doctor so you're a high school dropout)

understanding properties of living things

1. Inheritance: species-specific characteristics are passed on from parent to offspring 2. Essentialism: view that living things have an essence inside them that makes them what they are 3. Growth, illness, & healing: internal processes

Kohlberg's theory of moral judgment

1. Interviewed children about moral dilemmas 2. Focused on the reasoning behind children's decisions, rather than the choice of what to do in the dilemma 3. Like Piaget, constructed a stage theory and emphasized the role of age-related advances in cognitive level, especially perspective taking, and the role of social experiences

gender stereotyping and roles by age

1. Middle: internal (expressive etc), school subjects; but cognitively, understand you can violate it without changing gender 2. Puberty: conforming increases and becomes more rigid

Real vs. False Emotions & Display Rules (5 or 6)

1. Might show something on outside that is diff from inside 2. study: Kelly is at a sleepover and everyone is talking about her friend who isn't there but she wants to fit in. how will she show / feel? 3. children who are good at this will answer a face that shows more negative internal than external

self-concept in middle childhood (6-11)

1. More psychological - clear differentiation of public & private self 2. Global descriptions and personality traits ("I am a good athlete," "I am smart") 3. Social comparison due to decentration 4. Focus on social relationships, especially peer status

how do children acquire biological knowledge?

1. Nativists: Biology module 2. Empiricists: Observations and teaching

Piaget's and Vygotsy's theories on benefits on mixing of peer ages

1. P: children benefit from interaction with children equal in status 2. V: children benefit from interaction with older peers (Research mainly supports V → largest academic success for mixed classrooms, siblings)

components of language

1. Phonology: rules about structure and sequence of speech sounds 2. Semantics: vocabulary - words and word combination for concepts 3. Grammar: syntax (rules for sentences) and morphology (grammatical markers) 4. Pragmatics: appropriate and effective communication

children's private speech

1. Piaget: "egocentric speech" 2. V viewed as a foundation for all higher cognitive processes 3. helps guide behavior and gradually becomes silent (internalized)

intermodal perception theories

1. Piaget: sensory modalities are initially separate 2. Gibson: Newborn already has some ability to integrate information from different sensory modalities

Motor Skills as Dynamic Systems

1. increasingly complex systems of action with each skill 2. four factors in each new skill: CNS development, body's movement capacity, child's goals, environmental supports

associative play vs cooperative play

1. a: less structured 2. c: organized

parental sensitivity

1. ability of parents to read babies' signals accurately and respond promptly to needs of crying baby (secure attachment) 2. parents overwhelmed and inconsistent (resistant) 3. parents impatient, unresponsive, indifferent, and negative (in front of child); rejects baby attempts at physical closeness (avoidant) 4. maltreatment, infants frightened and confused (disorganized)

spatial learning and sociocultural context

1. aboriginal children compared to euro-australian children in study of random array of objects 2. aboriginal children did better because of their cultural upbringing

characteristics of naive psychology

1. about invisible mental states 2. includes cause-effect relations 3. develops early in life

limitations of concrete operational thought

1. abstract ideas 2. continuum of acquisition (i.e., could not master all concrete operational tasks at once)

parenting and gender typing in middle childhood/adolescence

1. achievement more important (gender affects perceived competence) 2. parents continue to demand independence from boys (mastery-oriented help, autonomy granting)

challenges to peers' sexist remarks study

1. active intervention vs narrative intervention 2. idea is that if bystander question the remarks, it'll be less likely to happen 3. active intervention most successful and more likely to be implemented in real-life situations 4. girls in active condition reported they had greater gender stereotype flexibility

key brain region involved in emotion

1. amygdala: sensitive to/perception of threat; influences conscious awareness of the consequences of events and objects via connections with the prefrontal cortex, especially the orbitofrontal cortex 2. frontal cortex: feelings, cognitions, decisions 3. hypothalamus: autonomic and behavioral response; motivation and reward pathways *bidirectional pathways*

development of shyness and sociability

1. arousal of amygdala: highly activated in shy, inhibited children; minimal activation in sociable, uninhibited children 2. parenting style: overprotectiveness maintains shyness; appropriate demands helps to move into average range 3. at 4 months, temperament is genetic and then can change based on contribution of environment and influences

unique aspects of newborn sleep

1. asleep 16-18 hours/day 2. sleep states evident by 30 weeks post-conceptional age 3. frequent transitions bn states 4. irregular breathing and variable heart rate in REM sleep 5. regular breathing and heart rate in non-REM sleep (aka slow-wave sleep)

vygotsky and education

1. assisted discovery (teacher guides learning, tailors help to zone of proximal development) 2. peer collaboration

history of pink

1. babies all wore white dresses because easier to wash 2. 1940s - manufacturers began to associate pink with girls 3. 1970s - women's liberation 4. 1980s - prenatal testing for baby's sex marketing scheme

"The Strange Situation"

1. baby explores room with mom 2. stranger enters, remains silent, talks to baby, then mom leaves 3. stranger comforts baby, if necessary 4. mom returns 5. baby returns to play, mom says bye bye and leaves 6. stranger comforts baby, if necessary 7. mother returns

sensitive periods (to teratogens) in prenatal development

1. before implantation, usually not susceptible to teratogens 2. 3-7 prenatal weeks --> major structural abnormalities 3. 8-38 prenatal weeks --> physiological defects and minor structural abnormalities

neuronal maturation

1. begins 15th prenatal week and continues to age 2 2. axons thicken and elongate 3. arborization

caregiver-infant regulation

1. behavioral: newborns can't self-soothe and need help to manage arousal 2. physiological: skin-to-skin contact with caregivers helps newborn regulate heart rate, T, and stress hormones

active/passive child

1. behaviorist view: children are passively shaped by their environments 2. current: children have an active role in shaping the environment that will in turn shape their development

gender stability beliefs and experience

1. beliefs are not universal but depend on experience 2. study of transgender 3-5 year olds who have socially transitioned --> transitioned before they would have fully developed concept of gender stability cognitively 3. implications: they and their siblings are less likely to believe that other people's is stable

elementary age semantic development

1. big vocabulary increase (fast-mapping continues, analyze word structure) 2. use words precisely, understand multiple meanings - metaphors, puns

limitations of preoperational thought

1. egocentrism = inability of children to see from another person's point of view (i.e., doll, mountain experiment; providing fave toy to others for comfort, collective monologue) 2. centration = focusing on one dimension of objects or events and neglecting others; focusing on static states rather than transformations 3. lack reversibility of mental operations 4. lack hierarchical classification

self-concept in preschoolers (3-5)

1. emergence of the enduring self 2. focus on public, not internal, self: describe self in terms of concrete, observable characteristics, preferences, possessions, and specific behavioral descriptions 3. unrealistically positive self-evaluation and not self-critical

characteristic of learning theories

1. emphasizes nurture (experience focused) 2. continuity of the mechanisms of change: reinforcement and observational learning 3. individual differences arise from external factors: different histories of reinforcement and observational learning

social learning theory (Bandura)

1. emphasizes observation and imitation as strong environmental influences on behavior 2. reciprocal determinism: a person's behavior both influences and is influenced by personal factors and the social environment (what a child observes, changes their behavior, which then changes their environment) 3. involvement of attention and memory (observation and imitation can increase and become more sophisticated as these skills develop)

bioecological model (Bronfenbrenner)

1. environment is a series of nested levels 2. emphasizes the child's active role and nature-nurture interactions 3. bidirectionality of effects 4. outer systems affect the microsystem thus affecting the child indirectly (exosystem: promotion, policies, etc)

behaviorism (Watson)

1. environmental determinism: study of how the physical environment predisposes societies and states towards particular development trajectories 2. loud noise associated with rabbits and baby came to fear rabbits due to his experience

Harry Harlow

1. experiments with baby Rhesus monkeys and wire/cloth mothers showed offsprings do not bond with parents mostly for food but for emotional support/contact comfort 2. Experimental work with monkeys who were deprived of all early social interactions strongly supported the view that healthy social and emotional development is rooted in children's early social interactions with adults

two studies which focused on fetal learning

1. fetuses increased sucking when listening to Cat and the Hat daily 2. newborns recognized mom's voice better when it was distorted by water

how vygotsky might have been wrong

1. focus on language de-emphasizes observation and other learning methods 2. says little about biological contributions to cognition 3. vague in explanation of change

theories surrounding attachment and feeding

1. freud: believed infants got pleasure from oral activities 2. Erickson: influence of feeding on strength of attachment 3. behaviorism: pairing between feeding and the comforting presence of the mother

cognitive play categories

1. functional play: 0-2 years; simple, repetitive motor movements, with/with objects (banging, stacking) 2. make-believe play: 2-6 years; acting out everyday and imaginative roles; mental representations 3. constructive play: 3-6 years; creating or constructing something 4. games with rules: after 6 (can do earlier but it's harder); understanding and following rules in play, team sports

development of gender constancy

1. gender labeling (~age 3): label gender in themselves and others (i am a boy/girl) 2. gender stability (~age 4): idea that a boy will grow up to be a man 3. gender consistency (~age 5-7): knowing that changes in activity or appearance won't change gender (it is internal)

factors which explain stability and change in temperament groups

1. genetic makeup and child rearing 2. goodness of fit to maintain (if parents are shy, kid can be shy too and no pressure to switch) 3. parenting and culture 4. slow integration to aide in changing temperament

achievement in subjects by gender

1. girls better than boys in writing (and reading); boy better at math 2. could be hormonal but could be societal

friendships in childhood

1. handy playmate: 4-7 years; "someone who likes you" 2. mutual trust and assistance: 8-10 years; respond to each other's needs and desires 3. intimacy, mutual understanding, and loyalty: 11-15 years and up; values, beliefs, and feelings

timing of male and female hormone exposure

1. high levels prenatally 2. immediate postnatal period 3. dramatic increase at puberty

biological basis of attachment in humans

1. humans cannot imprint 2. hormones oxytocin and prolactin facilitate attachment (increased levels in mom immediately after birth)

freud's three basic structures of the personality

1. id: whiny toddler, wanting candy; source of biological drive; instant gratification 2. ego: you; somewhere in between, which you listen to more 3. superego: stops id; conscious suppressing biological drive

how does knowledge of other people relate to social experience?

1. improved social competence (more popular) 2. improved quality of peer relationships (deeper relationships with greater reciprocity and intimacy of friendships)

cultural variation in attachment classification

1. in Japanese and Israeli Kibbutzim cultures, more resistant infants than avoidant --> these cultures promote physical closeness 2. vice versa in Germany and US --> promote independence early on

four types of validity

1. internal: how confident are you that the independent variable produced the observed effects? 2. external: to what extent do the conclusions allow generalization to different children, measures, or situations? 3. convergent: to what extent is the measure related to other measures of the same construct? (i.e., measuring anxiety with two different measures should yield the same results) 4. discriminant: does the measure provide different information from measures of other constructs? (i.e., anxiety vs depression)

two types of reliability

1. interrater reliability: level of consistency between different observers; lower the more complex the behavior being observed 2. test-retest reliability/temporal stability: level of consistency of an individual's score across repeated administrations close together in time

bilateral lesions to the amygdala in primates

1. lack of normal fear responses to threatening stimuli; lack of threat perception 2. monkey reaches for a natural enemy/predator 3. if the snake bit the monkey, it would react to the bite and pull hand away but would not learn to be afraid of snakes

poorer emotion understanding correlations

1. low-SES (even after controlling for cognitive and executive function abilities) 2. early age of entry into foster care system

empathy task

1. mom or experimenter pretends to be hurt 2. child's reaction coded for concern and prosocial behaviors

Sociocultural Differences in Display Rules: Rural Nepal

1. more hindus said "angry", more buddhists said "okay" 2. from same country so clearly culture influences display rules 3.

selectivity and stability of friendships

1. more selective with age = from 4-6 best friends in early adolescence to 1-2 in emerging adulthood 2. remarkably stable at all ages (younger children more dependent on environment)

core-knowledge theory

1. nature and nurture 2. children have innate cognitive knowledge 3. specialized learning abilities that allow the to quickly and effortlessly acquire information of evolutionary importance

piaget's stance on the developmental controversies

1. nature-nurture interaction 2. stage theory = discontinuous 3. "child as scientist" = active 4. universal 5. performance = knowledge

limitations of nativist perspective

1. no agreement on universal grammar rules 2. contradicts observation of development (more experimentation, learning involved; children don't apply a consistent grammatical structure) 3. theory lacks comprehensiveness (ignores quality of language input, ignores role of social experience and cognitive capacities)

types of peer play

1. nonsocial activity: unoccupied, onlooker behavior; solitary play 2. parallel play: plays near other children with similar toys, but does not try to influence them 3. social interaction: associative play, cooperative play; actually having a convo of what they're doing and directly interacting

development of joy

1. one month old smile is a reflex 2. also have attachment around 7-months 3. sense of humor usually about violation of norms (i.e., putting a block on head)

dynamic motor systems in action

1. order in which motor skills develop depends on anatomy, environment, and baby's efforts 2. cultural variations in child rearing also affect motor development

gender-stereotype flexibility

1. overlap in the characteristics of males and females 2. Increases from age 7 through middle childhood 3. idea that boys and girls CAN violate gender stereotypes does not mean children approve of it

parenting and gender typing in early childhood

1. parents encourage gender-specific play and behavior 2. reinforce dependence in girls, independence in boys 3. language indirectly teaches roles (what a good girl, be a man)

parents' reactions to children's emotions

1. parents who are emotionally supportive tend to have children who are more emotionally and socially competent than parents who dismiss or criticize their children's feelings 2. teaching display rules

victims

1. passive when should be active 2. give in to demands 3. lack defenders 4. inhibited temperament 5. physically frail 6. overprotected, controlled by parents correlation

nativist theory of perceptual learning

1. perceptual information in environment is impoverished & ambiguous 2. perceptions are arrived at via construction of representations 3. no link between perception & action

differentiation theory (Eleanor Gibson)

1. perceptual information is rich and structured 2. perceptions are arrived at via differentiation: the ability to extract invariant elements from the constantly changing environment (i.e., if a ball is getting closer to you, it will appear bigger) 3. learning takes place by progressive distinctions among stimuli 4. there is a fundamental reciprocity of perception & action

type of maltreatment and emotion understanding

1. physically abused kids were biased toward selecting angry faces, while neglected kids were biased toward selecting sad faces 2. When shown 2 faces showing different emotions, neglected children perceived less distinction between angry, sad, and fearful emotion expressions 3. Both neglected and physically abused kids rated sad and angry faces as very similar to a neutral face

peer acceptance categories

1. popular (popular-prosocial or popular-antisocial) 2. rejected (rejected-aggressive or rejected-withdrawn) 3. controversial = half of the kids said they really liked them/wanted to play with them, the other half said the opposite 4. neglected = name never brought up in who they wanted to play with or who they liked (neither positively nor negatively)

compared to non friends, friends have more

1. positive interaction 2. emotional expression 3. prosocial behavior 4. self-disclosure but also more 5. disagreement 6. competition

predictors of emotion understanding

1. positive predictors: attachment security, joint attention, family talk about emotional states 2. negative predictors: exposure to lots of anger and hostility; they won't understand as well as the other children

attachment categories' responses to the strange situation

1. secure attachment: upset when the caregiver leaves but happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from distress 2. insecure/resistant (or ambivalent): very upset when the caregiver leaves and not readily comforted by strangers; seek comfort but resist efforts made by the caregiver 3. insecure/avoidant: indifferent toward their caregiver before they leave and indifferent or avoidant when the caregiver returns; upset when left alone but easily comforted by stranger 4. disorganized/disoriented attachment: did not want to test because sad

self recognition leads to

1. self-assertion (terrible twos) 2. sense of ownership and possession 3. beginnings of perspective taking (empathy, peer imitation)

milestones in cognitive development that influence emotion development

1. sense of self and awareness of adults' reactions and expectations 2. ability to differentiate between stranger and parent 3. object permanence and memory 4. attention regulatory abilities and problem solving skills

piaget's four universal, invariant stges

1. sensorimotor 2. preoperational 3. concrete operational 4. formal operational

achievement gap influences

1. sex differences on cognitive abilities 2. societal influences 3. stereotypes can frame their ideas of their abilities

A-not-B search error

1. shows object permanence is not completely developed at first 2. baby is habituated to toy being placed under washcloth A, researcher then places it under B, baby stares at B but still removes washcloth A

physically abused children and perception of anger evidence that

1. shows social experience influences basic perceptual processes (parents experience generalizes to other people, photos, etc) 2. exposed to it a lot and on edge to detect anger bc may become in physical danger

arguments for infant speech perception as an experience expectant process

1. similar brain circuitry to adults 2. too advanced to be based purely on auditory experience 3. argues for experience-expectant modules to facilitate language acquisition

dimensional infant temperament classifications (rothbart and bates)

1. six dimensions: fearful distress, irritable distress, attention span and persistence, activity level, positive affect, rhythmicity 2. separates positive emotions and different types of negative emotions 3. keeps dimensions independent, they are not used to form temperament "groups"

chronology of emotion understanding

1. social referencing (8-12 mo): baby will look to parent or caregiver in an ambiguous situation to get a read (i.e., new toy, what is their reaction) 2. empathy improving throughout childhood 3. labeling emotions --> happiness (3 yo), negative emotions (4 yo), self-conscious emotions (elementary school)

two main drivers of the modern conception of childhood in late 19th century

1. social reform of child labor: limited the number of hours children could work and shifted the age 2. beginnings of scientific interest in child development (Darwin)

characteristics of psychoanalytic theories

1. stage theories: framework of discontinuous development 2. early experiences shape subsequent development 3. (freud) individual differences arise from internal factors: subjective experience, drives, and biological maturation (age)

gender-based perception of job status

1. study described fake jobs with no associated prestige and presented person of doing job as either male or female then asked kids to rate how high status the job was → was the gender of the person doing the job implicated in how high status it was? 2. jobs performed by males were assumed to be better and higher status 3. jobs performed by a female worker were perceived as lower status (gap even bigger by girls :( )

bobo doll study (Bandura)

1. study: adult abused doll as children watched and we either rewarded, punished, or neither. in what context will children imitate and what are they actually learning? 2. finding: children who watched adults act aggressively toward bobo doll acted aggressively 3. most of the time, kids will imitate the behavior 4. for 4 and 5 year olds, if model narrated what they were doing, they tended to engage in the behaviors more

Sympathy vs. Empathy

1. sympathy: feeling of concern or sorrow for another's plight 2. empathy: feeling same or similar emotions as another person (must detect emotions, take other's perspective)

early grammatical development

1. telegraphic speech (2-word combinations, high content words) 2. Simple sentences (3-word sentences, follow adult rules piecemeal, gradually refine and generalize, affected by language environment)

individual differences in empathy due to

1. temperament: social, assertive, good at emotional regulation leads to high empathy --> more confident about their interpretation 2. parenting: warm, sensitive, empathic parents lead to high empathy; help children learn to regulate negative emotions 3. aggressive children may show decline in middle childhood; poorer emotional management

Sociocultural Differences in Display Rules: Japanese vs. American preschoolers

1. tested expression of negative emotion, asked if they would feel angry or act aggressively after negative incidents like their block tower being knocked over or someone hitting them 2. American preschoolers were more likely to show the negative emotions reflecting different cultural values communicated by parents (when lights were on) 3. Japanese preschoolers said no (collectivist societies have more direct display rules of regulating better)

characteristics of ecological and evolutionary theories of social development

1. the active child: shape their own development via knowledge and beliefs about themselves and others 2. continuity of development = early experiences shape late behaviors 3 sociocultural context 4. nature and nurture interaction

internal working model of attachment

1. the child develops a mental representation of the self, attachment figures, and relationships in general 2. this working model guides children's interaction with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages

interaction of temperament and parent-child factors in the development on conscience

1. toddlers were classified as fearful or bold, attachment and maternal warmth and discipline were measured, same children returned to lab at 5 and strength of conscience was assessed 2. told not to play with a toy then the experimenter left the room 3. For fearful, inhibited toddlers, gentle maternal discipline predicts conscience development 4. For bold toddlers, secure attachment and maternal responsiveness predicts conscience development 5. For all toddlers, authoritarian discipline predicts poorer conscience development

requirements for an experiment to provide evidence of causation

1. two or more comparable groups 2. th participant's within each group are presented with experiences that differ in only one way (independent variable) 3. the participants in two groups behave differently on a dependent variable 4. provides evidence that the differing experiences caused differences in behavior

behavioral assessment of Kagan's temperament groups

1. videotape an infant's reactions to novel toys and sounds 2. Infants who exhibit high negative affect and high motor activity are categorized as behaviorally inhibited 3. Infants who exhibit high positive affect and high motor activity are categorized as behaviorally uninhibited

Baillargeon's drawbridge study

1. violation of expectancy task 2. children with core knowledge of physics would look longer at D because it is impossible

operant conditioning (Skinner)

1. we repeat behaviors that leas to favorable outcomes (reinforcement) and suppress those that result in punishment 2. very passive view, person at mercy of world/contingencies around you 3.

goodness of fit

1. with family, culture, and situation can influence both continuity of temperament and its developmental implications 2. maternal expectations predict maternal sensitivity: most sensitive if expected temperament matches actuality

piaget's formal operations stage duration and achievements

11 years and up; hypothetico-deductive reasoning: ability to think abstractly and reason hypothetically, ability to engage in scientific thinking, ponder deep questions

secure attachment at ____ months predicts understanding of mixed emotions at age ____

12 months; 6

sleep needs decline from 16-18 hours/day to ___ hours by age ___

12; 2

binocular depth cues

2-3 months; images your left & right eye see are slightly different, what you perceive merges these inputs

preoperational stage duration and achievements

2-7 years; language, make-believe play, and dual representation

peak vulnerability to nutritional deprivation

24-44 weeks after conception due to rapid brain development during this period

pictorial depth cues

5-12 months; more sophisticated, learned through action, exploring world even though it was always there

causality

6-month-olds only appear to perceive causality if simple shapes used

piaget's concrete operations stage duration and achievements

7-11 years; decentration and transformation, classification and seriation, reversible intellectual operations (i.e., conservation), local thinking begins

joint attention deficits in children with

ASD; language development is concurrently and longitudinally predicted by frequency of joint attention behaviors (i.e., more likely to apply a new word to what they are looking at and not the adult)

correlation coefficient (r)

a statistic which indicates the direction and strength of a correlation

As a toddler, Damian cries and clings to his mother when she drops him off at daycare. Which of the following behaviors at age 15 would demonstrate heterotypic continuity? A. runs up and hugs classmates in greeting B. cries and clings to his mother when she drops him off at school C. on airing at school, hangs back at the edges of groups and avoids eye contact D. frequently gets in physical fights with other students

C because he has discomfort at school from childhood so that trait continues but more age appropriately (B is homotypic continuity)

Wug Test

Created by Jean Gleason to determine whether children can apply rules of grammar to unknown words

normative approach

G. Hall; focused on, at a group level, the most typical trajectory of the emergence of a skill and allows you to compare an individual child to these norms

maturation

G. Stanley Hall, Rousseau; idea that children's development was an automatic process and not due to support or environment around them

nativist and empiricist theories over why children begin succeeding at false belief tasks

Nativists - there is a theory of mind module that matures over the first 5 years, and this innate competence is masked by task artifacts in children who fail the false belief task; ancillary deficits Empiricist - rapid developmental progression from systematic failure to systematic success represents acquisition of a belief-desire theory of mind (learned through interaction with others; depends on executive function/information processing)

random assignment

a procedure in which each child from a certain population has an equal chance of being assigned to each group within an experiment

in newborns, attention to faces and face approximations is

a reflex, not a voluntary choice

altruism

genuine concern for welfare of others expressed through prosocial behavior; kids under 12 do not pay attention to motive at all and just if it is prosocial

preferential looking paradigm

a research technique to explore early infant sensory capacities and cognition, drawing on the principle that infants are attracted to novelty and prefer to look at new things (initially habituated to something)

Kohlberg's stage 5

Social Contract Orientation 1. Moral behavior is upholding rules that are in the interest of the group (the greatest good for the greatest number) and express the will of the majority 2. Rights to human life, liberty, and dignity must be universally upheld, and laws that compromise these rights are considered unjust.

Y chromosome codes for

TDF (testes determining factor), which stimulates development of the testes

joint attention

a set of abilities that involve sharing or coordinating attention with another person with respect to objects or events

assimilation

interpreting external objects and events in terms of your own presently available way of thinking (i.e., never seen a sheep but it has four legs and fur so must be a dog)

fear of visual cliff

marked increase as children get better at walking/crawling (begin crawling around 7 mo); having their own fears helpful because they can get themselves in/out of danger

infant temperament classification

Thomas and Chess characterized all infants into 3 groups: easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up babies

Kohlberg's stage 6

Universal Ethical Principles 1. Moral behavior is defined on the basis of self-chosen ethical principles of universal justice and respect for human rights that transcend any law or social contact that may conflict with them

Ballargeon's support relations and gravity task

children look longer at what is totally impossible (A) yet based on the fact of naive, informal theories, believe B, C, and D could occur until they have more experience with gravity

one cause of transgender (gender dysphoria)

XX individuals exposed to high androgen prenatally --> more likely to be transmasculine

Vygotsky's Theory

a sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development; focus on 1. nurture 2. the active child: bother a learner and a teacher

evocative gene-environment correlation

a child's genetic endowment elicits certain experiences or interactions with the world

naive psychology

a commonsense level of understanding of other people and oneself

schema

a mental representation

adolescent semantic development

abstract terms, sarcasm, irony, figurative language, proverbs

accommodation

adjusting your knowledge in response to the special characteristics of an object or event (i.e., a green apple is still an apple)

factors contributing to semantic development

adult feedback, cognitive processing (working memory), strategies: mutual exclusivity bias, whole object bias, shape bias, syntactic bootstrapping, social information

Bowlby's four phases of attachment

after 6 months, begin observing separation anxiety

variable timing of myelination

again depends on the area of the brain; motor and visual circuits myelinated in infancy; Wernicke's area myelinated 6 months before Broca's area

dual representation mastered around

age 3

friends are often similar in

age, sex, ethnicity, SES, personality, popularity, academics, prosocial behavior, judgments of others (bias)

maternal hazards to prenatal development

age, stress, poor nutrition

piaget's general theory of development

all aspects of cognition change in an integrated fashion

gender identity

an individual's perception of self as relatively masculine or feminine in characteristics (masculine, feminine, androgyny)

palmar grasp

an infant reflex that occurs when something is placed in the infant's palm; the infant grasps the object

if infants have core knowledge early, why are they not showing it in their behaviors (e.g. by searching for hidden objects)?

ancillary deficit hypothesis: something else is getting in the way of success in a task (i.e., attention, inhibitory control)

prosocial behavior

any action that benefits other people but has an anterior motivation than genuine concern for others

overregularization

applying rules without appropriate exceptions (e.g., goed instead of went)

timing of synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning varies based on

area of the brain

false belief tasks

assesses belief-desire theory of mind; unexpected transfer task and unexpected contents task

fish is fish is an example of

assimilation

Aspects of Social Development Important for Understanding of Others

attachment quality, joint attention, parent-child conversations about mental states, pretend play, siblings

ethology

attempt to understand behavior based on its survival value - focus on innate behavior patterns in animals

theory of mind

attribution of internal mental states to others, and understanding that other people's beliefs and desires may differ both from reality and from one's own perspective

_____ parenting helps resist peer pressures

authoritative

protodeclarative (eye contact)

baby points to, touches, or holds up an object while looking at others to make sure they notice (like saying "wow look at this")

community

based on moral concepts such as duty, hierarchy and interdependency, which is designed to help individuals achieve dignity by virtue of their role and position in a society

autonomy

based on moral concepts such as harm, rights and justice, which is designed to protect individuals in pursuit of the gratification of their wants

divinity

based on moral concepts such as natural order, sacred order, sanctity, sin and pollution, which is designed to maintain the integrity of the spiritual side of human nature

childhood as a phase

began to be discussed in medieval and reformation periods but mainly around rich children

heterotypic continuity

behavioral manifestations change but concept remains the same and is reliably connected to earlier development 2: bites 6: hits and screams 11: gets in fist-fights 17: threatens others with a weapon

age of viability (fetus)

between 22 and 26 weeks

piaget viewed human cognition as _____; via what processes

biological adaptation of a complex organism to a complex environment; assimilation, accommodation, and equilibrium

nature

biological endowment, genes, genetic inheritance, innate abilities

uninhibited temperament

bold, usually approach unfamiliar people and situations (10-15% of children)

imprinting

bond formed in critical period

nativism

certain skills or abilities are innate or hard-wired into the brain at birth

visual-tactile intermodal perception

changes from 8-9.5 months (Bushnell); placed an object at a distance from the baby but used mirrors and when they would reach for a bumpy toy, sometimes they would feel the soft ball (mismatch, trick trials) and will be bothered by it within 1.5 months of thinking it is normal

child's phenotype-child's environment

children actively construct their environments; a child's temperament, IQ, and talents elicit certain responses from others

Adolph on infant locomotion

experienced crawlers become very good at judging what gaps, slopes they can go down but it does not translate across to walking

reinforcement of dependence

comfort girls more; discourage rough play; have a boy accompany you to ___; don't go alone

three areas of ethics (Shweder)

community, autonomy, and divinity

assessing A/V intermodal perception

computers with screens of people speaking, hidden speaker in the middle with dialogue matching one screen, baby prefers to look at matching screen by 5 months

Aspects of Cognitive Development Important for Understanding of Others

concrete operational stage, executive function, and sense of self

developmental changes in sleep/wakefulness

decrease in proportion of REM sleep; sleep-wake patterns begin conforming to a circadian rhythm

mental representations allow

deferred imitation and make-believe play

risk factors for insensitive caregiving (family circumstances)

depressed parents; parents who themselves felt unloved, neglected, or abused as children; unplanned pregnancy/unwanted baby; health-related, legal, financial problems; dissatisfaction with partner *these issues can leave parent preoccupied and not with enough time/attention for infant*

3 linked concepts to naive psychology

desires, beliefs, and actions

G. Stanley Hall (founder of developmental psychology)

developed the questionnaire method; adolescence as a unique phase of the lifespan

epigenesis

development results from ongoing, bidirectional exchanges between heredity and all levels of the environment; internal and external environment modify gene expression without modifying genotype

what can prove causation

experimental designs: researcher introduces some change in participant's environment and measures the effect of that change on the participant's behavior

informal theories

divide all objects into a few basic categories and explain events in terms of a few basic principles and unobservable causes)

differing desires task

doll loves carrots, child loves cookies, would doll pick a carrot or cookie snack?; assessing desire theory of mind

effects of teratogens depend on

dose, timing (age at first exposure and duration of exposure), other negative influences, heredity

how do assimilation and accommodation depend on experience?

e.g., if you live in a dangerous neighborhood, a loud noise may be a gunshot but in the woods, it could be an animal -partly depends on prior experiences and factors (feelings of safety)

parent's genotype-child's genotype

each parent passes down 23 chromosomes to child

attachment security is specific to

each relationship (can have multiple attachments bn mothers, father, siblings, etc)

structure of temperament types

easy 40% difficult 10% slow-to-warm-up 15% unclassified 35% *kids aren't actually this consistent --> dimensional approach*

attachment

enduring/long-lasting socioemotional bond between a baby and a caregiver characterized by mutual affection and a desire to maintain proximity

passive gene-environment correlation

environment in which child is raised is shaped by parent's genes, which are also part of child's genetic endowment

child's environment-child's phenotype

environment influences gene expression (i.e., malnutrition does not allow full capability to grow into projected height)

teratogens

environmental agents that can cause damage (developmental abnormalities or spontaneous abortion) during prenatal development (e.g. drugs, alcohol, viruses, environmental pollutants [lead, mercury])

the idea that children are passive and molded by their environments is _______ and is characteristic of ______ theory

environmental determinism; behaviorism/behaviorist

ecological and evolutionary theories of social development

ethology, evolutionary psychology, attachment theory, bioecological model

mechanism for perceptual development

exploratory action

holophrastic period

expressing a whole phrase with a single word (e.g., water); included in early words for children

corumination

extensively discussing one's problems (i.e., embarrassing moments) with another person

erikson's emphasizes

familial and sociocultural context, social relationships

influences on emotion development

familial and sociocultural contexts influence both a child's internal emotional response to a given situation (feelings) and a child's external expression of emotion (display rules)

sex differences in cognitive organization (females)

females are better than males on 1. short-term memory tasks 2. verbal-fluency tasks 3. perceptual speed 4. fine motor skills 5. mathematical calculation *on average but like very slight shift in bell curve*

_____ and _____ can interfere with myelination

fevers and nutritional deficiencies

experience-dependent processes

formation and pruning of synapses as the result of learning experiences unique to the individual's environment (e.g., violin player)

developmental approaches to emotion

functionalist, differentiation, dynamic systems

The understanding that a boy will continue to be a boy even if he grows his hair long and does ballet is known as _____ and achieved around age _____

gender consistency; 5-7 years

social learning theory of gender identity in early childhood

gender-typing behavior (copying modeling) leads to gender identity

Infant emotion discrimination paradigm

habituate baby to happy face and then happy face but novel person and then another face with a different emotion (7 months old can distinguish between valence); cannot distinguish emotions in inverted faces

inductive discipline

helps children notice others' feelings by pointing out the effects of their misbehavior on others, noting the other's distress caused by the child in the moment; appeals to child's conscience, parent is being the superego empathy-based guilt

children organize objects into

hierarchical categories, with set-subset relations

animals prenatally administered androgens have (higher/lower) levels of active play

higher

aggressive friends can lead to

hostile relationships

nature/nurture question in the 21st century

how do nature and nurture work together to shape development?; understand it is both that contribute

Attachment Theory (Bowlby)

human infants are biologically predisposed to form attachments with their caregivers

equifinality

idea that there can be multiple developmental pathways to end up at the same result

negative outcomes if identity is not achieved

identity confusion, identity foreclosure, negative identity

infant observational learning

imitation (a reflex) --> child will make similar facial expressions back (easier if live person but can via media)

developmental task

important at a particular stage/age (e.g., attachment as a task of infancy; cognitively, object permanence; reaching); culturally different

children as "little adults"

in ancient Greece and Rome, people treated children with less nurturing and support, putting them to work early

infanticide

in ancient Greece and Rome, people were required to leave infants who were born appearing ill out to die of exposure

shape bias

in early language development, children's tendency to rely heavily on shape as a distinguishing property when learning names for objects (heavily consider size change and texture change to be included in the shape definition)

children as economic property

in medieval and reformation periods, poor families would send their children to work as servants and laborers (by ages 6-7)

period of the embryo

in the last half of first month; embryonic disk differentiates into layers 1. ectoderm: nervous system and face 2. mesoderm: bones, muscles, circulatory system, and other organs 3. endoderm: other organs

child labor in the 19th century

industrial revolution in the US and UK made it very common for children to work in coal mines and live together in groups

areas of the brain affected by exposure to hormones

infancy-puberty does not increase the sexual dimorphism of the brain bc no longer an increase in testosterone

categorization of objects in infancy

infants categorize along dimensions of color, size, and movement using perceptual organization; beginning in the second year, overall shape is the basis for categorizing objects

operant conditioning

infants repeat behaviors that are rewarded but their memory for operant responses is context dependent

interactionist perspectives

inner capacities and environment work together 1. social interactionist theories: social context is important (social competence and language experiences) 2. information processing theories: role of statistical learning

Kohlberg's stage 2

instrumental-and-exchange orientation 1. Moral behavior is conforming to rules to gain rewards 2. Some perspective-taking but just in hopes of benefiting in return 3. What is right is in own best interest or involves equal exchange ("you scratch my back, I'll scratch yours" orientation)

by four months, infants will imitate intention of adults but not

intention of machines

according to Freud, individual differences arise primarily from:

internal factors

mental representation

internal, mental depictions of information (objects, people, categories, etc)

Prelinguistic Development

joint attention, receptivity to language, first speech sounds

period of the zygote

journey to implantation followed by formation of amnion, chorion, placenta, and umbilical cord

nativist perspective of language development

language acquisition device (LAD) biologically prepares infants to learn rules of language

reflexes that endure are called ____ reflexes

lifespan

snoopy study and and troll experiment

little snoopy hidden in a room then trying to find big snoopy in a model size room (dual representation); big troll hidden then a shrinking ray shrinks the room and find the little troll (not representing anything)

androgens increase _________, and suppress ________

male-typical sexual behavior and aggression; caregiving

sex differences in cognitive organization (males)

males are better than females on 1. spatial-relation tasks (water line thing) 2. mental-rotation tasks (cube thing) 3. target-directed motor skills 4. mathematical reasoning

executive functions are ____ for success at false belief tasks

necessary but not sufficient (Korean/Chinese vs U.S. preschoolers both failed false belief tasks but higher efficiency in executive functions in the prior)

negative impacts of child labor in the 19th century (mines)

no childhood (protection, support, learning), physically dangerous (smoke, toxins, injuries), trauma (other people died brutally in front of them)

equilibrium

no discrepancies between experience and understanding

behaviorism

nurture is everything; by changing the things in the environment, the child will behave differently

Naturalistic vs. Structured Observation

observe children in natural setting vs setting up a situation to observe a particular behavior; rich description (ethnography, case study) vs generalizability (questionnaires)

Darwin (founder of developmental psychology)

observed his children and grandchildren, noting their capabilities, activities, and developmental changes in diaries

perceptual learning

occurs by accrual of information (from blank state to knowledge)

conservation concepts

of liquid quantity, solid quantity, and number; succeed each at different points, not all at once (suggests that they're just figuring out one task, in that concept, but can't transfer it yet → concrete thinkers and can't generalize the situation)

steps in reaching and grasping

prereaching, reaching, ulnar grasp (move objects hand to hand), pincer grasp

dual representation using maps

preschoolers can use simple maps but can't keep track of the fact that not all map characteristics are literally represented in the real world

peer conformity pressures

pressures to conform to: dress, grooming, social activities; proadult behavior; misconduct (rises in early adolescence but low overall)

experience-expectant processes

prewired processes in the brain which rely upon species-typical experiences

masculinization

process by which exposure to androgens alters the brain, rendering it "male-like" (default is female); refers to the morphology of the brain

attachment theory

proposed by John Bowlby; influenced by ethological theory and posits that children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers asa. means of increasing the chances of their own survival

Vygotsky and make-believe play

provides zone of proximal development: help children separate thinking from objects, rules strengthen capacity to think before acting, helps children understand social norms and expectations

first peer groups formed by

proximity and similarity (adopt similar dress and behavior)

Kohlberg's stage 1

punishment-and-obedience orientation 1. morality of a behavior depends on its consequences 2. greater the harm done or more severe the punishment, the more "bad the act is 3. moral action is motivated by avoidance of punishment

attachment security

secure attachment is related to emotion perspective taking for negative emotions; key to emotional perspective taking tasks

caregivers may serve as a _____ for exploration to their infants

secure base for exploration

consequences of adolescent cognitive changes

self-consciousness and self-focusing (imaginary audience, sensitivity to criticism, personal fable), idealism and criticism, decision-making problems (inexperience, overwhelming options)

cognitive-developmental theory of gender identity in early childhood

self-perceptions (gender constancy) come before behavior

example of reciprocal determinism

sense of self shaped by what people say about you and then that can shape your behavior = always saying child is hard-working will make them continue to do things that fit that idea

crowds

several cliques; membership based on reputation, stereotype

infant-directed speech

short sentences, high pitch, exaggerated expression, clear pronunciation, distinct pauses, clear gestures, repetition

mastery-oriented help

showing a child how to do something so they can do it by themselves next time

inhibited temperament

shy or timid with unfamiliar people or objects (10-15% of children); extremes of temperament

canalization

the suppression of phenotypic variation in a population (insensitive to genetic mutations and environmental variation) (e.g. perception, five senses, motor development)

amygdala pathways

slow and fast because not always correct in our fear responses (i.e., rubber snake)

cliques

small group of 5-7 good friends; identified by interests, social status

cooperative learning

small groups of classmates work toward common goals (intersubjectivity, cultural variations in ability to learn cooperatively, enhances peer relationships)

confounding variables

some factor other than the variables of interest that, if not controlled by the experimenter, could explain the relationship between the variables of interest; affect both variable and can explain the association

heterotypic continuity

stability in the underlying temperament dimension, but the behavioral expression changes depending on age

William James (founder of developmental psychology)

stated infants are overwhelmed by chaotic input and they attempt to parse it out and make sense of it

experimental control

steps taken to ensure that other variables that could affect the dependent variable are equivalent in all groups

negative impacts of 19th century Native American boarding school

stripping children of their culture and families; unable to have protective childhood; trauma

continuity-discontinuity issue

the debate about the extent to which development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages/changes (discontinuity) *both; depends on what you are looking at and the time period*

reciprocal determinism

the environment affects the child, but the child's behaviors also influence the environment

parent's phenotype-child's environmetn

the environment that parents choose and provide for their children are partially shaped by the parents' phenotype

validity

the extent to which a measure reflects what the researches intended to measure

reliability

the extent to which a measure yields consistent results

genotype

the genetic material an individual inherits from their parents

semantic development

the learning of the system for expressing meaning in a language, including word learning

phenotype

the observable expression fo the genotype, including bodily characteristics and behavior

zone of proximal development

the range between what children can do unsupported and what they can do with optimal social support

correlation

the strength of association among variable

microgenetic designs focus on

the study of mastery of novel tasks over closely spaced study sessions; insight into processes of change

prenatal testosterone

the testes produce testosterone during prenatal development, which stimulates development of male reproductive organs and also affects brain development

dynamic systems theory

the view that development is a self-organizing process, in which new forms of behavior emerge through consistent interactions between a biological being and cultural and environmental contexts thus explaining the disappearance of some behaviors

how is the child active?

their environment is not static and though parents dictate some aspects (where to live, go to school), the child does different things to affect their environment (play in different worlds, extracurriculars, friends, what to look at)

parental influences on emotion expressions

their own emotion expressions influences children's identity and perception of the world around them and models when and how to express emotion

differential emotions theory (Izard)

there is a limited set of specific emotions, each of which is innate and evident from early in life (or emerges on a predetermined timetable); identified by distinct facial expressions and bodily cues

swimming and crawling reflexes

they can naturally doggy paddle (obvi cannot float though/support themselves above water)

separation anxiety and sociocultural context

ties to attachment; around 2, they remember the routine and are less likely to get worked up

homozygous/heterozygous

two alleles are the same/differ

habituation

type of infant learning in which there is a decrease in response to repeated stimulation

Testing Infant Understanding of Object Permanence

using predictive eye tracking, test to see if children understand the continuity of action or if they look where it was before

dual representation

viewing a symbolic object as both an object and a symbol; adult teaching can help (pointing out symbols, providing maps, play things, etc)

test for depth perception

visual cliff - wariness of heights; study by Gibson in which it looks like the baby is crawling on air but it is plexiglass and you can see that with the tablecloth, baby is positioned at edge of cliff and looks like they would go over the edge of cliff, question is will they go and any fear? 1. found up around 6-7 mo = period when they begin appearing scared by the cliff 2. for recent crawlers, goading mother will get them to go but experienced crawlers will just stare at her

learning theories of social development

watson's behaviorism, skinner's operant conditioning, bandora's social learning theory

discrimination of emotions within valence categories appears to develop

well into childhood and even early adolescence (takes longer)

testing infants for deferred imitation

when infants observe someone or something perform a new task, they will imitate the action a day later (even longer after if older)

siblings and gender typing

who your siblings are plays a role in gender typing through observational learning, copying modeling (i.e. less stereotyped)

sensitive periods

windows of time when the brain is particularly sensitive to certain kinds of environmental inputs (i.e., stellar orientation in birds which cannot be relearned/adjusted)

development of make-believe play

with age, becomes 1. more detached from real-life conditions 2. less self-centered 3. more complex

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

your reasoning develops which stage you are at