FSOT-Punctuation and Mechanics
Discuss the rule for using semicolons with independent clauses and items in a series that have internal punctuation.
1. Use a semicolon between closely connected independent clauses that are not connected with a coordinating conjunction. Examples: She is outside; we are inside. You are right; we should go with your plan. 2. Use a semicolon between independent clauses linked with a transitional word. Examples: I think that we can agree on this; however, I am not sure about my friends. You are looking in the wrong places; therefore, you will not find what you need. 3. Use a semicolon between items in a series that has internal punctuation. Example: I have visited New York, New York; Augusta, Maine; and Baltimore, Maryland.
Discuss absolute phrases.
An absolute phrase is a phrase with a participle that comes after a noun. The absolute phrase is never the subject of a sentence. Also, the phrase does not explain or add to the meaning of a word in a sentence. Absolute phrases are used independently from the rest of the sentence. However, they are still a phrase, and phrases cannot give a complete thought. Examples: [The alarm ringing,] he pushed the snooze button. [The music paused,] she continued to dance through the crowd.
Discuss the rule for end punctuation with declarative and imperative sentences and the use of periods for abbreviations.
Declarative Sentence A declarative sentence gives information or makes a statement. Examples: I can fly a kite. | The plane left two hours ago. Imperative Sentence An imperative sentence gives an order or command. Examples: You are coming with me. | Bring me that note. Periods for Abbreviations Examples: 3 P.M. | 2 A.M. | Mr. Jones | Mrs. Stevens | Dr. Smith | Bill Jr. | Pennsylvania Ave. Note: an abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase.
Discuss gerunds and gerund phrases.
Gerunds - A gerund is a verbal that is used as a noun. Gerunds can be found by looking for their -ing endings. However, you need to be careful that you have found a gerund, not a present participle. Since gerunds are nouns, they can be used as a subject of a sentence and the object of a verb or preposition. Gerund Phrases are built around present participles (i.e., -ing endings to verbs) and they are always used as nouns. The gerund phrase has a gerund and any complements or modifiers. Examples: We want to be known for [teaching the poor.] (Object of Preposition) Coaching this team is the best job of my life. (Subject) We like practicing our songs in the basement. (Object of the verb: like)
Discuss misplaced modifiers.
In some sentences, a modifier can be put in more than one place. However, you need to be sure that there is no confusion about which word is being explained or given more detail. Incorrect: He read the book to a crowd that was filled with beautiful pictures. Correct: He read the book that was filled with beautiful pictures to a crowd. The crowd is not filled with pictures. The book is filled with pictures. Incorrect: John only ate fruits and vegetables for two weeks. Correct: John ate only fruits and vegetables for two weeks. John may have done nothing else for two weeks but eat fruits and vegetables and sleep. However, it is reasonable to think that John had fruits and vegetables for his meals. Then, he continued to work on other things.
Discuss how indefinite pronouns and the adjective every and its compounds can be a problem for subject-verb agreement.
Indefinite Pronouns: Either, Neither, and Each Is either of you ready for the game? (Singular Subject: Either. Singular Verb: is) Each man, woman, and child is unique. (Singular Subject: Each. Singular Verb: is) The adjective Every and compounds: Everybody, Everyone, Anybody, Anyone Every day passes faster than the last. (Singular Subject: Every day. Singular Verb: passes) Anybody is welcome to bring a tent. (Singular Subject: Anybody. Singular Verb: is)
Discuss infinitives and infinitive phrases.
Infinitives - An infinitive is a verbal that can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb. An infinitive is made of the basic form of a verb with the word to coming before the verb. Infinitive Phrases are made of an infinitive and all complements and modifiers. They are used as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs. Examples: [To join the team] is my goal in life. (Noun) The animals have enough food [to eat for the night.] (Adjective) People lift weights [to exercise their muscles]. (Adverb)
Discuss parentheses and give examples of their use in a sentence
Parentheses are used for additional information. Also, they can be used to put labels for letters or numbers in a series. Parentheses should not be used very often. If they are overused, parentheses can be a distraction instead of a help. Examples: Extra Information: The rattlesnake (see Image 2) is a dangerous snake of North and South America. Series: Include in the email (1) your name, (2) your address, and (3) your question for the author.
Discuss the rule for using quotation marks with direct quotes, indirect quotes, and a quote inside a quote.
Use quotation marks to close off direct quotations of a person's spoken or written words. Do not use quotation marks around indirect quotations. An indirect quotation gives someone's message without using the person's exact words. Use single quotation marks to close off a quotation inside a quotation. Direct Quote: Nancy said, "I am waiting for Henry to arrive." Indirect Quote: Henry said that he is going to be late to the meeting. Quote inside a Quote: The teacher asked, "Has everyone read 'The Gift of the Magi'?"
Discuss predicate nouns and predicate adjectives.
Predicate Nouns are nouns that modify the subject and finish linking verbs. Example: My father is a lawyer. Father is the subject. Lawyer is the predicate noun. Predicate Adjectives are adjectives that modify the subject and finish linking verbs. Example: Your mother is patient. Mother is the subject. Patient is the predicate adjective.
Discuss how to know the correct pronoun when a pronoun is used with a noun immediately after the pronoun.
When a pronoun is used with a noun immediately following (as in "we boys"), try the sentence without the added noun. Example: (We/Us) boys played football last year. (Answer: We boys played football last year.) Test: (1) We played football last year or (2) Us played football last year. Again, the second choice cannot be correct because us is not used as a subject of a sentence. Instead, us is used as an object.
Discuss the rule for capitalizing names on a compass for specific areas and the rule for capitalizing the first letter of each word in a title.
1. Capitalize the names on a compass for specific areas, not when they give direction Examples: Specific Area: James is from the West. Direction: After three miles, turn south toward the highway. 2. Capitalize the first letter of each word in a title (Note: Articles, Prepositions, and Conjunctions are not capitalized.) Examples: Titles: Romeo and Juliet is a beautiful drama on love. Incorrect: The Taming Of The Shrew is my favorite. (Remember that prepositions and articles are not capitalized.) Note: Books, movies, plays (more than one act), newspapers, magazines, and long musical pieces are put in italics. The two examples of Shakespeare's plays are underlined to show their use as an example.
Discuss the rule for capitalizing the first word in a sentence and direct quote, the rule for capitalizing proper nouns and adjectives that come from proper nouns, and the rule for capitalizing the names of days, months, and holidays.
1. Capitalize the first word of a sentence and the first word in a direct quotation Examples: First Word: Football is my favorite sport. Direct Quote: She asked, "What is your name?" 2. Capitalize proper nouns and adjectives that come from proper nouns Examples: Proper Noun: My parents are from Europe. Adjective from Proper Noun: My father is British, and my mother is Italian. 3. Capitalize the names of days, months, and holidays Examples: Day: Everyone needs to be here on Wednesday. Month: I am so excited for December. Holiday: Independence Day comes every July.
Discuss the rule of using a colon to make a list, the rule for using a colon for explanations or quotes, and the rule for colons after the greeting in a letter, to show hours and minutes, and to separate titles and subtitles.
1. Use a colon after an independent clause to make a list Example: I want to learn many languages: Spanish, French, German, and Italian. 2. Use a colon for explanations or to give a quote Examples: Quote: The man started with an idea: "We are able to do more than we imagine." Explanation: There is one thing that stands out on your resume: responsibility. 3. Use a colon after the greeting in a formal letter, to show hours and minutes, and to separate a title and subtitle Examples: Greeting in a formal letter: Dear Sir: | To Whom It May Concern: Time: It is 3:14 P.M. Title: The essay is titled "America: A Short Introduction to a Modern
Discuss the rule for using commas with coordinating conjunctions, the rule for using commas with introductory phrases and adverbial clauses, the rule for using commas with items in a series, and the rule for using commas with coordinate adjectives.
1. Use a comma before a coordinating conjunction joining independent clauses Example: Bob caught three fish, and I caught two fish. 2. Use a comma after an introductory phrase or an adverbial clause Examples: After the final out, we went to a restaurant to celebrate. Studying the stars, I was surprised at the beauty of the sky. 3. Use a comma between items in a series. Example: I will bring the turkey, the pie, and the coffee. 4. Use a comma between coordinate adjectives not joined with and Incorrect: The kind, and brown dog followed me home. Correct: The kind, loyal dog followed me home. Not all adjectives are coordinate (i.e., equal or parallel). There are two simple ways to know if your adjectives are coordinate. One, you can join the adjectives with and: The kind and loyal dog. Two, you can change the order of the adjectives: The loyal, kind dog.
Discuss the rule for using commas with interjections, the rule for using commas for separating nonessential modifiers and appositives with commas, and the rule for using commas to set off nouns of direct address, interrogative tags, and contrast with commas.
1. Use commas for interjections and after yes and no responses Examples: Interjection: Oh, I had no idea. | Wow, you know how to play this game. Yes and No: Yes, I heard you. | No, I cannot come tomorrow. 2. Use commas to separate nonessential modifiers and nonessential appositives Examples: Nonessential Modifier: John Frank, who is coaching the team, was promoted today. Nonessential Appositive: Thomas Edison, an American inventor, was born in Ohio. 3. Use commas to set off nouns of direct address, interrogative tags, and contrast Examples: Direct Address: You, John, are my only hope in this moment. Interrogative Tag: This is the last time, correct? Contrast: You are my friend, not my enemy.
Discuss the rule for using commas with separate expressions (e.g., he/she said) and the rule for dates, addresses, geographical names, and titles.
1. Use commas to separate expressions like he said and she said if they come between a sentence of a quote Examples: "I want you to know," he began, "that I always wanted the best for you." "You can start," Jane said, "with an apology." 2. Use commas with dates, addresses, geographical names, and titles Examples: Date: July 4, 1776, is an important date to remember. Address: He is meeting me at 456 Delaware Avenue, tomorrow morning. Geographical Name: Paris, France, is my favorite city. Title: John Smith, Ph. D., will be visiting your class today.
Discuss dangling modifiers.
A dangling modifier is a verbal phrase that does not have a clear connection to a word. A dangling modifier can also be a dependent clause (the subject and/or verb are not included) that does not have a clear connection to a word. Examples: Dangling: [Reading each magazine article,] the stories caught my attention. Corrected: Reading each magazine article, [I] was entertained by the stories. In this example, the word [stories] cannot be modified by [Reading each magazine article.] People can read, but stories cannot read. So, the pronoun [I] is needed for the modifying phrase [Reading each magazine article.] Dangling: Since childhood, my grandparents have visited me for Christmas. Corrected: Since childhood, I have been visited by my grandparents for Christmas. In this example, the dependent adverb clause [Since childhood] cannot modify grandparents. So, the pronoun [I] is needed for the modifying adverb clause.
Discuss noun clauses.
A noun clause is a dependent clause that can be used as a subject, object, or complement. Noun clauses can begin with how, that, what, whether, which, who, or why. These words can also come with an adjective clause. Remember that the entire clause makes a noun or an adjective clause, not the word that starts a clause. So, be sure to look for more than the word that begins the clause. To show a clear connection to the independent clause, be sure that a noun clause comes after the verb. The exception is when the noun clause is the subject of the sentence. Examples: The fact [that you were alone] alarms me. [What you learn from each other] depends on your honesty with others.
Discuss sentence fragments and how to correct them.
A part of a sentence should not be treated like a complete sentence. A sentence must be made of at least one independent clause. An independent clause has a subject and a verb. Remember that the independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. Some fragments are independent clauses that begin with a subordinating word (e.g., as, because, so, etc.). Other fragments may not have a subject, a verb, or both. A sentence fragment can be repaired in several ways. One way is to put the fragment with a neighbor sentence. Another way is to be sure that punctuation is not needed. You can also turn the fragment into a sentence by adding any missing pieces. Sentence fragments are allowed for writers who want to show off their art. However, for your exam, sentence fragments are not allowed. Fragment: Because he wanted to sail for Rome. Correct: He dreamed of Europe because he wanted to sail for Rome.
Define a phrase.
A phrase is not a complete sentence. So, a phrase cannot be a statement and cannot give a complete thought. Instead, a phrase is a group of words that can be used as a noun, adjective, or adverb in a sentence. Phrases strengthen sentences by adding explanation or renaming something.
Discuss split infinitives.
A split infinitive is when something comes between the word to and the verb that pairs with to. Incorrect: To [clearly] explain | To [softly] sing Correct: To explain [clearly] | To sing [softly]
Discuss verbals and verbal phrases.
A verbal looks like a verb, but it is not used as a verb. Instead, a verbal is used as a noun, adjective, or adverb. Be careful with verbals. They do not replace a verb in a sentence. Correct: Walk a mile daily. ([Walk] is the verb of this sentence. As in, "[You] walk a mile daily.") Incorrect: To walk a mile. ([To walk] is a type of verbal. But, verbals cannot be a verb for a sentence.) A verbal phrase is a verb form that does not function as the verb of a clause. There are three major types of verbal phrases: participial, gerund, and infinitive phrases.
Discuss adjective clauses.
An adjective clause is a dependent clause that modifies nouns and pronouns. Adjective clauses begin with a relative pronoun (who, whose, whom, which, and that) or a relative adverb (where, when, and why). Also, adjective clauses come after the noun that the clause needs to explain or rename. This is done to have a clear connection to the independent clause. Examples: I learned the reason [why I won the award.] This is the place [where I started my first job.] An adjective clause can be an essential or nonessential clause. An essential clause is very important to the sentence. Essential clauses explain or define a person or thing. Nonessential clauses give more information about a person or thing. However, they are not necessary to the sentence. Examples: Essential: A person [who works hard at first] can rest later in life. Nonessential: Neil Armstrong, [who walked on the moon,] is my hero
Discuss adverb clauses.
An adverb clause is a dependent clause that modifies verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. To show a clear connection to the independent clause, put the adverb clause immediately before or after the independent clause. An adverb clause can start with after, although, as, as if, before, because, if, since, so, so that, unless, when, where, or while. Examples: [When you walked outside,] I called the manager. I want to go with you [unless you want to stay.]
Discuss apostrophes and give examples of their use in a sentence.
An apostrophe is used to show possession or the deletion of letters in contractions. An apostrophe is not needed with the possessive pronouns his, hers, its, ours, theirs, whose, and yours. Singular Nouns: David's car | a book's theme | my brother's board game Plural Nouns with -s: the scissors' handle | boys' basketball Plural Nouns without -s: Men's department | the people's adventure
Discuss appositives and appositive phrases.
An appositive is a word or phrase that is used to explain or rename nouns or pronouns. In a sentence they can be noun phrases, prepositional phrases, gerund phrases, or infinitive phrases. Examples: Terriers, [hunters at heart,] have been dressed up to look like lap dogs. (The phrase [hunters at heart] renames the noun terriers.) His plan, [to save and invest his money,] was proven as a safe approach. (The parenthesis infinitive phrase renames the plan.) Appositive phrases can be essential or nonessential. An appositive phrase is essential if the person, place, or thing being described or renamed is too general. Essential: Two Founding Fathers [George Washington and Thomas Jefferson] served as presidents. Nonessential: George Washington and Thomas Jefferson, [two Founding Fathers,] served as presidents.
Discuss how collective nouns and the words who, which, and that as a subject can be a problem for subject-verb agreement.
Collective Nouns The family eats at the restaurant every Friday night. (The members of the family are one at the restaurant.) The team are leaving for their homes after the game. (The members of the team are leaving as individuals to go to their own homes.) Who, Which, and That as Subject This is the man that is helping me today. He is a good man who serves others before himself. This painting which is hung over the couch is very beautiful.
Discuss direct and indirect objects.
Direct Objects A direct object is a noun that takes or receives the action of a verb. Remember: a complete sentence does not need a direct object. A sentence needs only a subject and a verb. When you are looking for a direct object, find the verb and ask who or what. Example: I took the blanket. (Who or what did I take? The blanket) Jane read books. (Who or what does Jane read? Books) Indirect Objects An indirect object is a word or group of words that show how an action had an influence on someone or something. If there is an indirect object in a sentence, then you always have a direct object in the sentence. When you are looking for the indirect object, find the verb and ask to/for whom or what. Examples: We taught the old dog a new trick. (To/For Whom or What was taught? The old dog) I gave them a math lesson. (To/For Whom or What was given? Them)
Discuss subjects and how they can be directly stated or implied in a sentence.
Every sentence has two things: a subject and a verb. The subject of a sentence names who or what the sentence is all about. The subject may be directly stated in a sentence, or the subject may be the implied you. In imperative sentences, the verb's subject is understood (e.g., |You| Run to the store). So, the subject may not be in the sentence. Normally, the subject comes before the verb. However, the subject comes after the verb in sentences that begin with There are or There was. Direct: John knows the way to the park. (Who knows the way to the park? Answer: John) By five o' clock, Bill will need to leave. (Who needs to leave? Answer: Bill) Remember: The subject can come after the verb. There are five letters on the table for him. (What is on the table? Answer: Five letters) There were coffee and doughnuts in the house. (What was in the house? Answer: Coffee and doughnuts) Implied: Go to the post office for me. (Who is going to the post office? Answer: You are.) Come and sit with me, please? (Who needs to come and sit? Answer: You do.)
Discuss predicates.
In a sentence, you always have a predicate and a subject. A predicate is what remains when you have found the subject. The subject tells what the sentence is about, and the predicate explains or describes the subject. Think about the sentence: He sings. In this sentence, we have a subject (He) and a predicate (sings). This is all that is needed for a sentence to be complete. Would we like more information? Of course, we would like to know more. However, if this all the information that you are given, you have a complete sentence. Now, let's look at another sentence: John and Jane sing on Tuesday nights at the dance hall. What is the subject of this sentence? Answer: John and Jane. What is the predicate of this sentence? Answer: Everything else in the sentence besides John and Jane.
Discuss participles and participial phrases.
Participles - A participle is a verbal that is used as an adjective. The present participle always ends with -ing. Past participles end with -d, -ed, -n, or -t. Examples: Verb: dance | Present Participle: dancing | Past Participle: danced Participial phrases are made of a participle and any complements or modifiers. Often, they come right after the noun or pronoun that they modify. Examples: [Shipwrecked on an island,] the boys started to fish for food. [Having been seated for five hours,] we got out of the car to stretch our legs. [Praised for their work,] the group accepted the first-place trophy.
Discuss the rules for using other punctuation marks with quotation marks.
Periods and commas are put inside quotation marks. Colons and semicolons are put outside the quotation marks. Question marks and exclamation points are placed inside quotation marks when they are part of a quote. When the question or exclamation mark goes with the whole sentence, the mark is left outside of the quotation marks. Examples: Period and comma: We read "The Gift of the Magi," "The Skylight Room," and "The Cactus." Semicolon: They watched "The Nutcracker"; then, they went home. Exclamation mark that is a part of a quote: The crowd cheered, "Victory!" Question mark that goes with the whole sentence: Is your favorite short story "The Tell-Tale Heart"?
Discuss personal pronouns and the subjective, objective, and possessive case of pronouns.
Personal pronouns - Some pronouns change their form by their placement in a sentence. A pronoun that is a subject in a sentence comes in the subjective case. Pronouns that serve as objects appear in the objective case. Finally, the pronouns that are used as possessives appear in the possessive case. Subjective case: [He] is coming to the show. (The pronoun [He] is the subject of the sentence.) Objective case: Josh drove [him] to the airport. (The pronoun [him] is the object of the sentence.) Possessive case: The flowers are [mine.] (The pronoun [mine] shows ownership of the flowers.)
Discuss prepositional phrases and give some examples.
Prepositional Phrases - A phrase that can be found in many sentences is the prepositional phrase. A prepositional phrase begins with a preposition and ends with a noun or pronoun that is used as an object. Normally, the prepositional phrase works as an adjective or an adverb. Examples: The picnic is [on the blanket.] [Among the many flowers,] a four-leaf clover was found by John.
Discuss pronoun-antecedent agreement and give examples of singular and plural agreement.
Pronoun - antecedent agreement - The antecedent is the noun that has been replaced by a pronoun. A pronoun and the antecedent agree when they are singular or plural. Singular agreement: John came into town, and he played for us. (The word He replaces John.) Plural agreement: John and Rick came into town, and they played for us. (The word They replaces John and Rick.)
Discuss pronoun reference.
Pronoun reference - A pronoun should point clearly to the antecedent. Here is how a pronoun reference can be unhelpful if it is not directly stated or puzzling. Unhelpful: Ron and Jim went to the store, and he bought soda. (Who bought soda? Ron or Jim?) Helpful: Jim went to the store, and he bought soda. (The sentence is clear. Jim bought the soda.)
Discuss the rule for end punctuation with question marks and exclamation marks.
Question Marks Question marks should be used following a direct question. A polite request can be followed by a period instead of a question mark. Direct Question: What is for lunch today? | How are you? | Why is that the answer? Polite Requests: Can you please send me the item tomorrow. | Will you please walk with me on the track. Exclamation Marks Exclamation marks are used after a word group or sentence that shows much feeling or has special importance. Exclamation marks should not be overused. They are saved for proper exclamatory interjections. Examples: We're going to the finals! | You have a beautiful car! | That's crazy!
Discuss the rule for using quotation marks around the titles of short works and the rule for using quotation marks to set off words that are being used in a different way from a dictionary definition.
Quotation marks should be used around the titles of short works: newspaper and magazine articles, poems, short stories, songs, television episodes, radio programs, and subdivisions of books or web sites. Examples: "Rip van Winkle" (short story by Washington Irving) "O Captain! My Captain!" (poem by Walt Whitman) Quotation marks may be used to set off words that are being used in a different way from a dictionary definition. Also, they can be used to highlight irony. Examples: The boss warned Frank that he was walking on "thin ice." (Frank is not walking on real ice. Instead, Frank is being warned to avoid mistakes.) The teacher thanked the young man for his "honesty." (Honesty and truth are not always the same thing. In this example, the quotation marks around honesty show that the teacher does not believe the young man's explanation.)
Discuss run-on sentences and how to correct them.
Run-on sentences are independent clauses that have not been joined by a conjunction. When two or more independent clauses appear in one sentence, they must be joined in one of these ways: 1. Correction with a comma and a coordinating conjunction. Incorrect: I went on the trip and I had a good time. Correct: I went on the trip, and I had a good time. 2. Correction with a semicolon, a colon, or a dash. Used when independent clauses are closely related and their connection is clear without a coordinating conjunction. Incorrect: I went to the store and I bought some eggs. Correct: I went to the store; I bought some eggs. 3. Correction by separating sentences. This correction may be used when both independent clauses are long. Also, this can be used when one sentence is a question and one is not. Incorrect: The drive to New York takes ten hours it makes me very tired. Correct: The drive to New York takes ten hours. So, I become very tired. 4. Correction by changing parts of the sentence. One way is to turn one of the independent clauses into a phrase or subordinate clause. Incorrect: The drive to New York takes ten hours it makes me very tired. Correct: During the ten-hour drive to New York, I become very tired.
Discuss how nouns that are plural in form and singular in meaning can be a problem for subject-verb agreement.
Some nouns that are singular in meaning but plural in form: news, mathematics, physics, and economics The news is coming on now. Mathematics is my favorite class. Some nouns that are plural in meaning: athletics, gymnastics, scissors, and pants Do these pants come with a shirt? The scissors are for my project. Note: There are more nouns in plural form and are singular in meaning than plural in meaning. Look to your dictionary for help when you don't know about the meaning of a verb. Addition, Multiplication, Subtraction, and Division are normally singular. One plus one is two. Three times three is nine.
Discuss double negatives.
Standard English allows two negatives when a positive meaning is intended. For example, "The team was not displeased with their performance." Double negatives that are used to emphasize negation are not part of Standard English. Negative modifiers (e.g., never, no, and not) should not be paired with other negative modifiers or negative words (e.g., none, nobody, nothing, or neither). The modifiers hardly, barely, and scarcely are also considered negatives in Standard English. So, they should not be used with other negatives.
Discuss complete subjects and how to find them in a sentence.
The complete subject has the simple subject and all of the modifiers. To find the complete subject, ask Who or What and insert the verb to complete the question. The answer is the complete subject. To find the simple subject, remove all of the modifiers in the complete subject. When you can find the subject of a sentence, you can correct many problems. These problems include sentence fragments and subject-verb agreement. Examples: The small red car is the one that he wants for Christmas. (The complete subject is the small red car.) The young artist is coming over for dinner. (The complete subject is the young artist.)
Describe the four major types of sentence structure
The four major types of sentence structure are: 1. Simple sentences: Simple sentences have one independent clause with no subordinate clauses. A simple sentence may contain compound elements—a compound subject, verb, or object, for example—but does not contain more than one full sentence pattern. 2. Compound sentences: Compound sentences are composed of two or more independent clauses with no subordinate clauses. The independent clauses are usually joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon. 3. Complex sentences: A complex sentence is composed of one independent clause with one or more dependent clauses. 4. Compound-complex sentences: A compound-complex sentence contains at least two independent clauses and at least one subordinate clause. Sometimes they contain two full sentence patterns that can stand alone. When each independent clause contains a subordinate clause, this makes the sentence both compound and complex.
Discuss hyphens and give examples of their use in a sentence.
The hyphen is used to separate compound words. The following are the rules for hyphens: 1. Compound numbers come with a hyphen Example: This team needs twenty-five points to win the game. 2. Fractions need a hyphen if they are used as an adjective Correct: The recipe says that we need a three-fourths cup of butter. Incorrect: One-fourth of the road is under construction. 3. Compound words used as adjectives that come before a noun need a hyphen Correct: The well-fed dog took a nap. Incorrect: The dog was well-fed for his nap. 4. To avoid confusion with some words, use a hyphen Examples: semi-irresponsible | Re-collect |Re-claim
Discuss independent and dependent clauses.
There are two groups of clauses: independent and dependent. Unlike phrases, a clause has a subject and a verb. So, what is the difference between a clause that is independent and one that is dependent? An independent clause gives a complete thought. A dependent clause does not share a complete thought. Instead, a dependent clause has a subject and a verb, but it needs an independent clause. Subordinate (i.e., dependent) clauses look like sentences. They may have a subject, a verb, and objects or complements. They are used within sentences as adverbs, adjectives, or nouns. Examples: Independent Clause: I am running outside. (The sentence has a subject [I] and a verb [am running.]) Dependent Clause: I am running [because I want to stay in shape.] The clause [I am running] is an independent clause. The parenthesis clause is dependent. Remember: a dependent clause does not give a complete thought. Think about the dependent clause: [because I want to stay in shape.] Without any other information, you think: So, you want to stay in shape. What are you are doing to stay in shape? Answer: [I am running.]
Discuss how to know the correct pronoun for a compound subject.
To know the correct pronoun for a compound subject, try each pronoun separately with the verb. Your knowledge of pronouns will tell you which one is correct. Example: Bob and (I, me) will be going. (Answer: Bob and I will be going.) Test: (1) I will be going or (2) Me will be going. The second choice cannot be correct because me is not used as a subject of a sentence. Instead, me is used as an object.
Discuss how the words or and nor can be a problem for subject-verb agreement.
Today or tomorrow is the day. (Subject: Today / tomorrow. Verb: is) Stan or Phil wants to read the book. (Subject: Stan / Phil. Verb: wants) Neither the books nor the pen is on the desk. (Subject: Books / Pen. Verb: was) Either the blanket or pillows arrive this afternoon. (Subject: Blanket / Pillows. Verb: arrive) Note: Singular subjects that are joined with the conjunction or need a singular verb. However, when one subject is singular and another is plural, you make the verb agree with the closer subject. The example about books and the pen has a singular verb because the pen (singular subject) is closer to the verb.
Discuss subject-verb agreement and give examples of number and person agreement.
Verbs agree with their subjects in number. In other words, singular subjects need singular verbs. Plural subjects need plural verbs. Singular is for one person, place, or thing. Plural is for more than one person, place, or thing. Subjects and verbs must also agree in person: first, second, or third. The present tense ending -s is used on a verb if its subject is third person singular; otherwise, the verb takes no ending. Number Agreement Examples: Single Subject and Verb: Dan calls home. (Dan is one person. So, the singular verb calls is needed.) Plural Subject and Verb: Dan and Bob call home. (More than one person needs the plural verb call.) Person Agreement Examples: First Person: I am walking. Second Person: You are walking. Third Person: He is walking.
Discuss the use of the words who and whom.
Who or whom - Who, a subjective-case pronoun, can be used as a subject. Whom, an objective case pronoun, can be used as an object. The words who and whom are common in subordinate clauses or in questions. Subject: He knows who wants to come. (Who is the subject of the verb wants.) Object: He knows whom we want at the party. (Whom is the object of we want.)
Discuss how words between subject and verb and compound subjects can be a problem for subject-verb agreement.
Words between Subject and Verb The joy of my life returns home tonight. (Singular Subject: joy. Singular Verb: returns) The phrase of my life does not influence the verb returns. The question that still remains unanswered is "Who are you?" (Singular Subject: question. Singular Verb: is) Don't let the phrase "that still remains..." trouble you. The subject questions goes with is. Compound Subjects You and Jon are invited to come to my house. (Plural Subject: You and Jon. Plural Verb: are) The pencil and paper belong to me. (Plural Subject: pencil and paper. Plural Verb: belong)