Hist289t Exam 3

Rational Choice Theory

A theory utilized by Rodney Stark where he believe religion results from the acquisitive tendencies of human beings with desires living in a finite world (Alles , 85). Gregory Alles analysis of Rodney Stark's belief asserts that humans attempt to make rational choice within the limits of their information and understanding and guided by their preferences and tastes.

Ibn Ishaq

Born in Medina; 704 CE- 767 CE. Was an arab author who became an authority on the prophet muhammad's campaigns in Medina. His work was to describe the early biography of Muhammad but it was edited by Ibn Hisham for not always including enough information in naming the chain of authorities. Thus, his citations are extant due to the difficulty of reconstructing the exact language of Ibn Ishaq. Significance- provides context to why further research must be done into the historicity of the biography of Muhammad. Authorizing strategy used by Muhammad's followers as Ibn Ishaq tried to use authorizing transmission to recount details of Muhammad's early biography further showing traditions of the prophet are authentic and authoritative.

Medina

City in western Arabia to which the Prophet Muhammad and his followers emigrated (hijra) in 622 to escape persecution in Mecca. City is characteristically monotheistic with a heavily Jewish population. Location of the Constitution of Medina where Muhammad established the umma. The location of several battles with tribes from mecca. Significance- provides context to how Muhammad was able to successfully develop a following in a city that did directly oppose his preaching. provides context to how Muhammad was able to establish the umma since he had much authority in Medina. Muhammad uses his following from Medina to cleanse Mecca of Ka'ba polytheistic beliefs thus establishing a unified islamic rule of western arabia.

Mecca

City in western Arabia; birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad, and ritual center of the Islamic religion. Primarily a shrine-city in which it served as a trade-way station and pilgrimage site, whose cultic structure was the Ka'ba. During the time of Muhammad, the city is traditionally believed to have polytheistic religions and was dominated by the Quraysh clan. While Muhammad is spreading Islam after experience revelations and with having authority for setting the black stone, he faced opposition by ruling tribes in Mecca. Quraysh tribe began persecuting followers of Muhammad and eventually he loses protection from Quraysh tribe after his uncle and wife died. He flees mecca in the hijra and develops a following in medina. He then comes back in the conquest of mecca and conquers the pagan idols in the Kaaba, and unites arabia into a single muslim religious culture. significance- provides context to why the city is considered the holiest place in the islamic culture today. provides context to the opposition Muhammad faced and mentioned in the Qur'an i.e the "interlocutors". Also provides context to how Muhammad was able to unify arabia to become solely Islamic.

Miraj

Described in the Sira, this is part of the Night Journey Muhammad takes to Jerusalem guided by Gabriel, where Muhammad ascended to heaven. He placed in the lowest level of Heaven where he sees the family of Pharaoh, then to the second level where he finds Jesus and John, to the third level where he sees Joseph, and eventually to the seventh level where he sees Abraham and finally meets God after Abraham. Signifcance- serves as authorizing strategy in that he thought to meet many other prophets before him tracing the chain of prophets till the beginning. Provides context to the belief of Muhammad having a spiritual connection to God and further develops the authenticity of Muhammad by connecting him to other prophets from different religions. Helps us understand how he had authority since he was thought to reach heaven and meet God.

Constitution of Medina

In 622 AD/BC , document drawn by Muhammad. constituted a formal agreement between Muhammad and all of the significant clans of Medina. The document was drawn up to bring an end the bitter inter-tribal fighting between the clans. instituted a number of rights and responsibilities for the Muslim, Jewish, and pagan communities of Medina bringing them within the fold of one community—the Ummah. Significance- The constitution formed the basis of a multi-religious Islamic State in Medina. It demonstrated Muhammad's authority because he was the one came up with formal agreement. Helps us understand that there was a conflict of competing religions (monotheistic) during the time of Muhammad. Reveals that tensions between Muslims and Jews may have not been as bad as we thought since Jewish population was included in the Constitution of Medina.

Splitting of the moon

In the Qur'an verses 54:1-2, the splitting of the moon is described by Uri Rubin as an eschatological sign or historical miracle experienced by Muhammad where the moon appears to be split. Muhammad is thought of as a warner and announcer of good tidings/eschatological signs. In post-quranic texts such as the Tafsir, Muhammad is thought to produce miraculous sign of a split moon on demand. Furthermore, Tafsir's confirmation that he saw the moon split and he could see Mt. Hira between its halves which imbues Mecca with sacredness. These post qur'anic texts claim Muhammad's miracle of producing a split moon is superior to all other miracles by other prophets. Significance- provides context to the authority of Muhammad and how he was thought to produce apocalyptic signs of judgement by God. Provides context as to which why Mecca is the holiest place in Islamic culture. Helps us understand why believers thought of Muhammad as transformed messenger to a superhuman figure as the splitting of the moon serves as an authorizing discourse that enhances Muhammad's credibility and authority. Splitting of the moon is an authorizing strategy by Muhammad and his followers as the event uses authorizing transmission to chain witnesses of the miracle thus establishing its authenticity. Theme of an unknown judgement hour is also in the Christian New Testament which further develop Muhammad's authority since the idea of an apocalypse garners authority.

Himyar

Kingdom in Arabia in Late Antiquity considered Yemen from 115 AD to 525 AD. Consisted of monotheistic religions such as Judaism and Christianity. Typically considered a Jewish kingdom from the Jewish diaspora. Establishment of Axumite (Christian, allies of Sasanids) control of Himyar and eventually Sasanian's take direct control over the area. This area has byzantine (roman) influence along western arabia, and Sasanian influence on south zone close to the persian gulf. significance: provides context to presence of Jews and Christians in Arabia during Late Antiquity which is the time of Muhammad, thus the historicity of the constitution of Medina which included Jews and Christians is more concrete. Furthermore, provides context to the influence of competing empires in or near Arabia.

Ka'ba

Most revered religious shrine in pre-Islamic Arabia; located in Mecca; thought to house pagan idols worshiped by local tribes in Mecca such as Quraysh. Reason why Muhammad had to flee Mecca from persecution by polytheists. Eventually Muhammad conquers the Mecca and Ka'ba and a pilgrimage to Ka'ba is established around 628-629. Polytheists are cleansed from the Ka'ba and this site becomes Islams' most sacred site as it thought to be built by Abraham as a monotheistic house of worship. It becomes the metaphorical house of God. significance- provides context to the conflict between polytheists who worshiped pagan idols in Mecca and Muhammad and his followers. Provides context to why believers of Islam have a pilgrimage to Ka'ba to pray to God. Provides context to why the Ka'ba is considered a monotheistic house of worship since it was once was the shrine for polytheists of Mecca. Help understand why Muhammad has authority since he was the one to cleanse the Ka'ba of polytheism.

Isra

Muhammad's night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem. Talked about the in Sira and in the Qur'an, Muhammad is thought to be accompanied by the angel Gabriel in his journey to Jerusalem where he prayed with Abraham, Moses, and Jesus. The isra is thought to be a journey or a vision since in the Sira the Muhammad's journey is referred to as "a true vision from God". Significance- Serves as an authorizing transmission since in the Sira, the accounts of the Isra are based on a chain of authorities dating back to the original witness of the journey. Provides context to how Muhammad and his followers tried to establish the tradition of the prophet praying with other prophets (Jesus, Abraham, and Moses) as authoritative and authentic. Also could be considered an authorizing discourse since Muhammad is placed in the tradition of the prophets within Jewish and Christian prophetic tradition and at the site of the temple, which is where the Dome of Rock is.

Polytheists (Qur'an)

Polytheists are considered interlocutors in the Qur'an. Mentioned in the Qur'an, believers of false idols or the practice of polytheism is unforgivable and sinful. Revisionist view sees that polytheists in the Qur'an were Christians who idolized Jesus and angels which is forbid. significance- provides context to why Muhammad had to flee Mecca to Medina which is known as the hijra. Provides context to why the Ka'ba needed to be cleansed from polytheism since the Qu'ran which is thought to be revealed to Muhammad during his lifetime, forbids the practice of polytheism. Also provides context that the presence of polytheism in Arabia during late antiquity was an issue for Muhammad to overcome.

Hadith

Short reports of what Muhammad said or did. Incorporates isnad to provide context to who is transmitting the accounts of Muhammad. Most of early sources of Muhammad's biography are in the form of hadith. They explicate Islamic law and teaching and are typically transmitted orally. Significance- provide context to how Muhammad's biography was developed and helps us understand which sources explain and develop Islamic law and practice. Example of authorizing strategy the utilizes authorizing transmission to establish Muhammad's authority and the authenticity of the prophets traditions by using a chain of authorities to relate Muhammad to the authors describing what Muhammad said or did.

Abd al-Malik

a Muslim ruler who became caliph from 685 to 705 AD and made Arabic the official language of government in all Muslim lands. He put emphasis on the prophet by installing the Dome of Rock and minting coins with arabic inscriptions . He excluded Jews/Christians from the umma. The dome of rock was to signify Islam's triumph over Judaism and Christianity. significance- provided context to the divide in peace between Islam and Judaism/Christianity. Arabic becomes the dominant language associated with Muhammad and Islam. The culture of the Iranian Plateau is dominated by Arabs which provides context to the why Arabic is the main language of the Iranian Plateau today. Defined islam as submission. Helped further authorize Muhammad as the final prophet in the Islamic tradition.

Patricia Crone

a historian and member of the Revisionist school of Islamic studies and she questioned the historicity of the Islamic traditions about the beginnings of Islam. She disputed that Islam was spread by conquest instead of the assumption that it spread through trade from Mecca. She also believed Muhammad was perceived as a preacher in the old testament tradition of the coming of a messiah instead of a founder of a new religion. Preached that Muhammad's success is reliant on the fact that he preached for state formation and conquest. She considered Mecca to be "virgin territory" and the opponents at Mecca to Muhammad could not have agriculturalists like they called in the Qur'an significance- makes us consider the historicity of the spread of islam, did it spread through trade or through conquest? Provides context as to why there is constant warfare in the Middle east referring to Muhammad's call to action/conquest in the Qur'an. Makes us consider whether Mecca was strongly polytheistic like in traditional views versus mostly monotheistic in recent questions posed by Crone. From Crone's insights we consider whether the polytheistic religions were in fact competing with the monotheistic religions. The revisionist approach tries to locate context of Qur'an elsewhere; challenging the historicity of islamic traditions.

caliph (khalifa)

defined as a successor or deputy of God. After the death of Muhammad there is conflict about who the successor of the Prophet should be. Abu Bakr emerges as the leader of the believers and engages in the Ridda Wars from 632-634 to gain control over trade routes between Mecca and Roman Syria. Following these wars, according to Sunni tradition the four caliphs following Muhammad are Abu Bakr, Umar I, Uthman, and Ali. There becomes a debate during the mid 8th c. about the qualifications of the caliph and who the successor should be. Thus there becomes a conflict between Shi'ia muslims and Sunni muslims, and by the 9th c. caliphs no longer are involved in making religious law. Once the Abbasid Dynasty the umma changes to distinctly Islamic and Arab identity for rule. Significance- provides context as to which how the Islamic law is determined after the death of Muhammad. Shows why there is still conflict in the muslim community as there is still a divide between who should be the caliph after muhammad. provides context to the debate about leadership after muhammad's death and how it lead to the schism and distinction between Sunnis and Shi'ias.

Authorizing strategies

how tradition creates an authoritative image of a prophetic figure generations after the prophet's life. As it applies to the prophet Muhammad, these authorizing strategies give content of Muhammad's teaching authority, help locate Muhammad within a sacred history of prophets of Judaism and Christianity, specifically appeal to Abraham as a hanif and muslim before Jewish or Christian, and demonstrate authenticity and correctness of Muhammad. These authorizing strategies help fill out the biography by increasing the specification of days and dates. Examples: Splitting of the moon- Muhammad is thought to be a warner and announcer of good tidings which are thought to be eschatological signs which has authority in Late Antiquity times, apocalyptic literature is commonplace, and has authority. Hadith- short reports of what Muhammad said or did introduced by a chain of authorities who transmitted these accounts, provides context to muhammad's biography and islamic law/teaching. Includes authorizing transmission because of the chain of authorities described as "Isnad". Isra or Night Journey in the Qur'an/Sira: serves as authorizing discourse as Muhammad is placed in the tradition of prophets within Jewish and Christian prophetic tradition (he prays with Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.) Sira includes authorizing transmission by as it takes the form of Hadith including chains of authorities dating back to original recounts of Muhammad's actions, which reinforces his authority.

Abraham

key prophet that reoccurs in many of Muhammad's activities such as the Isra (Night Journey) and Miraj. Thought to be found by Muhammad in his night journey from Mecca to Jerusalem thus establishes the connection between Muhammad and Abraham who is traditionally the Prophet in Judaism. significance- serves as an authorizing strategy since specific appeals to Abraham as a hanif and muslim before Jewish or Christian. By connecting Muhammad to Abraham, Muhammad's authority is developed since Abraham is considered a religious prophet in other traditions. Since Muhammad met Abraham he should have authority since Abraham is among the chain of authority from God. provides context to how Muhammad converted Jews and Christians to Islam.

Believers

referred to as the followers of Muhammad and Islam in the Qur'an. People in arabia of late antiquity who under pagan and monotheistic influences and while under constant presence of the Byzantine and Sasanian Empires chose to follow Muhammad, the founder of Islam (Donner). Believers often were people who once practiced Judaism or Christianity who converted to believing Muhammad and what he preached. Were thought to eventually transition from believers to muslims after Abd al Malik established the umma to not include jews and christians but to only include followers of islam and the prophet. significance- provides context to who the people who followed Muhammad and Islam were. Tells us what Muhammad referred to his followers as. Believers were monotheistic and chose to follow the prophet muhammad even when influenced by other empires with different religions.

Qur'an

the Islamic sacred book, believed to be the word of God as dictated to Muhammad by the archangel Gabriel and written down in Arabic. Thought of as God's final revelation to humanity in Islamic tradition and a work of divine guidance to Muhammad. Revealed over stages of 23 years during Muhammad's lifetime. Significance- serves as authorizing strategy in that it apocalyptic/eschatological in nature which is typical of literature during late antiquity thus it commands authority. Several stories within the Qur'an that give Muhammad authority by relating him to other prophets related to other religions such as Judaism and Christianity. Mentions that interlocutors or people against Muhammad and Islam are Jews, Christians, and polytheists. This helps us understand why the constitution of medina happened. Provides context to historical traditions muslims believe such as the Night journey which is also mentioned in other authorizing works such as the Sira. Splitting of the moon is apocalyptic story in Qur'an that Muhammad preaches to establish his authority since apocalyptic literature is seen as authoritative in Late Antiquity.

isnad

the naming of a chain of authorities stretching back to a witness of an event or saying attributed to the prophet Muhammad or his close followers. Used in the Sira and Hadith which are traditions of the sayings and activities of the prophet Muhammad which become the basis of Islamic law and practice. significance- Serves as an authorizing transmission to show that tradition related to the prophet is authoritative and authentic. Used in sources of biography of the prophet muhammad thus the historicity of traditional beliefs related to muhammad have authenticity or authority.