Final Exam

More so than previous Sumerian law codes, his law was arduous and had numerous stipulations involving violent retribution. Very well known is one line of the code, "_____________________." , which made its way into the Bible. Eventually, in Latin, such a legal principle of equal retribution would be known as "lex talonis."

"Eye for an eye."

From Chapter 1: The Sumerians had a city-state culture in the southern part of ancient Mesopotamia, and made heavy use of irrigation for their agriculture. They invented the plow, the potter's wheel, and were the first to develop writing in Mesopotamia (the earliest writing known anywhere to go beyond mere pictographs.) The conceptual basis for their writing system was syllabic/syllabographic, however the style of writing was __________________ [ Select ] ["hieroglyphic", "cuneiform", "cursive", "scrawl-work"] . (The word means "wedge.")

cuneiform (shape of wedge)

Nobles controlled estates known as _______________ farmed by Commoners. The relationship between Nobles and Commoners within their dominions became governed by a traditional order known as the ______________________ . Furthermore, in the Medieval "feudal" system, vassal Nobles owed their King military service, but could buy their way out of it with a fee known as ________________ .

fiefs/fiefdoms, manorial/seigniorial system, scutem

The religion of Islam grew out of Arabia beginning in the first half of the 7th Century CE. The Islamic calendar has its year one parallel to the Christian calendar year 622 AD, marking their prophet __________________ flight from Mecca to Medina. The Holy Scripture of this monotheistic and iconoclastic religion is the Qur'an (or Koran.) From Chapter 6, the Five Pillars of the Islamic Faith are...1) Profession of monotheistic Faith. 2) Prayer. 3) __________________________ 4) Fasting during the month of Ramadan. 5) __________________________.

Muhammad, alms giving/ charity, The Hajj -- pilgrimage to Mecca, if plausible.

The Roman Republic evolved over time because of the so-called Struggle of the Orders. There were the _________________ , a noble class who traditionally wielded political and social power. Then there were the commoners, called _________________ who wanted more influence and opportunity. By 287 BCE, the Republic reached the basic constitutional format that it would have until its end.

Patricians, Plebeians

The ___________________________ Wars was a series of highly destructive conflicts in ancient Hellenic civilization. They inspired a great deal of military innovation even as they undermined the civil peace. All of these wars involved the _____________________ League, led by the city-state of Sparta, and the ___________ League led by Athens.

Peloponnesian, Peloponnesian, Delian

The great political leader of Athens from the late 450s until 429BCE was ___________________ . Athenian government reached new democratic and imperial heights. He directed funds to improving the city, including the building of the Temple of Athena Parthenos (the "Parthenon" -- the second great temple of Athena.) His military strategy guided Athens successfully during the first phase of the 2nd Peloponnesian War, though he died early in that conflict. He was killed by the _______________ , which stuck Athens while the population was packed behind its walls.

Pericles, plague

King Darius I had a new ceremonial capitol built named ________________ , as well as a King's Road stretching from the administrative capital of ________________to the provincial capital of Sardis in Asia Minor. Demonstrating the international character of the Achaemenid Persian Empire the language of the published law was _____________ along with Persian.

Persepolis, Susa, Aramaic

A captive Macedonian prince, ________________ was inspired by the Theban New Model Army, as well as the Athenian New Hoplites. He became King of Macedonia, which he expanded territorially as he centralized the authority of the Macedonian crown. Going hand-in-hand in these things was his building of a New Model Macedonian Army.He eventually achieved a hegemony over most of the Greek mother country, though he tried to do so without being overbearing. The Corinthian League forced his hand, however. He and his son defeated the League at the Battle of _________________ . The King didn't enjoy his success long. He was assassinated by ___________________ , one of his own bodyguards. Perhaps the bodyguard was a jilted lover or perhaps he was part of a Persian-funded conspiracy.

Philip Argus, Chaeronea, Pausanias

_________________ had an absolute veto over proposed legislation and were sacrosanct. They presided over the Plebeian Council, but were not allowed into the Centuriate. Even so, they could dwell on the fringes of the ________________ , listening and yelling in their "veto, veto!" Unfortunately for the Plebs, many of these magistrates were "in the pocket" of wealthy magistrates in the Senate. This is known as a _______________________relationship. The majority of Senators continued to be of the Patrician class.

Plebeian Tribunes, fora, patronage/clientage

The reforms of Cleisthenes also rid Athens of the factious four-tribe system, carving Attica up into thirty districts that were, in turn, bundled into ____________________________new artificial tribes. Each of the new tribes had towns from the old tribal system mixed within it. Delegations to the Council of 500 would, therefore, represent a mixture of these constituent parts, effectively neutralizing the old tribal gridlock with the Council. An odd new practice began around 500 BCE, and is generally attributed to the reforms of Cleisthenes, as well -- Athenians began electing to exile fellow citizens by etching their names on potsherds. If a person got enough votes they were expelled from Attica for __________ years. This practice was known as _______________ .

groupings of three to create ten, ten, Ostracism

The Egyptians developed ________________ for writing. In addition to using stone and clay tablets after the fashion of the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians also used ink on __________________ (which became one of the chief exports of Egypt during antiquity.) Connected to this, the scroll-form book was first developed by the ancient Egyptians.

hieroglyphics, papyrus

________________ were guardians of public morals, as well as the elected heads of public sanitation and public works. Additionally, they oversaw the public games and festivals. Aside from chariot racing in the circuses, ____________________- in the arena of the amphitheaters was the favorite of the ancient Romans for public entertainment. Gambling was common. Dramatic theater came in a distant third to these other two.

Aediles, gladiatorial combat

Following the failure of Roman Imperial power in Britain, the southern part of the island (eventually known as "England," derived from Angle-land) became dominated by the Angles and Saxons. They blended with each other and indigenous people to become the "Anglo-Saxons." From Chapter 7: Initially pagan, the Anglo-Saxons became converts to Christianity in the 7th Century (in no small part due to the previous efforts of Irish missionaries,) and soon adopted the Roman model of Western Church hierarchy. Pope Vitalian sent Theodore of Tarsus to be the first Archbishop of ___________________- . Learning was promoted. One of the greatest minds of the age was, in fact _______________________, who wrote numerous works including the Ecclesiastical History of the English People and The Nature of Things.

Canterbury, the Venerable Bede

Roman politicians had to achieve the highest magistracies in order, along the Cursus Honorem. Name these magistracies from greatest honor (#1) to least (#3.) #1 Censor . #2 Consul (most powerful, in a sense, but second in prestige.) #3 Praetor . #4 Aedile (not a necessary office for advancement.) #5 Quaestor.

Censor, Consul, Praetor

The Flavian Dynasty was founded by Vespasian, mentioned above after winning a short civil war. As Emperor, Vespasian commissioned the building of the ___________________________________ . Titus would succeed his father as Emperor and happened to be reigning when ______________________________________________________ .

Flavian Amphitheater/ the "Coloseum", Vesuvius erupted, destroying Herculaneum and Pompie

____________________ proved to be one of Rome's greatest enemies during the second of the above mentioned wars. He invaded Italy with a massive army that included war elephants. He delivered three catastrophic defeats to the Romans. But as with the Epirotean King, Rome was ultimately victorious. This great scourge of the Romans was eventually defeated at the Battle of ____________ with a Roman army commanded by Scipio Africanus. The Romans had the aid of North African cavalrymen, called the ____________________ .

Hannibal Barca, Zama, Numidians

The First Triumvirate was an alliance between Rome's two most influential men, and a third man, to control Roman politics. The three Triumvirs were _________________ , ___________________ , and ________________ .

Marcus Licinius Crassus, Gnaeus Pompey, Gaius Iulius Caesar

The the first phase of the Second Peloponnesian War went well for Athens, and Sparta suffered a humiliating defeat. During the second phase, however, the Spartans were funded by the Persians to build their own large fleet. The Spartan and Peloponnesian fleet suffered many defeats, even gargantuan losses versus the more proficient Athenians. Yet, the Spartans learned and improved with time. Finally, the Athenians suffered a catastrophic defeat at the hands of the Spartan fleet and army that lost them the war at _______________ in 405 BCE. Temporarily, the Athenians lost their democracy as well as their empire, with an oligarchic___________________ ruling over Athens. In 403, the democracy was restored following a democratic insurrection.

Aegospotami, Thirty Tyrants

After the second phase of the Second Peloponnesian War, Sparta owed the Persians for the money that had been given to them to build a fleet. Sparta was expected to act as the guardians of Greece on behalf of the Persians. Spartan and Persian relations quickly deteriorated, however. Persian money stopped coming into Spartan coffers. King Agesilaus II of Sparta invaded the Persian Empire in 396BCE, raiding Persian-held Asia Minor. He had to turn back when Persia gave the other Greeks money to rebel against Spartan hegemony. The result was the so-called Corinthian War. It ended in stalemate and the King of Persia issued a proclamation called the King's Peace. In the proclamation he stated that Sparta was to watch over Hellenic Motherland and the Ionian Hellene city-states of Asia were to belong to him. The war-wearied Hellenes agreed to it.

Agesilaus II, Persia, Sparta

From Chapter 1: Pharaoh ______________ and his Queen, Nefertiti oversaw -- really insisted upon an odd religious experiment in ancient Egypt. They rejected traditional Egyptian polytheism in favor of worshiping a single sun god named _____________ . Pharaoh insisted that his subjects pray either to him and his Queen, or to his sun god and not the other traditional Egyptian gods. He had a new capital and cult center built at _______________ . His religious experiment and new capital didn't last long beyond his reign.

Akhenaten, Aten/Aton, Amarna

The _____________ created the first imperial kingdom in Mesopotamia when their king, Sargon ("the Great") led his armies to conquer Sumeria in the 2,300's BCE.

Akkadians

Alexander III Argus was one of the greatest conquerors in history, and one of the most brilliant strategists and field marshals as well. With his father's mighty (and expensive) war machine he conquered the Persian Empire, plus some. The back of the Persian army was broken at Gaugamela/Arbela , in 331BCE. Soon after that battle, Macedonians plunged south through Mesopotamia, forcing the capitulation of Babylon and then Susa. Finally, they entered the Persian capital, Persepolis. The Persian King Darius III had fled with the remnants of his army but was killed by one of his own generals and satraps, named Bessus .

Alexander III Argus, Gaugamela/Arbela, Bessus

From Chapter 6: The Sunni/ Shi'ite division in Islam began with the assassination of Muhammad's cousin and brother-in-law ___________________ . His murder and then the murder of one of his sons sparked the Shi'te movement. Shi'ites were, and continue to be, a minority in Islam. They believe that the Caliphs should be of the familial lineage of Muhammad, and follow various religious leaders known as ______________ . During the earlier period of division, as the Sunni majority embraced the Umayyad Dynasty, the Shia were also distinctive in that they were willing to envision the true Caliphate as a purely spiritual entity, rather than a political unit.

Ali, imams

Terrifying the Eastern Romans and then the Western Romans, ______________ earned the title Scourge of God, and came to serve as a new model of Antichrist in the Christian imagination. Fortunately for the Western Romans, they still had a proper general with both tactical and diplomatic talents. ____________ cobbled together an allied army, which included Visigoths as well as warriors from other germanic groups, that repulsed the Scourge of God when he invaded Gaul. Pushed out of Gaul, the aforementioned invader headed toward Italy. A diplomatic entourage headed by ________________- convinced (and maybe bribed) the invader to return to his dominion in the east.

Attila the Hun, Flavius Aetius, Pope Leo I

During the reign of Nero multiple of mass insurrections against Roman rule broke out, though they seemed to have little to do with the mis-administrations of the Emperor directly. For example,in 61 CE a massive revolt began in Britain led by _______________________- . The Britons had brief success, destroying numerous Roman settlements, including Londonium. Many thousands of Romans were been killed before the rebel army was defeated. An even larger revolt occurred in ancient Palestine, beginning in 66 CE -- the Great Jewish Revolt. Led by a militant faction known as the ________________- , ancient Jews in Palestine attempted to violently throw off the Roman yoke. After initial brief success, a Roman battle force commanded by Vespasian smashed rebel forces on the open field. Most of the remaining leadership and their followers fell back to Jerusalem. Of course, the Romans laid siege to that city. By the time the city fell, the son of the aforementioned general, ____________ was in command of the troops. Under his authority they sacked and burned the Temple in Jerusalem.

Boudica Queen of the Iceni, the Zealots, Titus

By 287 BCE: The two ______________ oversaw the taking of the Census every ten years and were the highest guardians of public morals. Holding their positions for five years, they could leave offensive persons off the citizen's rolls thereby ending their political lives for years. The two ________________ wielded "imperium" as a part of their standard constitutional powers. They were chief executives and judicial officers. These were the greatest of the annually elected magistracies. The eight Praetors were elected lieutenants of the above. They were also executive and judicial officials of a secondary sort. They could be specially granted "imperium" by the Senate. The twenty chief, elected financial officers of the Republic were the __________________- . They were on the bottom rung of the Cursus Honorem.

Censors, Consuls, Quaestors

The Semitic speaking foreigners introduced Egypt to a new military technology: bronze and the ____________ , which they used to dominate Lower Egypt. They were finally driven out of Egypt by an army led by _________________, who had adopted the technology for his own use. Egyptians re-united Egypt and founded the New Kingdom.

Chariot, Ahmose I

The forces of Gaius Octavian Caesar overwhelmed those of his adversaries, _______________ and ____________________ at the Battle of Actium. This was largely due to the competence of Octavian's admiral, ______________________ .

Cleopatra, Marcus Antonius, Marcus Vipsanius Agrippa

As the Frankish kingdom congealed and then became ascendant, it was initially under the rule the Merovingian Dynasty. Among their numbers, the most important king is likely ___________ , who had his Franks officially endorse Nicene Christianity even as he led the Franks to expand their dominions in the Rhineland and what is now France. The often fratricidal Merovingian line eventually became defunct, however, with a number of weak kings towards the end of its existence. The so-called "Pepinids" became a rising force as Mayors of the Palace. Impressively, ________________ successfully repelled an Umayyad invasion at the Battle of Tours in 732. Thereafter, he drove the Caliphate out of south-western France. In doing this, he secured a route for the Pepinid Mayors to become a new line of Frankish kings, eventually known as the Carolingians. Pepin the Short became the first official king of the so-called Carolingian line with the support of the Roman Papacy, and his son would become a new Western Emperor, anointed as such by Pope Leo III. This new Western Emperor was _______________ . He was without question a military ruler, launching large numbers of military campaigns and building a proper Medieval western empire in central and western Europe. Yet, he was also interested in learning and surrounded himself with intellectuals. He very much set the stage for the High Middle Ages afterword.

Clovis, Charles Martel, Charlemagne

Aspiring Roman politicians had to be elected to the chief magistracies by popular assemblies. The_______________________ involved block voting, in which Patricians had a greater vote than the Plebeians (once Plebeians were included at all.) They decided on military laws, issues of war and peace, and elected Censors, Consuls, and Praetors. The Tribal Assembly involved both Patricians and Plebeians with different rules for voting, based on tribal membership. They elected Quaestors and Patrician Aediles, as well as voting on civil laws. The _______________ was for Plebeians alone, who voted democratically. They elected Plebeian Aediles and Plebeian Tribunes. Post-287BCE, they also voted on civil laws binding on all Romans.

Comitia Centuriata/Centuriate, Plebeian Assembly/Concilium Plebis

The Jesus Movement gradually expanded through the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd centuries CE, even as it was sporadically persecuted. It evolved from being a small Jewish sect to an international religion, increasingly outdoing other religious competitors. It also diversified quite quickly, so that there effectively came to be many Christianities. Emperor _______________ legalized Christianity and prompted the Ecumenical Council at Nicaea, which produced the Nicene Creed. After this, the number of Christians in the Roman Empire expanded far more quickly than before.It was Emperor ___________________ who insisted upon the totalitarian policy of outlawing other religions and non-Christian rites (including the ancient Olympics,) as well as identified heresies. The Christianity of the Emperors was Nicene Christianity (with a couple short-lived exceptions,) and furthermore a statist Christianity. Two of the well-known heresies discussed in the textbook are Arianism and ____________ . The second relates to the idea that sacraments performed by immoral/ inappropriately acting bishops are invalid.

Constantine, Theodosius, Donatism

Among the first great centers of maritime commerce in Archaic Greece, the city-state of ______________ was famous for the rail system, and eventually canal, that allowed ships to cut across the_______________ for a fee. This city-state was also at the forefront of Greek colonialism. Numbered among its many colonies was Syracuse in Sicily. Another city-state at the forefront of the Commercial Revolution early in the Archaic was Megara. Megara was the mother-city of the city-state of ______________ , which came to directly control traffic moving through the Bosporus.

Corinth, Isthmus, Byzantium

Minoan civilization thrived in the Aegean Sea from 2,000 BCE until about 1400 BCE. With a strong navy, they dominated numerous islands, the largest being the Aegean island of _________________ . They developed their own hieroglyphic writing system ( _____________ ,) and built vast, evolving palace complexes. The largest and most intricate of the palace complexes was at _______________ .

Crete, Linear A, Knosos

When the Persian prince Cyrus (the "Younger") tried to overthrow his brother, King Artaxerxes in 402-401 BCE, he enlisted the services of 10, 600 mercenary Greek hoplites among others. Cyrus lost his rebellion and his life at the Battle of _____________ in 401 BCE. Better than 10, 000 hoplites found themselves stranded in the middle of the Persian Empire. They fought their way back home, moving through high mountain passes and over rivers to reach the Black Sea. _______________ wrote an account of this. He was an officer within their numbers. His military adventure is known as the Anabasis, or in modernity, The March of the 10, 000.

Cunaxa, Xenophon

_______________ preferred "Dominus" to "Princip" as a title of honor. He instituted a number of administrative reforms that attempted to arrest the Empire's continued and looming problems. Among other things, the Empire was divided into two administrative halves: East and West. A new system of succession was attempted, known as the ___________________ . Both the East and West would have an Augusti as Emperor, as well as a second in command who was to be the successor. These seconds in command were known as _______________ . He also raised taxes and placed new restrictions on life. Certain professionals were lawfully locked into their professions, which became hereditary by decree. Colonii farming the land were not permitted to leave estates nor persons move from towns without the permission of local magistrates.

Diocletian, Tetrarchy, Caesari

From Chapter 3: Certain schools of Hellenic philosophy rose to greater influence during the Hellenistic period, and Roman period thereafter. These schools of thought had to do with crafting a way-of-life, and might be placed into the category of "self-help" doctrines by modern people. ________________ is said to have had its origins with Diogenes of Athens. He insisted that achieving happiness (contentment, really) in a hard and corrupted world meant living in the simplest way possible, and becoming used to such a simple life. Really, it meant becoming habituated to hardship in the context of base living. Get tough,kids. ________________________ was a doctrine named after its originator. It held that there was no great moral ends to living, and was inclined to what moderns would recognize as atheism (as had been the case for the Atomicists.) Persons should wisely and pro-actively seek happiness/contentment and avoid pain, according to this school of thought. Some activities, along with moderation in living, fit that bill while other activities were intrinsically immoderate (drunkenness, as an example) and should, therefore, be avoided. Later, many Roman elites, not least Gaius Iulius Caesar embraced this school of thought. ________________ was named after a public place used for teaching in Athens. As a distinctive school of thought, it's founder is identified as Zeno of Athens (originally Cyprus.) This school said that Universal Reason (Fate) drove the course of events. To attain happiness/contentment, persons should not have emotional attachments to material things and should seek out their role in the grand plan -- seek out their individual Fates, in other words. Failing to do so would lead to misery in life. This is a concept not dissimilar to the idea of a "Calling." In the context of this school of thought, therefore, both Fate and Free Will exist. However, our contentment depends on our willingness to live up to our predetermined role.

Cynicism, Epicureanism, Stoicism

Not all Scandinavians (also called the Norse) were vikings (raiders,) but a growing number of them turning to the viking life in 9th and 10th Centuries as it became apparent the great wealth available from raiding outside of Scandinavia. Whole viking states came into existence on the basis of that pilfered wealth in Scandinavia itself, and then outside of Scandinavia. The earliest raid came to a Northumbrian monastery (part of the British Isles) in 793 CE. Each subsequent success made the vikings more daring. The British Isles had the brunt of the earliest wave, but increasingly they were raiding coastal France (especially Normandy) and Iberia. By 911 CE, a viking army under a leader named Rollo was attacking inland France. (This compelled the French King, Charles the Simple to make peace with Rollo. Charles granted him the Duchy of Normandy, provided that the Normans would protect it from other vikings as vassals of the French king, and would convert to Christianity. Rollo agreed to those terms.) The vikings went further afield too, into the Mediterranean, the Black Sea, through the rivers of Eastern Europe, and across the North Atlantic to North America. From Chapters 6 and 7: Some of the vikings were successful enough to establish their own kingdoms and duchies outside of Scandinavia. In northern England the so-called ______________ was established, though the vikings there would finally find an effective foe in Alfred the Great, arising to rule in the south. In Eastern Europe they established the Kingdom of the ___________ Rus on the Dnieper River (in what is modern-day Ukraine.) The vikings discovered and colonized Iceland (previously uninhabited,) and from there they colonized Greenland. In effect, Greenland was a colony of a colony. Famously, _________________discovered Newfoundland in continental North America (for his kinsmen, anyway.) He called it "Vinland." Newfoundland was probably valued chiefly for its trees by Greenlanders and Icelanders in the longer run, who came and left for months at a time to cull lumber for ships, whatever vision its discoverer originally had.

Danelaw, Kievan Rus, Leif Erickson

Athens had the greatest and most practiced fleet in all of Hellas leading up to and following the Persian invasion of 480. It allied with other Hellenes in the Aegean to form the ______________________ League. The League's purpose was to amass a unified Greek navy to prevent another Persian invasion, and guarantee the continued liberty of the city-states on the Aegean's eastern (Asiatic) shore. The Persians made a last attempt to check Hellenic naval dominance in the Aegean by send a large Phoenician fleet into League water in 466 BCE. The Athenian admiral Cimon, led an Athenian fleet and army to victory against the Persians and Phoenicians at the Battle of ______________________ . Most significantly, the Athenians required no Spartan aid. Eventually, Athens turned the League into a hegemonic naval empire. Other than refusing to allow allies to leave the League, this was signified by the Athenians moving the League treasury from the shrine of _____________ , on the island of Delos to Athens in the 450s.

Delian, Eurymedon, Apollo

When the aforementioned great conqueror died of wound-related illness (or slow poisoning) in 323BCE, he had no mature heir. His generals fell to fighting among themselves and divided the empire into many kingdom-states during the course of four massive wars.Some of these generals became the creators of royal Greco-Macedonian dynasties ruling over foreign nations. The Kings of these Kingdom-states, and their royal heirs were later called the " ___________ " by the Romans, after the crowns they wore. In the east, 323BCE marked the end of the Classical Period and the beginning of the _____________ Period. Greek became the international language of the eastern Mediterranean, the old dialects blending together into ____________ Greek

Diadochi, Hellenistic, Koine

The law-code of "_____________ " was legendary in its harshness. The exact details of the code are unknown, but must have certainly involved the possibility of debt-slavery for Athenians, because debt-slavery soon became a societal problem in its own right. This harsh law-code was, in turn, ended by the legal reforms of ______________ . He is credited with ending debt-slavery among the Athenians and is said to have "freed the soil of Athens." His reforms ultimately created a new constitution in Athens. For the first time, all adult Athenian males were allowed to vote as part of the Ekklesia (general assembly of male citizens.) Athens still wasn't a male democracy, however. Votes were not equal. The wealthier the man, the more votes he got. Athenians were divided into four socio-economic classes. The wealthiest got _____________ votes, the next wealthiest got three, the next class after that got two, and the poorest got one vote.

Draco, Solon, 5

Highly valued today are hymns written by the conqueror-king's daughter Enheduanna . His dynasty and empire reached its height during the reign of his grandson Naramsin.

Enheduanna

Pelopidas and _________________ reformed the Theban military, creating a New Model army. The second was likely the most responsible for the details of the military reform.He built a strong cavalry. He created an elite regiment of 300 professional hoplites, in 150 pairs of sacred homoerotic couplings, called the __________________. The new Theban army also made greater use of peltasts and, as important as anything else, had a standing corp. of engineers. The beginning of the end for Spartan hegemony was at the Battle of Leuctra, where the new Theban army was spectacularly victorious over the Spartans in toe-to-toe land-battle. The old Peloponnesian League began to unravel following the Battle of ______________ . The Theban leader was dealt a mortal wound, but the army of Thebes won the field, no less.

Epaminondas, Sacred Band, Mantinea

The Julio-Claudian Dynasty began with ___________________ and ended with ______________ . The method of succession throughout involved sitting Emperors using ______________ .

Gaius Caesar Augustus, Nero, adoption

From Chapter 4 reading: ____________________ instituted a reform of the Roman calendar. Every fourth year added one day, the year with the extra day being presently known as a ______________ . (Revolutions of the Earth, known to us as days, are not perfectly 24 hours. Days have never been perfectly measured in common culture, so there is slippage over many centuries, eventually resulting in standardized solar months not lining up with their seasons. The extra day is supposed to take up some of that slippage but still isn't a perfect fix.)

Gaius Iulius Caesar, Leap Year

_________________- was from a wealthy Plebeian family and was identified as a Populare. He is famous for having built Rome's first Client Army and reforming the Roman military. He rejected Manipular Tactics and developed Cohort Tactics. He began the Cult of the Banner/Standard and put the silver eagle atop it. The first Roman Civil War was between the aforementioned political celebrity and power-broker and a later rising star, ___________________ . The latter man had shown his capability during the Social Wars in Italy, and was affiliated with the Optimati. A spat turned violent over who should command a Roman battle-force formed to put down a rebellion in Asia Minor. The rebellion had been fomented by the Pontian King _____________________.

Gaius Marius, Lucius Cornellius Sulla, Mithridates VI

The members of the Second Triumvirate were Gaius Octavian Caesar , Marcus Antonius , and Marcus Aemilius Lepidus .

Gaius Octavian Caesar. Marcus Antonius, Marcus Aemilius Lepidus

Upon becoming an adult an Athenian male citizen could participate in the hoplite militia, potentially vote, and enter into the __________________ (meaning "place of the naked people.") This last was the center of Greek male social life and a place to network, as well as stay fit. Men would also meet at private residences for gatherings called __________________ , in the host's Andron. Some of these gatherings were intellectual affairs while others were orgiastic. They could be both. In either case, at the center of any Andron would be a ____________ (bowl) filled with wine and water.

Gymnasia, Symposia, Krater

From Chapter 1: ______________ was a King of Babylon, famous for his law code. He oversaw the creation of the first Babylonian Empire. After his death, his empire dissolved in northern Mesopotamia. The Babylonian Kingdom remained in southern and central Mesopotamia, but was chronically unstable. Nonetheless, this King's code continued in use, at least in parts, and came to have influence well outside of Mesopotamia.

Hammurabi

The Spartan state was exceptionally unique. It was a closed, military state dedicated to keeping its slave/serf majority under control. Their slaves were originally Messenians but became known as the " __________________ ," and they produced all of Sparta's agricultural goods. The proper role of a Spartan male was to be a full-time soldier for life. If a Spartan baby was deformed or sickly it was cast off by _______________________command of the ___________ . At the age of six, Spartan boys were taken from their mothers and made to live in the barracks to begin their training as soldiers. They would train and serve connected to the barracks for twenty years. They served for life afterwards, mostly as commandants over slaves/serfs in the fields.

Helots, Mount Taegetos, Ephors

The Spartan state was exceptionally unique. It was a closed, military state dedicated to keeping its slave/serf majority under control. Their slaves were originally Messenians but became known as the "______________ ," and they produced all of Sparta's agricultural goods. The proper role of a Spartan male was to be a full-time soldier for life. If a Spartan baby was deformed or sickly it was cast off Mount _______________ by command of the __________ . At the age of six, Spartan boys were taken from their mothers and made to live in the barracks to begin their training as soldiers. They would train and serve connected to the barracks for twenty years. They served for life afterwards, mostly as commandants over slaves/serfs in the fields.

Helots, Taygetos, Ephors

The aforementioned constitution didn't quite work out in the long-run. Factional strife between the four traditional tribes may have caused gridlock in the annually elected Council of 400. (The four traditional tribes of Attica were the Coast Tribe, the ____________ Tribe, the Plains Tribe, and the City Tribe.) The gridlock got so bad at one point that they couldn't elect Archons for two years, this being known as the " ___________ ." Also, many Athenian citizens continued to feel insufficiently enfranchised and that their government was not responsive enough to their needs. In 540, tyranny finally came to Athens. _____________ became the first Athenian tyrant. Like most Hellenic tyrants, he was supported by common folk (versus the aristocratic elites/oligarchs.) He expanded the local festivals (days off.) He spent money on the festivals and the arts, not to mention public sanitation in the city.

Hill, Anarchia, Pisistratus

From Chapter 1: Periods of weakness and disunity in ancient Egyptian history are referred to as "Intermediate Periods" existing between the "Kingdom Periods," which were periods of unity and relative order under Pharaonic dynasties. The Second Intermediate Period in Egypt was not only a time of disunity for the Egyptians, but a time of humiliating foreign domination. Nubians seized control of parts of Upper (southern) Egypt. Lower (northern) Egypt came under the rule of a mysterious Asiatic group called the _______________ .

Hyksos

The aforementioned Athenian tyrant had sons, Hipparchus and Hippias, who ruled as co-tyrants. Hipparchus was murdered in 514, and Hippias was run out of Athens in 510 with the aid of Sparta. The old constitution was restored but then the Athenian leadership fell into a dispute over whether or not to amend the old constitution, or precisely how to amend it. The conservative,_______________ and his political allies enlisted the aid of the Spartans again in 508 to overcome his vastly more democratic rivals. What neither he nor the Spartans expected was a democratic revolution. After the success of the revolution, _____________ was recalled from exile. He led the reforms of the old constitution that finally achieved democracy in Athens (for male Athenians): one man, one vote, majority rules in the _____________________ .

Isagoras, Cleisthenes, Ecclesia

Eastern Emperor ________________ and his wife, Empress Theodora reigned over the Eastern Roman Empire during a period of brief resurgence. Indeed, they presided over a reconquest of parts of the lost Western Empire. According to class, part of their secret was their brilliant general, _____________ . Yet, as mentioned in Chapter 6 of Sherman/ Salisbury, the most lasting contribution of the aforementioned Eastern Emperor was his streamlining and codification of Roman law. The result was a fifty volume work known as the ____________________- . It survived the fall of antiquity and would later be rediscovered in the West, thereafter influencing future western law codes.

Justinian, Belisarius, Corpus Iuris Civilis

From Chapter 1 readings: Ancient Egypt was an awesomely wealthy country-state, especially when unified, because of the sprawling and verdant Nile River Valley, not to mention the relative predictability of the river's flooding. Eventually, a conquered Egypt would be the greatest bread-basket of the Roman Empire. They built amazing works of monumental architecture made of cut stone, most famously the great pyramids of the Old Kingdom Period. The stones of those pyramids were cut using copper saws and sand, transported with sleds and human labor across wet-ed sand. Slaves were not used in building the monumental architecture of the Old Kingdom, but rather conscript labor. The largest of the Egyptian Pyramids is the Pyramid of __________ at Giza.

Khufu

Up to its own time, the Achaemenid Persian Empire was the largest empire that had ever been built. It stretched from western India in the east, to Egypt and the edge of south-eastern Europe in the west by 500 BCE. The armies of ________________ the Great began establishing the Persian Empire in the 550's BCE. In this new empire, the dominion was divided into a series of provinces. Each province had an appointed imperial governor called a ________________ . The Persians tried to rule with a gentler hand than the Assyrians and Babylonians had before them. When Babylon fell to the Persian army, many nations of slaves were liberated by the Persian King. Most famously, the ______________ (people) were liberated and allowed to return to their homeland in ancient Palestine.

King Cyrus, Satrap, Jews

By 130's BCE, the Romans directly or indirectly controlled the Mediterranean rim. Their wars in Spain were coming to a close as well - for the time being. For a decade already, Roman soldiers were making their way home from a series of almost constant wars only to find their small to middling farms gone. Their farms had been gobbled up by land speculators (some of those speculators being the agents of Senators,) who created massive plantation farms called _________________ , worked by slaves acquired as war captives. These unfortunate veterans and their families became " ___________________ ," meaning the "landless and wandering." There was a rising movement in support of land-reform. It was a social justice movement as well as a practical one: many feared that there wouldn't be enough land-holders to fill the ranks of the Roman armies in the future. The new, massive slave economy was also a threat, promising slave rebellion. That rebellion came with the so-called First _____________ War. A Syrian slave named Eunius led a slave revolt in Sicily.

Latifundia, proletariata, Servile

By the early Classical Period, the Olympics had become a five day festival. The second day had Chariot Races and the Pentathlon. The Pentathlon involved a 200 meter foot race, wrestling, a javelin throw, _____________, and ______________ . The fourth day was the most combative. Separate competitions in wrestling, boxing, and _______________ (perhaps an ancient Greek version of Judo) competitions were had. Then there was the footrace in armor.

Long Jump, Discus Throw, Pankrateon

The last king of pre-republican Rome was _______________________. He was driven out by a Latin revolution. These revolutionaries established the Roman Republic and fought a series of wars to retain their independence. The fearless leader of the Romans who established the Republic was _________________________ .

Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, Lucius Junius Brutus

Early Greek-speaking people invaded the land that was to become mainland Greece sometime between 2000 and 1700 BCE. They developed trade with the Minoans and with the nations of Asia Minor (western part of what is present day Turkey.) Moderns call them the __________________ . Unlike the Minoans, they built fortified castle-towns with massive defensive walls. Moderns refer to these castle-towns as _______________. They ultimately built navies like the Minoans and chariot armies like the Hittites. They used their own phonetic-syllabic script to record business transactions ( ______________ .) The height of this early Greek civilization stretched from approximately 1500 to 1150 BCE.

Mycenaeans, Citadels, Linear B

From Chapter 1: The Neo-Assyrians and Neo-Babylonians built extremely aggressive empires that extended well beyond Mesopotamia. They ruled through terror and practiced mass deportation to split up troublesome populations. King _______________________ led an army in destroying (city) _____________________in 587 BCE. Ancient Jews were enslaved en mass, and deported into the vicinity of the city of _______________ .

Nebuchadrezzar, Jerusalem, Babylon

The Emperors of the _______________________ are sometimes known as the "Good Emperors." They were yet another line of adoptive Emperors, with adoption guided by the Senate. Hadrian was one of their numbers and is famous for his British wall, and for rebuilding the _____________________ .

Nervan-Antonine Dynasty, Pantheon

The __________________ became the head of the Western Church, while the ______________________ and his appointed Patriarchs became head of the Eastern Church. The schism between the two developing over many centuries, but being recognized and made official in 1054 CE.In the West, the aforementioned head of the Western Church came to have the authority to appoint Archbishops and Bishops. These were Vested Clergy, meaning that they were vested with __________________.

Papacy, Eastern Emperor, ring and staff

The Severan Dynasty attempted hereditary succession again and it was a disaster, especially with the likes of Caracalla in the mix. Following the tragic end of the Severan line, a series of short-reigning, commonly challenged, and often weak Emperors ruled. These are called the Barracks Emperors and the period is known as the Crisis of the 3rd Century. It saw multiple civil wars and the Roman Empire temporarily broken into three parts. In the West, the rebel ________________ created the Gallic Empire. In the East, _________________ created the much shorter lived Palmyrene Empire. Emperor ________________ re-united the Empire during the period. A powerful and fearsome man, his reign was, nonetheless, short as well.

Postumus, Queen Zenobia, Aurelian

On their path to becoming a world power, the Romans had to face off against numerous international foes. Their first great international foe was _______________- of Epirus, who invaded Italy on behalf of the Greeks of Tarentum. Out of three major battles with the Romans, he managed to win two. The next international foe of Rome was to be the imperious city of _______________ , in North Africa. The Romans fought three wars with this city, though the third war was more of a slaughter.

Pyrrhus, Carthage

Pan-Hellenic oracles also came into existence. The most broadly known and used was the Oracle of _____________ at Delphi. The priestess would drink a secret elixir and breathe in fumes from a fissure in the Earth, fumes that were believed to rise from the corpse of the _________________ deep underground. Entering a trance, she would begin to babble (also known as Speaking in Tongues or by the technical term, _________________ .) The male priests "interpreted" or interpreted her babblings into a riddle or vague message from the god.

Pythian Apollo, Python, glossalalia

The four Pan-Hellenic Festivals were the ___________ , the _________ , the ___________ , and the Olympics.

Pythian, Nemean, Isthmian

The Egyptian New Kingdom built international empires, though their expansionist tendencies were sometimes greater than at other times. Thutmose III was arguably the greatest Pharaoh-general of the New Kingdom, though you wouldn't know that from the text-book. From Chapter 1: Initially, Thutmose III shared his rule with ____________________________ [ Select ] ["Queen Hatshepsut", "Queen Nefertiti", "Queen of Sheeba", "Queen Ramses II"] because he was only ten years old when first becoming Pharaoh. However, upon reaching maturity, he successfully led numerous military campaigns to the east and south. Most famously, his armies smashed a confederation of Canaanite city-states (League of Kadesh) to thoroughly secure Egyptian control of ancient Palestine. Nonetheless, your readings focus on his older co-ruler who was an extremely competent ruler, and one of only three females to hold the power of Pharaoh in ancient Egyptian history.

Queen Hatshepsut

Pharaoh Seti I and his son ____________________[ Select ] ["Ramses II", "Ahmose", "Thutmose III"] (the Great) made Egypt an imperial power once again, retaking most of ancient Palestine among other territories. The latter god-king found himself in a war with the ________________________ [ Select ] ["Hittites", "Hyksos", "Assyrians"] (nation of people.) He fought them to a draw at the Battle of Kadesh. Both sides claimed victory and a lasting international peace-treaty was the product.

Ramses II, Hittites

According to Roman legend, Rome was founded by ___________ after he slew his brother _____________ in an argument. However, most historians think that Rome evolved into existence, as fortified settlements on its various hills grew together over time. It may have finally grown into a single city as a colonial venture of ______________ s from the north, who conquered Latium in the late 7th Century BCE.

Romulus, Remus, Etruscan

Athens fell to Persian forces, was sacked and burned. Fortunately, most of the population had been evacuated. The more decisive naval engagement came soon after: the Battle of _________________ . Themistocles had successfully fed misinformation to the Persians, causing their fleet to attack exactly when he needed them to attack. After the scattering of the Persian fleet, Xerxes returned to Persia with half his invasion force to avoid being trapped. The next decisive battles occurred in the following year (479 BCE,) and at about the same time. The Greeks saw victories at the A) Battle of Plataea, and at the Battle of B) ___________________- , on the coast of Asia Minor. Greek victory in these battles secured Greek freedom from Persian rule, in both the mother country and Asiatic Ionia.

Salamis, Mycale

The Greco-Persian Wars started when Athens supported a rebellion of Ionian city-states against Persian authority. They had agreed to aid the tyrant of Miletus in his rebellion, but the insurrection quickly grew and the Athenians hoped to see all the Asiatic Ionian city-states liberated. Aided by Eritreans, the Athenians launched a raid into the interior to sack the provincial capital of ___________ . But when a sizable Persian army arrived the Athenians were forced to flee, leaving the Milesians and other Ionians to face Persia alone. In 490, a small (by Persian standards) Persian army made its way by flotilla to the western shore of the Aegean. The Persian's goal was to punish Athens for wreaking havoc in Asia Minor. Though out-numbered, the Athenian Army was victorious at the Battle of _______________ , under the effective command of _______________ .

Sardis, Marathon, Miltiades

Professionals trained in this writing, known as _____________________ ["Pharisee", "Scribes", "Bards", "Velites"] , helped the Temples manage the markets of the cities.

Scribes , also left over "cuneiform" for this and above

Once a Roman was elected to an office on the Cursus Honorem, they entered into the _________ for life. This body of men controlled the Roman treasury and traditionally met in a red brick building called the _______________ . They had the authority to declare a State of Emergency for periods of six (and later seven) months. When that was done, the popular assemblies were normally suspended and the above body would elect a ____________ from among their own numbers.

Senate, Curia, Dictator

The Romans believed in pre-emptive attack in the name of defense. That mentality can be traced back to 389 BCE, when Rome was destroyed by a rampaging group of ________________. _______________________ was the Roman leader who oversaw the re-building of the burned-out city. He is known as Rome's second founder. By the mid-to-late 300's, the Romans were well on their way to creating a central Italian country-state.

Senone Celts, Marcus Furius Camillus

From Chapter 2 readings: In Athens, _________________ (470-399) was most interested in rationally derived ethics. He engaged persons in dialogue, tricking them into self-contradiction. His goal was to show them that they did not know that which they assumed they knew. He was executed by his fellow Athenians for impiety. Soon after democracy was restored, the Athenians were looking for a scapegoat to blame for their difficulties. A student of the aforementioned philosopher, ______________ founded a school called the Academy. He taught that reality was made of imperfect versions of perfect and eternal ideas called "Forms," coalescing shadow-like and imperfectly in the day-to-day world. (Famously, he wrote a series of Dialogues, within which the above philosopher was the driving philosophical character -- a sort of philosopher-hero.) An intellectual elitist of the highest order, he was cynical about the majority of humans and distrusted democracy. Later, ______________ rejected the notion of Forms. He largely brought philosophy back to the observable (though he also had a work dedicated to Metaphysics.) This philosopher had expansive interests in physics, politics, biology, ontology, epistemology, and ethics, founding his own school separate from the Academy called the Lyceum. He at one point he was a tutor to Alexander III of Macedon and became a friend.

Socrates, Plato/ Aristocles, Aristotle

Missionaries, especially missionizing monks, were important for the spread of Christianity beyond the footprint of the old Roman Empire. Mentioned in the unit was ________________ , who didn't bring Christianity to Ireland or drive out snakes, but may have been responsible for making Christianity the majority religion of that island. Then there was ______________ and Methodius, who are often credited with creating the Slavonic Alphabet. It's a controversial topic, full of speculations. It is more likely that they helped standardize the alphabet, already evolving into existence among Slavic speakers settled in Macedonia. The new alphabet would be used to write the Gospels in Slavonic languages.

St. Patrick, Cyril

The greatest of the ancient Greek city-states in Western Hellas was _______________ , in Sicily. When that city fell to the Romans after a long and frustrating siege, the Roman commander Marcellus ordered a particular inhabitant to be brought out alive. Alas, it was not to be. According to legend, Marcellus coveted a mind, the mind of ___________________ . This Greek philosopher had made the world's first odometer for the Romans, when the Romans were still allies with his city. He had built brilliant anti-siege devices that helped keep the Romans at bay for two years. He is most famous today for his work in mathematics and physics.

Syracue, Archimedes

Following the first phase of the 2nd Peloponnesian War, a victorious Athens over-extended itself. They attempted to conquer the city-state of __________________ , in order to create an Athenian foothold on the island of _______________ . The campaign was disastrous for the Athenians, costing them a whole fleet and army. _________________ smelled blood and the Peloponnesian War heated up again.

Syracuse, Sicily, The Spartans

From Chapter 2 readings: The Greek philosophers were an inquisitive, rationalistic lot, often very critical of the emotionalism and supernaturalism of their fellow Greeks. The intellectual elites of ancient Greece are credited with the invention of western philosophy. ___________ of Miletus is generally considered to be the first philosopher, after the critical-minded Western stamp. He thought material explanations rather than supernatural causes could explain events, and were accessible through reason. He also thought that there ___________________ was the "primal element" (Arche) that made up everything else. Other philosophers became fixated by the notion of a primal substance/arche, and not only the Miletian students of the philosopher above. For example, outside of Miletus, Democritus insisted that the cosmos was composed of imperceptibly small particles called atomi (the root of our word "atom.") ____________________ , on the other hand, thought that the cosmos was composed of numbers, which were actual and not merely abstract concepts. Everything important could be through mathematics, therefore. (What your book doesn't tell you is that that included spiritual salvation through doing mathematics, breaking a cycle of reincarnation. He likely founded a weird communal cult named after him. If he didn't then someone did it in his name not too long after his life time. Yeah, that's right, an elite and insular math cult.)

Thales, water, Pythagoras

The second Persian incursion into the Hellenic motherland commenced in 480 and was a far greater affair than the first. It involved a massive Persian army invading by a land route, and supported by a massive fleet, determined to bring all of Greece to heel under Persian authority. An allied Greek army under the command of the Spartan King Leonidas held up the Persian Army at the pass of __________________________ . At the same time, an allied Greek fleet challenged the Persian fleet at the Straight of Artemisium. The Athenian fleet spearheaded the naval operation. While the Spartan commander _________________ had official command of the Allied Fleet, the Athenian admiral ____________________ was the effective tactical commander at Artemisium. Their goal was to allow their fellow Greeks to prepare a better defense to the south.

Thermopylae/Hot Gates, Eurybiades, Themistocles

________________ and his brother ___________ were the Plebian leaders of the land reform movement. They had minimal success with the creation of a small and short-lived Land Commission, with the initial funds to purchase land coming from the deceased King of Pergamum, ________________ . Both of these brothers paid with their lives for their activism. Their killing marked the beginning of an increasingly fratricidal Late Republic. Neither did the land reform last long, or go anywhere close to far enough.

Tiberius Gracchus, Gaius, Attalus III

Power was localized and authority personal. The social hierarchy was vertical, unlike the horizontal strata imagined in modern class consciousness. Whether Noble or Commoner, prelate or layman, every person was expected to know their superiors and inferiors, behaving accordingly. Everyone and everything was imagined __________________________________________________ . Chapter 7 places emphasis on a practice that well-illustrates the unequal value of persons in such a vertical hierarchy. Laws cropped up assigning fines for injuring or even killing certain individuals. However, the steepness of those fines varies based upon the social station of the person. Each man had a monetary worth based upon his station in life known as __________ . Law became traditional and was heavily influenced by ancient Germanic practices, which became part of Medieval practices of jurisprudence. For example, Chapter 7 notes that "techniques of _____________ and compurgation" were used as evidence in jurisprudence.

a link in the Great Chain of Being, wergild, ordeal

Using ___________________ (the practice of holding multiple political offices at once,) Augustus created a new office for himself. That new office was known as the __________________ and the Imperial Office. In effect, he had created an autocratic office. He was given his own treasury, allowed to build his own palace on the Palatine Hill, and he commissioned Rome's greatest race track--the Circus Maximus--in view of his palace. Further, he was allowed his own bodyguard of 4, 500 men called the __________________ . They were more than only bodyguards.

political pluralism, Principate, Praetorian Guard

From Chapter 7: The vikings influenced Western Civilization in numerous ways. When they first attacked European Christendom the vikings were still pagan. Many of their gods and heroes still impress the modern mind today, knowledge of these coming through the legendary written tales of the Norse themselves. (These tales, both historical and mythological are generally known as the ______________ . Regarding Norse polytheistic lore, collections of Icelandic stories known as the Poetic and Prose "Eddas" have been especially informative to moderns.)A number of the days still have names influenced by Germanic/Scandinavian deities. Tuesday, for example, means the "Day of Tiw." Tiw was a Germanic war god, parallel to Scandinavian Tyr. Your book ticks off three days with names connected to Norse deities specifically: Wednesday is named for ________________ , Thursday is named for Thor (or Donar further to the Germanic south -- it's "Donnerstag" in modern German), and Friday is named for ____________________ .

sagas, Woden/ Odin, Freya/ Frigg