Latin America Final Exam

Fidel Castro

leader Cuban revolution. wanted nationalism. end interventionism of US in Cuba. wanted economic nationalism and land reform. his gov actions created hostile relations with US who created embargo and tried to overthrow him with Bay of Pigs.

Colonial Legacies

For indigenous, created patterns of social domination that became internal givens. Disease wiped out many indigenous populations and their cultures. Large African population brought over as slaves to work cash crops and mining. Mestizos from colonial men and indigenous women as well as African slaves. As Spanish women came over most mestizos were illegitimate. Forcing Catholicism on indigenous and African peoples creating a now very Catholic area along with religions that have mixed influences. Mixing cultures but mix not deemed correct or good until early 1900s. second class citizens. legacy of conquest and slavery in 1800. hierarchy of race imposed by conquest and slavery and adapted themselves to it. by 1800 most Latin Americans accepted Catholicism and rule of kings. Colonization was social and cultural, even psychological process. Resulting patterns of domination constitute worst product of colonial crucible. Legacy of Patriarchy. Transculturation. • Legacies of Colonialism o Racial heritage for colonialism o Written by Steins couple in 1960s • 1960s shaping way historians look at colonial history in latin america Cold War context lot of concern about foreign influence, soviet influence Emphasis communism is foreign ideology, anxiety about relationsihp between developed world and developing world Civil rights movement In Africa lots of countries becoming independent- decolonization movement • Made think about similarities and differences of decolonization in Latin America Manufacturing boom goes through collapse in post world war II era in Latin America • Relationship between lat am economic and political development Brazilianists- study Brazil o Typical school of thought prominent in 1960s and 1970s • Dependency Theory Idea of keeping colonies dependent on conquerers Keeping colonies weak, limiting access to education, ideas, political power Latin America has been in a dependent position still in 1970s when written • Exporting cotton, metals, tin, sugar • Less valuable in world market than manufactured good • Hasn't been incentive in lat am nations to industrialize • Less economic power in world market so less power politically in global world • Trap hard to get out of o Race • White people from U.S. in time of Civil Rights era, lived in Latin America, geographically specific ideas of race • In Latin America more categories and fluidity, still have racial hierarchy but not two category system • People mixed didn't fall into category and felt misplaced • Mixed race succeed because could adapt to both sides of spectrum -Brazil Never have laws of segregation Racial democracy in comparison to U.S. Multicultural place Not institutional barriers based on race • Partly true • Didn't have to have segregation laws • Racial hierarchy and segregation functions without the law • U.S. and Brazil are two big post slave societies How did race categories and laws become so different? Share so much, why are we now different? • Way we categorize race is specific • Racial hierarchies is different in Latin America • Stein's view is too static focus on metropole and not colony Act as if latin america had no other choice Need Look at how people udnerstood these heritages and perpetuated or fought agaoinst them Need Less european view of latin america Stein view is imperialistic More recent historian view • Think about colonial instutions were important and shaped what happened next • Patterns of Settlement- help understand modern latin America o Spanish major interest in Mexico and Peru • Silver mines • Access to labor since sedentary so large civilizations survive o Portugal interest northeast Brazil • Sugar plantations • Semi-sedentary people so less access to labor so brought in lots of slaves • Easiest place to get to africa from Big influence in Africa for long time • Dependency theory No printing press, elite have to go to portugal for higher education, trade restriction • Political legacies o Viceroyalty • Emphasis most of governing done by people of Spanish birth Create distinction between Creole and Peninsular Making sure governed by people who have spanish interest o Portugal trying to farm out early colonization so give grants of land to do as they will then start to set up local gov o Spanish govt. more tightly interlaced political system, Latin America more valuable to them than to Portugal o Thought where you are born affects your development at the time • Exposure to tropics make them weaker and more corrupt over generations • Casta painting o Casta- spanish system of categories to divide people into groups • Based on race, quality- social class, economic status, legitimate or illegitimate • Mutable Siblings have same parents but in different casta groups because of skin differences or one gone to school and other didn't o Produced in latin america for people back in Spain to understand racial mixture • Who marries who and what type of child will get and what casta they will be a part of o Race is destiny • Mestizo person will be capable of learning but timid • Racial sterotypes o Paintings trying to naturalize hierarchy of difference by showing this is the way it is o Documents to understand complex racial hierarchies in colonial era o Document purchase legitimacy -purchase whiteness • Important for social mobility • Economic, political, social conditions important how they see themselves, post colonial, independence fighting

Liberalism

cluster of political ideas, emphasizing liberties of various civil, political, and economic kinds. focused on European and later US models. 1850-1880.

Herbert Matthews

• By this time US press turned on Bautista ○ Go from patronizing but not critical to • Herbert Matthews and reporting on Castro ○ In awe of Castro in beginning, dramatic writing, awe of his presence ○ Awe of charisma of castro, pro- Castro tone ○ Bautista seen as dictator controlling army forcing Castro to hide- villain in US media • Shift in tone US Media ○ Optimistic when Castro starts to come to power ○ Interviewed by Ed Harrison show 1959

"Good Neighbor Policy"

FDR end to interventionalist policies. 1930s. improved relations between US and LAtin America majorly. ended being protectorate of Cuba and Panama.

Diaspora

African Diaspora movement of the population from its original homeland.[2][3] Diaspora has come to refer particularly to historical mass dispersions of an involuntary nature, such as the expulsion of Jews from Judea, the African Trans-Atlantic slave trade,During the Atlantic Slave Trade, 9.4 to 12 million people from North, West, West-Central and South-east Africa survived transportation to arrive in the Western Hemisphere as slaves.[28] This population and their descendants were major influences on the culture of English, French, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish New World colonies. Prior to the trans-Atlantic slave trade, millions of Africans had moved and settled as merchants, seamen and slaves in different parts of Asia and Europe. In Black Europe and the African Diaspora Alexander Weheliye (2009) writes a section and clearly explains diaspora this way: "Diaspora offers pathways that retrace laverings of difference in the aftermath of colonialism and slavery, as well as the effects of other forms of migration and displacement. Thus, diaspora enables the desedimentation of the nation from the 'interior' by taking into account the groups that fail to comply with the reigning definition of the people as a cohesive political subject due to sharing one culture, one race, one language, one religion, and so on, and from the 'exterior' by drawing attention to the movements that cannot be contained by the nation's administrative and ideological borders"The African diaspora refers to the communities throughout the world that are descended from the historic movement of peoples from Africa, predominantly to the Americas, Europe, Asia, and the Middle East, among other areas around the globe. The term has been historically applied in particular to the descendants of the West and Central Africans who were enslaved and shipped to the Americas by way of the Atlantic slave trade, with the largest population in Brazil despite some misconceptions (see Afro-Brazilian), followed by the USA[1] and others.[2] However, African Diaspora discourse and scholarship is changing in recent years to include various other populations of African descent who have been displaced and dispersed due to enslavement, genocide, and other global forces. As such, theories about mythical homelands, collective memory, the experience of racism, and the emergence of Pan-African sentiment are common among notions about the African Diaspora. In the contemporary moment, the ever-increasing demand for labor accounts for the ongoing displacement of Africans.[3] Although four circulatory phases[4] of migration out of Africa has been identified to talk about the African Diaspora, other scholars have entertained the possibility for various forms of diasporization among African-descended people (e.g. McKittrick, 2006). With regard to all historic migrations (forced and voluntary), the African Union defined the African diaspora as "[consisting] of people of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union." Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union."people of African origin living outside the continent, irrespective of their citizenship and nationality and who are willing to contribute to the development of the continent and the building of the African Union." Its constitutive act declares that it shall "invite and encourage the full participation of the African diaspora as an important part of our continent, in the building of the African Union."

Evita Peron

Argentina. wife of populist leader Juan Peron. poor growing up. got womens right to vote, started feminist peronist party, started charitable institutions. helped get popularity of workers and middle class for husband. major influence for popularity. died cancer 1950s. had traditional views of females being in home and mothers and good wives. saw herself as there to support her husband.

Ernesto "Che" Guevara

Argentine Medical studen reached conclusiong of Marxist revolutionaries that lat america needed social revolution. thought poverty was linked to and maintained by imperialist international economic system of awesome power. civtims of system could free themselved by acting together. began to show internationlist vocation by cycling thousands of miles seeing poverty and oppression of indigenoius poeples of andes. participated in inspiring reforms underway in Arbenz's Guatemala. escaped to Mexico when Arbenz fell by US backed army. Che now Marxist revolutionary. met Fidel Castro in Mexico, different kind of revolutioanry, an intense nationalist of Cuba inspired by idealistic, mildy socialist and anti-imperialist themes of student movemtn. togther started Cuban revolution against Batista US backed. invaded on Granma 1956 fought army two years before Batista left when everyone resisted him and supported Castro. dispensed rough justice against dictators henchmen. castro vision of new cuba; revolutionary gov retained hgigh level of popular support. wanted measures against economic imperialism possibly including expropriation of foreign companies and land reform. not communist despite US belief. defeated invaders in Bay of Pigs. cuban military alignment with Russia took shape. Che developed new thoery o fguerill warfare based on Cuban experiene. revolutionary conditions could be created by small committed guerilla groups like theirs. group would establish focal points of guerilla activity to jump start larger revolution. went to bolivia to do that and launched continental revolution but could not get support of peasants. captures and executed 1968. hero throughout latin america for how he died trying. theorist and visionary who believed that for true socialism to function money should be abolished and people should work for ideals. found changes easier to envision than implement.

"Golden Law" 1888

Brazil declares slavery illegal.

La Violencia

Colombia unusual level violence 1940s and 1950s when conflicts erupted across country after assassination of Jorge Eliecer Gaitan famous populist leader. less about politics than about socioeconomic conflict in countryside. terrified people flocked into cities. use of violence increased in petty street crim which rose in cities. violence continued on throughout decades. late 1970s Pablo Escobar started drug cartel mafia selling Marijuana and Cocaine to US increasing violence in Colombia. Medellin cartel. started in the context of lawlessness. rural guerilla armies with roots in la violencia saw themselves as marxist revolutionaries.

Gabriel Garcia Marquez

Colombian novelist. magic realism. fame led him to be able to act as facilitator between Colombian government and guerillas. outspoken views on US imperialism. writes about important political and social issues of Latin America. writes about corruption and injustices of la violencia. García Márquez continues to cast a lengthy shadow in Colombia, Latin America, and the United States. Critical works on the 1982 Nobel laureate have reached industrial proportion and show no signs of abating. Moreover, García Márquez has galvanized Colombian literature in an unprecedented way by giving a tremendous impetus to Colombian literature. Indeed, he has become a touchstone for literature and criticism throughout the Americas as his work has created a certain attraction-repulsion among critics and writers while readers continue to devour new publications. No one can deny that García Márquez has helped rejuvenate, reformulate, and recontextualize literature and criticism in Colombia and the rest of Latin America

Debt Crisis

During 1980s many Latin American countries had struggled to keep up payments on foreign debts. debts had grown huge suddenly thanks to high world oil prices and heavy short-term borrowing in 1970s. Overwhelmed Mexico and Brazil temporarily stopped payments in 1982. as world interest rates rose steeply in 1980s, large short-term loans had to be refinanced at much higher rates. the national debts of latin america mushroomed. their debts were "external" owed mostly to foreign banks. countries that defaulted on their external debts would find themselves internationally bankrupt and isolated. Foreign leaders believed that solution lay in free-market policies in 1990s. they enthusiastically promoted neoliberal policies. to encourage neoliberalism in latin america, foreign leaders gradually "rolled over" external debts into long-term bonds. debts continued to increase in 1990s but now borrowing countries could make the payments. crisis over by end of 1990s.

United Fruit Company

During neocolonial 1880-1939. fruit companies multinatinal corporations. banana empire in Costa Rica, Honduras, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, and Venezuela. Company overmatched governments of small host countries in economic power. made several central American nations into banana republics where it could keep governors, cabinet ministers, presidents in its corporate pockets. acquired milions of acres for plantations and millions to head off possible competition. created company towns filled with US families running area. reserved managerial positions for US. natives for machete work. one company controls most of production. problem focusing on single product if demand goes down or blight on bananas. if pull out, national screwed economically.

Nicaraguan Grand Canal

In most of December gov working on approval of development of grand canal project. Think they have begun preliminary construction but have begun construction without doing any enviornmental reviews. Huge project longer than Panama canal. Without doing environmental review not good. Oversight of gov on that regard. International org coming out against it, huge ecological impact. Studies published saying will affect 4000 square km of preserved wetlands, rainforest, network preserves running along area, 22 endangered list of animal. Risk for oil spills and contamination of lake which is huge source of water supply for Nicaragua and surrounding countries. Huge draw on water resources. Doing it because president sees it as benefit to country drawing tourism and trade. Panama canal is U.S. construction, not Latin American, symbol of US intervention affront to their sovereignty, create canal entirely latin american in origin and larger than panama shows latin america capable of type of works and gov. recent protests around way land was acquired. Company handling construction is Chinese

Descamisados

In the 20th century, it was also used as an insult by the elite of Argentina to describe the followers of Juan Perón, who served as president of Argentina from 1946 until 1955, and then again briefly from 1973 to 1974. The term was later reclaimed as a term of pride, with Juan Perón and his wife Eva Perón affectionately referring to their followers as "descamisados". And during his 1945 campaign for president, Juan Perón toured the country on a train that he named El Descamisado. However, the first usage of the term in the history of Argentina dates back to the 19th century. Tomás de Iriarte described in his memories a time when he was walking with Carlos María de Alvear and found Manuel Dorrego with dirty and broken clothes. Iriarte wrote that "Excusado es decir que esto era estudiado para captarse la multitud, los descamisados."[1] ("Needless to say, this was planned to captivate the multitude, the shirtless.") By most accounts, the term has its modern origins on October 17, 1945, when thousands of supporters of Juan Perón gathered in front of the Casa Rosada making a demonstration to demand Perón's release from prison. While waiting for Perón on this hot day, many men in the crowd removed their shirts—hence the term "shirtless". However, there is much debate among scholars in regards to the origins of the label. Some claim that the word was coined to describe the working poor, the social class from which Perón drew the greatest amount of his political backing, who were so downtrodden that they could not have afforded to buy shirts. Perón's use of the labor unions as a means of consolidating his power lends credibility to the claim.

ISI

Import-substitution industrialization. the creation of domestic industry to provide products previously imported. occured in latin america mostly during mid 1900s encouraged by interruptions fo international trade and by nationalist economic policies. • Economic and political integration effects during time of international crisis ○ Economic boom goes into crisis • Economic strategy followed during period ISI ○ 1913 single product accounted for vast majority of export for vast majority of countries § Leads to uneven level of modernization in countries and regions § Already wealthy landowners getting richer, some merchants, foreign companies, foreigners investing in stock companies coming in and building companies for export business ○ When have shock to internatinoal economy Great Depression 1929 § Export business goes down especially for luxury goods, people buy less especially export since have high taxes § Decrease in demand so prices cut a lot § Govs react quickly and shift trade model to more isolationist away from free trade promote internal development □ Contraction, effort to make sure thinking about needs of own economy rather than world economy § Great Depression export prices fall by half □ Per capita income falls about 1/3 □ Rapid and dramatic effect on wages and development ® Unemployment, bankruptcy § Cut off in market of foreign goods □ Decline importing goods □ Most of things got made by factories made abroad ○ Financially liquidity crisis § Don't have access to enough money to make investments □ No outside investors § Foreign making pay up loans § Interest rate goes up, those cant afford to keep loans have to pay more ○ Dramatic result § Leaders desperate come up with plan § Decide develop national industries instead of looking to foreign for industry § Economies need to be more diversified, cant bank on one product § Need protective economic strategies protect local § Created ISI (1930s-1960s) □ Import Substitution Industrialization ® Plan to get ahead economically, compete more with developed world ® Encourage domestic industries instead of importing so much stuff ® Easiest to implement in places with already some, bigger countries especially ® 2 phases enacted ◊ Easy phase } Look at domestic demand for manufactured product and decide to supply that demand } National market focused on relatively simple industrial goods to be produced } Relatively unskilled labor } Light manufacture- textiles, processed canned foods, soft drinks, beer, soap, paint, pharmaceuticals, construction materials - Create lot of industrial jobs Goes well until 1940s so try to make more durable consumer goods - Requires more tech, more capital investmen, more skilled labor workforce w Cars, machinery to make things, complicated processes } Enforce protectionism - Tariffs foreign goods - Global response - Put resources into local infrastructure - Rural urban immigration w More cheap workers □ Seen as form of economic naitonalism ® Protect local jobs, buy local products □ Successful? ® Complicated ® Short term yes especially in bigger countries or in smaller with higher standard of living before depression ◊ Enduring indsutrial base created ® Long term no- one of ways for company be profitable is expand production over time, if only focused internal market then limited market especially for more expensive goods, not a lot of internal competition no reason to innovate or consumers to make comparative judgement about quality in closed market, over time real competitive advantage is availablity of cheap labor making less money than those doing same job abroad, no one can afford things like a car ® Does well WWII market consumer goods and raw materials does well, as wears down more problematic ◊ US turns economic attention to Europe } 60s and 70s resentment among Latin Americans with Marshal Plan why not one for latin americans, feel their contribution to war effort not recognized • Accompanying political and social consequences ○ Previous old school agricultural elite ○ Now industrial elite ○ Goals not always same § Two rich powerful dynamic elites creates turmoil ○ State becomes key in this § Before absence of state and trouble to consolidate and have enough power § State is key setting themselves up as economic prosperity guarantee § Time rhetoric placed on workers § Rise of unionism § Gov negotiating conditions of labor between workers and factory labors § Greater eocnomic stratification during period □ Even as industrial better off than ag, not transforming into larger middle class ® Partly lack education, lack social mobility

Alliance for Progress

Marshall Plan for latin america 1961. created after Cuba revolution and communistic tendencies. provide aid to latin american countries to keep communist revolutionaries from being able to gain support.

Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna

Mexican famous caudillo and political opportunist. Creole who fought against patriot cause of Hidalgo and Morelos, finally accepted independence with Iturbide and then helped overthrow him making him basically founding father of Mexican republic. During 1830s and 1840s thanks to his influence over army and status as war hreo seemed to install and remove presidents at will. made himself presidents over and over first as liberal and then conservative. opportunism displayed by many caudillos. source public popularity was military victories agains Spainsh invasion of Mexico 1829 and against small French intervasion 1838. keen sense political theater, lost leg famously buried it with full military honors. president during liberal uprising the Reform and left for exile 1855.

NAFTA

North American Free Trade Agreement 1990s. linchpin of Mexican neoliberalism in 1990s with US. day it took effect indigenous rebels calling themselves Zapatistas declared their oppositino to new trade agreement. Mayas from southern vilages. imediate demands relating to agricultural land also broader vision. tarnshished country's open for business image. media savy.

Scientific Racism

Scientific Racism idea of mid 1800s influenced by Europeans, contradiction to liberal equality tinking. race mixture disgrace. use of science to make distinctions between races and show whites superior and more civilized and evolved than darker colored people. idea can look at someone and external look will tell about their character, innate qualities □ As people belong in diff categories based on appearance, most concerned with nature ® How understand people who don't fit into categories

Las Malvinas

also known as Falkand islands. Argentina military government 1982 made desperate bid for nationalist glory by identifying anew external emeny Great Britain. initially got publis cuppor over ilands but backfired when quickly surrendered. 1983 argentina had elections and sent military out of gov.

Creoles

americanos- spain and portugal, the nativist term used during the wars of independence to suggest a natural alliance among all people born in America against the Spanisards and Portuguese. Creole: a person of Spanish descent born in the New World. Brazilians of Portuguese descent tended to be simply called barasileiros. Creoles native born whites were leaders of rebellions for wars of independence. called creoles to distinguish from Iberian born Spaniards and Portuguese called Peninsualres. generally owned the land and much of population lived under thumb of landowners so rest of society generally disliked Creoles more than peninsulars.it was Creoles who feared the social climbing of prosperous people of mixed race and fought to keep them in "their place." majority of Spanish Americans had plenty of reasons to revolt but not particularlly against Peninsulars. Creoles leaders of newly independent coutries in postcolonial but liberal emphasis on governing by liberal principles not easy and its emphasis on legal equality for all citizens had radical disruptive implications in societies that were still fundamentally hierachical.

Nationalism

common philosophy that came out of the European Enlightnement shared throughout Latin American movements for independence.sense of shared history and common identity which was complicated by legacies of conquest and slavery. first created during independence wars to bring people together who otherwise had nothing in common. Second political force after colonialism following liberalism. A political movement dominant in mid 1900s espousing a strong state, national pride, and economic development. Latin American nationalists oppose "imperialist" outside influence. Often, but not always, they show a real commitment to defending the poor majority. Eventually became liberalism's rough opposite. Both emerged together in struggle for Latin Independence. Different in different countries but always built on similar themes and is deeply embeded in region's historical experience. Provided an ideological self-defense against imperialism, a positive force for equality, and an antidote to white supremacy. for nations to be united internally, have to know who they are; need clear and positive sense of national identity. transculturation over 4 centuries gave rise to multitude in differences in speech, in customs in attitudes and process of race mixing created national populations also distinctive. during oclonial difference had negative meaning. nativism in independence but faded. new natinoalism in 1900s was another wave of earlier nativist spirit now with strong economic agenda. nationalists often urban, middle class people, recent immigrants of racially mixed heritage. benefited less than landowners from export boom. elites created glass bubbles of European culture but middle class nationalists didnt fit so committed themselves to larger more ambitious and more inclusive vision of change. shattered neocolnial bubbles, feel pride in industrialization which was goal most desired. nationalism fostered self-respect by positively reinterpreting meaning of Latin American racial and cultural difference. nationalists declared psychological independence from Europe. create style of own. wide appeal beyond middle class urban gave it special power. everybody belonged and benefits of Progress hsould be shared and industrial development a priority offered an important principle of cohesion. critiques of imperialism also provided clear external focus for resentment- foreign intervention both military and monetary and shared enemy is politically useful. rejected premise of white superiority and directed practical attention to neglected matters of public welfare. attracted support of people across social spectrum. celebrates particular historical experience, paticular culture- ethnic nationalism, signs of ethnic identity take on nationalist importance and emphasize idea that race, emphasizes mixed race mestizo identities. racial optimists of neocolonial believed national populations should be whitened over time through immigration and intermarriage. racial pessimists claimed race mixing caused degneration. people of color in majority were to be excluded or phased out from neocolonial vision of future. nationalists celebrated mixing indigenous, European, African genes. each country's unique physical type was adaptation to environment. idea inferior races dying out. nationalism started Mexico with 20th century first great social revolution. Reformers backed presidential candiadte Francisco Madero who became radical and wanted to redistrubute land. Emiliano Zapata indigenous leader allied uprising with Madiro's national movement. Mexico full of revolutionaries with different goals. Madero tried tor rule but removed by general and assassinated. upheaval 1914-1920 armies fighting. Pancho Villa built army of former cowboys, miners, railroad workers. third movement better-connected more urban middle class finally gained upper hand drafted new revolutionary constitution 1917. Constitutionalists typical of nationalist core constituency throught were winners of revolution. Constitution showed strong nationalist inspiration. reclaim all mineral rights from forieng companies, helped start villages recover common lands, great estates subdivided and distributed to landless peasants. protections of wage and hour laws, pensions, and social benefits and right to unionize and strike. limited privileges of foreigners and curbed rights of Catholic Church. urban based and urban-oriented. only in mexico, where peasants in arms helped make a revolution, did naitonalism transform rural society too.

Dilma Rousseff

first woman and current president of brazil. public cynicism towards politicians right now. 9 major parties to satisfy have to have a lot of money to pour to get support

Cuban Embargo

response after Cuba kicked out US companies and land owners. lasted for 60 years.

Machismo

strong or aggressive masculine pride

Guevara's The Motorcycle Diaries

○ Central take away Motorcycle Diaries § Starting to get ideas of what fighting for in future § Ideological revolution- hes supposed to embody ideological revolution, represents it, his transformation § Understanding story tell about his politicization makes sense to reader § Coming of age story accessible to larger audience

Historiography

○ Study of writings, sources and interpreting them ○ Study of secondary source literature ○ Like literature review ○ Look at key schools of thought on history § Change over time § Dominant view shapes the work

Remittances

money sent home by immigrants

Liberation theology

1960s radical priests wanted fundamental change in economic, social, and political structures. Conference of Latin American bishops held meeint 1968 agreeing church should take a preferential option for the poor and discussed formation of christian base communities in which believers would gather to read and discuss the Bible. talked about liberating people from institutionalized violence of poverty. begun to see hunger, ignorance, and disease as preventable damage to lives. govs that failed to prevent damage were committing institutionalized violence. victims saw damage as inevitable of being poor. consciousness raising in christian base communities could unmask institutionalized violence and strip away its naturalness. catholic teachings designed to undermine rather than reinforce ancient patterns of hierarchy and hegemony. liberation theology became general name for movement that had crystallized at 1968 conference. immediately stirred enormous interest for and against. conservatives called it communism. did believe latam needed sweeping fundamental change. equally committed to relieving the plight of poor. never majority in catholic church. lost momentum 1980s. § Small christian based communities □ Interest in education and people being able to read Gospel themselved instead just being read to them □ Participation non-elites ® Vatican II 1962-1965 ◊ Response to social critique, helping poor, communism anticlerical § Risk, political activism component, issue being called communism § Struggle identity and words bible □ Grasp bible and fit new understanding in their lives ® Dichotemy those who want change and look to che and those stuck in old ways □ New identity based on faith, fundamental new personalized § Not just making bible more accessible but also increasing literacy rates § Old religion respecting and not questioning authority and god gave life had, cant change it, only have happiness in heaven and what need to do to gain that happiness in end § New awarenss of overlap between politics and religion

Augusto Pinochet

1973 military coup of President Salvador Allende under leader General Pinochet. Chilean coup turned out to be bloodiest takeover in history of latam. thousands of supporters of Popular Unity were hereded into Santiago soccer stadium never to be heard from again. thousands fell victim of well-organized program of official but clandestine torture and murder. closing the legislature, the military governed by decree for 17 years. most of that time it had full support of US State Department except for Carter. Chilean dictatorship was bureaucratic authoritarian regime except Pinocheet had leading role.

Caudillo

A strong political leader who commands the personal loyalty of many followers. the mid-1800s was the heyday of caudillismo. Although Brazil has also seen strong leaders, caudillismo has operated more powerfully in Spanish America. Typically large landowners who could use their personal resources for patronage or for maintaining private armies. firs rose to prominance during wars of independence and then carried their wartime fame as leaders of men into peacetime politis. Often war heroes who embodied ideal masculine qualities- bravery loyalty generosity and sexual glamour. charismatic to convince people of all classes. defined by their army of followers. Majority continued liberal ideal of constitutions and elections despite their illegitimacy. constitutions mattered enough for people to keep writing them. remained essential symbols of popular sovereignty despite actual practice not being so. people gradually lost faith in promise of democracy. by middle 1800s most Latin American countries ruled by conservative caudillos whose sole public service was to maintain order and protect property.

Andres Escobar

Colombian soccer player murdered after 1994 World Cup when he scored an own goal taking his team out of the competition. association of soccer and criminal gangs. murder tarnished image of country internationally. he had worked to promote colombian image.

Frida Khalo

Famous mexican painter maried to Diego Rivera. illustrated Mexico's revolutionary nationalism. painted small self-portraits. paintings explored private world of pain but also humor and fantasy. expressed nationalism in personal ways-fancy traditional hairstyles, pre-Colombian jewelry, and folk dress of southern Mexico. loved Mexican folk art. nationalism of 1920s and 1930s became fashionable. joined Communist party. nationalism had Marxist overtones.

Feminist Pedagogy

Feminist pedagogy is a form of critical pedagogy with an explicit foundation in feminism. Like all forms of critical pedagogy feminist pedagogy aims "to help students develop consciousness of freedom, recognize authoritarian tendencies, and connect knowledge to power and the ability to take constructive action.".[3] What makes feminist pedagogy unique is its emphasis on gender. With origins in the women's studies movement it is no surprise that women are at the center of feminist pedagogy. Feminist pedagogy aligns itself with other forms of critical pedagogy including those focused on race and ethnicity, class, postcolonialism and globalization. This pedagogy is a method of instruction which encourages the transformation of students from passive recipients of knowledge to active knowers who see themselves as agents of social change. It is employed most frequently in Women's Studies classes, which aim to transform [students] from objects to subjects of inquiry.[4] To apply this philosophy in the classroom, feminist scholars must critically engage in dialogue and reflection about both what and how they teach, as well as how who they are affects how they teach. Feminist educators are driven by a vision of "a world which is not yet." The standpoint of a feminist teacher is of the political nature and to help develop feminist analyses to inform and reform teachers' and students' ways of acting in and on the world.[5] The theoretical foundation of feminist pedagogy is grounded in the critical theories of learning and teaching such as Paulo Freire's Pedagogy of the Oppressed. Feminist pedagogy is an engaged process facilitated by concrete classroom goals in which members learn to respect each other's differences, accomplish mutual goals, and help each other reach individual goals. This process facilitates participatory learning, validation of personal experience, encouragement of social understanding and activism, and the development of critical thinking and open-minds.[6] Researchers[who?] state that classrooms built upon feminist pedagogy integrate the learning and experiences of participants. Feminist pedagogy recognizes power imbalances and limitations of traditional westernized learning praxis in school systems. Many instructors believe this style of teaching empowers students to a degree only possible with a sense of mutuality.

Patriarchy

Patriarchy Hegemonic force omnipresent. General principle that fathers rule. Spanish and Portuguese rigidly patriarchal so hegemony of fathers is understood as legacy of colonialism. Structured all colonial institutions including male hierarchy of church. Iberian law based on patriarchal principles.

Rigoberta Menchu

Quiche Mayan Guatemalan woman whose mother and brother were tortured and murdered by Guatamalan army in the "Low intensity conflict" of military government carrying on a dirty war against rural guerila armies and urban opponents such as student activists and leaders. to deprive guerillas of support, indigenous peasants were hereded into new "model" villages that surved as rural concentration camps. many disappeared students. her community only wished to raise its crops and follow its traditional customs. her father was a peasant organizer and her brothers joined guerillas. she was influenced by liberation theology and became spokesperson for her people. 1992 she won Nobel Peace Prize for calling world attention to atrocities of Guatemala's dirty war. Story of her life, I Rigoberta Menchu 1984 became essential reading for anyone interested in low intensity conflicts of Cold War. later shown she had merged her own story with others but no one could deny the existance of the horrors she described. Guatemalan death toll spiraled toward 200,000 and military perpetrated 95% of atrocities.

Juan Jose Arevalo

Reformist president 1940s from democratic election. formelry exiled university professor who returned to oversee legislative advances such as social security, new labor code, and new constitution. although hardly raidcal, he desribed his philosophy as "spiritual socialism" troubling words for US diplomats and officers of United Fruit Company with large banana plantations in country. nationalis gov urged better pay for workers. first of two reformist presidents democratically elected in Decade of Spring. § Published soon after US involvment to overthrow democratic leader in Guatemala § Shark and Sardines § Writes specifically for north american readers § Trying to open eyes of average american citizen as to why average guatemalan doesn't like US gov actions □ Voicing frustration of US policies in regard to latin america § Railing against capitalist, mercantilist, foreign international capitalism § Latin american countries looked up to us when became independent but when capitalism became prominent things went down hill □ US get involved to protect economic interests of United Fruit company § Don't want US to come in and try to model them after US image § Expand on own image don't want US image shadowing them § Accept us as we are, don't attempt to remodel us after your own image § Arguing capitalism and remodeling not what US was originally founded on and about □ Flaws of corporations backed by govs creates corruptions § Has to have positive view of US to persuade readers to be outraged at US actions

Spanish-American-Cuban War 1898

US declared war on Spain and invaded Puerto Rico and Cuba and Philippine islands. outcome war benefited US strategic and economic interests not those who were rescued. US seized island from spain and treated Cuban and Filipino patriots like bandits. Cuba remained protectorate of US for 35 years. Platt Amendment forced into Cuban constitution said US marines could intervene whenever US gov thought necessary. puerto rico colonized.

Populism

basically a leadership style that focused on mass politics and winning elections. post WWII period saw strides in democracy as voiting open to women, age lowered to 18, and literacy requirements struck down. nationalists adopted populist political tactics such as flying candidates around for huge rallies, making use of radio. populists bashed old rural oligarchies and imperialistic accomplices outside the country. appeals calculated to attract working-class voeters with a vision of radical improvement of living conditions, without scaring away middle-class voters with images of class warfare. naitonalism helped give sense of unified purpose to new coalition.. populist politics kept power away from old coalition-combination of oligarchic and foreign economic interests- that had governed before 1930s. economic power of landowners and international financiers eclipsed when great export boom went bust. style of politics aimed at urban working and middle class who together composed the populist coalition. most vigorous in years following 1945. populism generally employed naitonalist themes and promoted ISI. • Integrally linked with nationalism • Populism in latin america Great Depression-end WWII • Economic and political integration effects during time of international crisis ○ Economic boom goes into crisis • Economic strategy followed during period ISI ○ Natural outgrowth of ISI economic strategy ○ Majority, women get vote, using gov to solve life problems like social problems so larger governmental power, focusing on urban middle class § Labor laws mostly apply to urban workers § Farmers little bit of attention not as much § Silencing minority and opposition § Gov should be about what majority want instead of elite- rhetoric § New solution to the long problem of dealing with masses, new strategy ○ Vargas democratic elections and coups coming to power ○ Chavez- populist Venezuela ○ Peron ○ Populist leaders loved by workers, change in their living conditions, someone trying to help them and increase standard of living, education accessibility goes up, health increases ○ Rhetoric used both liberals and conservatives

Social Revolutions

bring more fundamental changes to way countries operate; seek to alter social order in some essential wya. inspiration for this kind of revolution came from Mariism-Leninism. revolutionary changes began in 1950s more profound, larger scale and ambition, more organized, more ideologically drived. widespraed 1960s-1980s but success was few. only in Cuba did lasting revolution occur. no single path to revolution, no single model of how to achieve goal of revolution along socialist lines.

Greentree Cable

cable sent to State Department by Greentree after investigating El Mozote. said couldn't prove Mozote massacre had happened but something bad definitely happened. gave go ahead for Congress to vote to send more money to El Salvador govt since meant there wasnt an issue with human rights. they could say that the country was trying to make an effort to comply with international human rights. gave the US the ability to dismiss the story of el mozote as propaganda and sweep it under the rug.

Dirty War

campaign of terror waged by Argentine military against lef-wing guerillas and sympathizers real and imagined in 1970s. similar but smaller campaigns were carried out simultaneously by Chilean, Uruguayan, and brazilian militaries. had support of US because trying to get rid of communist supporters. ○ War where targets are dissidents within country, army targeting own citizens who need to be controlled or policed or examined ○ Targeting subversives, sympathizers, know there will be mistakes- Argentine general statement ○ Who seems dangerous: § Argentina- opposition politicians, Jews but not try to wipe them out but more likely seen as disposable if caught up in system, journalists, young men in their twenties, university students, teachers, theater people § Women not considered political so not as many taken § People taken from homes, street □ Taking from street meant that it was acceptable for police to abduct them □ 62% taken from home- distract how many were happening □ Increase fear □ Didn't have warrants ○ When tortured people will say anything, whatever want to hear § Fear of association □ Fear someone picked up will say your name in torture § 12,000 detained (low number) ○ Makes any form protest extremely dangerous § More people willing to look the other way ○ Many women who were taken, many young twenties, many pregnant § Many babies given up for adoption ○ Left mothers of plaza witih white scarves silently protesting and grandmothers, left alone because of conservative values

Jorge Videla

commander in Argentine Army and dictator from 1976-1981. came to power in coup that overthrew Isabel Peron. prosecuted for large scale human rights abuses and crimes against humanity. convicted of kindapping babies from dissidents and putting them up for illegal adoption with families in support of regime. recently able to figure out if want if you were adopted. create big issue in Argentina about whether to find out or not.

BRICS

current organization of global economy, Brazil-Russia-India-China-South Africa, heads of state of four major emerging market economies. long list of specific demands for reform that these countries want to see in the UN, IMF, and many other areas related to economic and social development. want to reduce poverty and controll climate change. insights into changing state of global economy in 21st century. stress importance of multilateral trading system embodied in World Trade Organization. importance of development, agriculture, poverty, energy, climate change, terrorism, alliance of civilizations

Cristina Kirchner

current president of Argentina. Alberto Nisman was going to issue warrant for her arrest but was killed. he was going to prosecute her invovment in 1994 car bombing of a Jewish center suspected to be linked with Iranians. in the week following his death she claimed to want to dissolve the Secretariat of Intelligence and form a Federal Intelligence Agency controlled by General Prosecuter's office. she claims to have been set up to look bad by the murder.

Simon Bolivar

despite previous failures, tenacious man became most important leader of Spanish American independence. The Liberator. Began triumphs 1817. Participated in Venezuelan independence from start. Early defeat of patriot forces by royalist llaneros was Bolivar's defeat. Learned and planed to get llaneros on patriot side. Set up bas in Orinoco plains far from Caracas, used feats of physical prowess and Americaon nativism to attract llaneros. Caracas aristocrat that they respected. When llaneros switched sides, momentum moved to patriot cause. 1819, Bolvar's army of llaneros crossed plains climbed Andes and surprised Spanish forces from behind. Bogota fell to Bolivar. by 1822 Bolvar's forces also captures both Caracas and Quito, now controlling all of South America. After independence became disillusioned. came to think that Spanish Americans didnt understand their own best interests and mood turned authoritarian. felt accomplished nothing. didnt think independeca and slavery went together and imposed programs of gradual emancipation on territories conquered.

Juan Manuel de Rosas

dominated Argentina from 1829-1852 exemplifies caudillo rule. rancher of great cattle froniter and frontier militias stiffened his grip on city of Buenos Aires. made use of violence against his political opponents, also shrewd use of political imagery and mass propaganda. had picture placed on church altars and ordered everyone wear red ribbons signify their support or else beaten. presented himself as man of people able to identify with all classes and races while depicting liberal opponents as effeminate euroecentric aristocrats out of touch. powerful rancher saw him as one of them and he protected their interests. won patriotic glory defeating british and french interventions in 1830s and 1840s

Rufina Amaya

el mozote survivor who told the story of what happened for the world

Paulo Freire

famous teacher of literacy working among peasants of impoverished northeiastern Brazil. argued that peasants were intelligent adults eager to empower themselves. he believed that methods used with schoolchildren were not appropriate in helping poor adults learn to read. for illiterate adults, learning to read and write meant taking greater charge of their ow n lives. developed a method of interactive learning called "consciousness-raising" religious revolutionaries if 1960s took inspiration from his work ○ Brazilian, poor part, sugar plantations ○ Place with most african descent, least developed ○ Shows how important literacy campaigns can be, happening all over § Writes Pedagogy of the Press 1968 ○ Educational scholar ○ Writes in exile, military coup 1964, conservative junta, in Paris ○ New vision of education, critiquing traditional education § Teachers condescending, state thinking what people need to know, not what want to know § Emphasis is on knowing not coming to know and how to learn, more important to memorize than § Students vessels in banking system § Education oppressed is by those dominating, biased education, still racial targeting, ○ Need to be more focus on telling of oppressed ○ Building citizens to have same ideologies of gov ○ Oppression is necrophilic ○ Education needs to be dynamic instead of static ○ How can we reimagine education to having more students posing questions, what should they learn, how should they learn, making it relevant, consciounce

Neocolonialsim

first constitutional republics. An informal sort of "colonization" by outside powers, associated in Latin America with the 1880-1939 period. Although politically independent during these years, Latin American countries experienced occasional military intervention as well as overpowering and cultural influence from Great Britain, France, and the United States. During this time oligarchies of large landowners held sway in many countries, when the most common alternative was dictatorship. Has postcolonialism aspect: the lingering effect of previous colonization on nations that have gained their formal independence. In Latin America, the language, laws, religion, and social norms implanted by Spanish and Portuguese colonizers carried over almost entirely between 1825-1850, making the new, politically independent countries postcolonial in cultural terms. Foreign influence from progressive era so pervasive and powerful that historians call 1880-1930 neocolonial period. despite changes, subordinate relationship to European countries and its basic hierachy didnt change. elite wealth came from what sold to European and US markets. relationshiph bewteen countries but also internal phenomenon. mestizos able to join middle class more and more. once in control, liberals forgot about political freedoms demanded under conservative caudillos. democracy came second to material Progress with export growth. governments became more orderly, only way to have economic growth was with law and order ruled by best and brightest, rich and whitests, philosphy justify was positivism- to achieve order and progress need authoritarian. stable authoritarian govs by 1900. still managed elections. gov preserved republican forms but actually funcitoned as dictatorshps and oligarchies. absorption of Latin America into an international system dominated by GB and US. ideological sway of GB powerful. center of progress and civilization that mesmerized liberals. model of party systems. US began to overtake in influence in 1890s. capitalist energies of industrializing US and military expansion. 1898 US declared war on Spain and invaded Puerto Rico and Cuba and Philippine islands. outcome war benefited US strategic and economic interests not those who were rescued. US seized island from spain and treated Cuban and Filipino patriots like bandits. Cuba remained protectorate of US for 35 years. Platt Amendment forced into Cuban constitution said US marines could intervene whenever US gov thought necessary. puerto rico colonized. US hegemony throughout South America in first quarter 1900s. civilizing latin america. white supremacy. Roosevelt Corollary made marines hemispheric police to prevent european military intervention. believed latin american govs needed help to learn how to gov correctly, wanted to make sure they would pay debts to US and European invesors and raders. teacher. created Pan-American Union organization based on ideals of free trad- reality of neocolonial inequality. members under thumb of US and voted for whatever US told them to. Ended with Great Depression. Nationalism took its place.

Costa Rican Demilitarization

following civil war country created new gov that abolished military allowing for greater resouces to be alotted to various social institutions like education. only country able to successfully avoid conflict, prove economic conversion can happen, one of highest education rates in area. § Distrust of military because US involvement and internal use and not external use § Costa Rica 1948 casued by faulty election □ Jose Ferrer created stable regme and new constitution ® Got rid of military ® Growing dissodence of his other policies ◊ Got rid of power being able to take over his regime ® Way gain new public support for regime ® Never big part of culture ® Many military citizens had returned to jobs so not much military to have anymore ® Allowed for stable regime where issues resolved constitutionaly rather than military □ New constitution 1949 ® Abolition military ensure consistant policy for costa rica continue § Did allow for temporary for policing forces and if outside threat § Otilio Ulate Blaco poewr returend to him 1949 □ Opposed to miliatry abolitionment § Advantages □ Money used for defense can be used for social programs, education, cultural centers □ Education took a lot of funding □ Has best educational institution in central america § Risky becausae leaves country vulnerable to international threats □ If attacked would be seen as victim and other internatinoal countries would come to their aid Early 1900s- there was a distrust surrounding military More for internal then external purpose Especially due to a lot of cross over with US military Costa Rican Civil War 1948 Jose Figueres Ferrer- only president for 18 months to create a stable regime and election. He got rid of the military and ended the 40 daylong civil war. Getting rid of the military it took away the power of those who wanted to deconstruct his regime. December 1948 many of the military citizens in the civil war have returned back to their jobs and daily tasks. This allowed for a stable regime where issues would be solved constitutionally rather than with the military. Created a constitution in 1949 that talk about the abolition of the military ensuring that although there would be a change of leader that Article 12 was the article that abolished the military but it allowed a temporary military in case of national threat. Otillio Ulate Blanco, President elect 1949-1953 Opposed to demilitarization of Costa Rica, but because it was written in the constitution it remained that way during his presidency and after. Military Barracks were turned into cultural center. Education took advantage of the new funding. Costa Rica has the big focus on education leaving the population at 98 % literacy rate as well having one of the best education systems in Central America.

Junot Diaz

immigrant Dominican Republic. author of drown. short essays on immigrant family from dominican republic come to US struggles they face. issues of transculturation. feeling not part of one culture nor part of other fully.

Cuban Revolution

led by Che Guevara and Fidel Castro. landed in Granma on Cuba only 12 survived to mountains. two years fought in mountains against army. Batitsta had no support in country anymore and left. Castro took over. wanted economic nationalism and land reform. kicked out US companies and land holders. US embargo. • How to evaluate the revolution ○ Think about for Cubans, real advances in inocome inequality, education, health care, life expectancy, 1,000,000 exiles, no reliigous freedom, press, ideas, not democratic, prison conditions inhumane

Nicolas Maduro

president Venezuela. served under Hugo Chavez as head of foreign affairs. . Venezuela, under new presidency of Nicolas Maduro, is in the midst of an economic crisis, and Maduro needs a distraction. Maduro has been blaming Barack Obama and Venezuelan opposition in the United States, and as of March 3rd, Venezuela has given the United States 15 days to reduce embassy staff from 100 members to 17. This subtraction of embassy staff members will make the number of U.S. embassy workers equal to the number of Venezuelan workers. Last month, the U.S. government approved a law under which Venezuelan officials who were involved in certain human rights violations were to be stripped of their visas and U.S. assets frozen. In response, President Maduro announced that all Americans would need visas to visit Venezuela, in addition to banning certain prominent U.S. officials due to their alleged involvement in "bombing Iraq, Syria, and Vietnam" along with other terrorist actions. These officials include George Bush, Dick Cheney, former CIA Director George Tenet, several members of Congress, and others. "There have been a lot of anti-American rhetoric again coming out of the Venezuelan Government with a lot of baseless allegations," said U.S. State Department spokeswoman Marie Harf on Monday. From the article it is easy to see how corrupt the Venezuelan government is and how it is causing the deterioration of Venezuela as a country. President Maduro is portrayed as an irrational dictator who puts maintaining his position of power ahead of the Venezuelan people, and it manifests itself in the decline of the Venezuelan economy and disruption of the social order. For example, the article points out how Maduro has made many claims denouncing the United States, but without any evidence to back it up. These claims include Maduro announcing the arrest of an unspecified number of Americans for engaging in espionage and recruitment activities, as well as an American pilot of Latin American origin who was found in possession of "all kinds of documents." These claims were never substantiated, and it reflects poorly on the legitimacy of the Venezuelan government. This article is yet another depiction of how badly Latin American countries are suffering from government corruption. Venezuela in particular is a terrible case, as the country's economy, government, and social order are crumbling day by day. The example of Venezuela under Nicolas Maduro contributes to the theme of political corruption that we have discussed so often in class.

"Racial Democracy"

since 1930s the vision of a Brazilian "racial democracy" has been the widely popular keystone of the country's national identity. idea was so welcome, after centuries of official white supremacy, that it took root powerfully among brazilians of all colors. the slogan racial democracy incorrectly suggests an absence of racism, and even though Brazilians used the occasion of the hundredth anniversary of abolition to denounce the massive presence of racism with near unanimity, they have not given up the idea that racial and cultural mixing lies at the heart of brazilian identity. whatever its drawbacks, mestizo nationalism is much more democratic and inclusive than white supremacy. it constituted a popular step forward in Latin American racial politics during the 1930s, and it retains a powerful appeal today among Latin Americans, rich and poor, black and white, indigenous as well as mestizo. latin american societies have not transcended racism by embracing indigenous american and african elements in their national mix but they have gotten further than many other multiracial societies. this remains the proudest and most potent aspect of LAtin american nationalism.

Primary and Secondary Sources

source written in time that it takes place, first hand account, photo, data, census, artwork, anything that lets you talk about how people of time saw it • Need to ask Who wrote it? Bias? Point of view? No sources written by slaves- some perspectives haven't survived, value placed on records • Catholic church big source of information of colonial period Accuracy, could lie knowingly or unknowingly So what? Why this source, what does it tell us about the larger question • Should use multiple sources so don't get one point of viewSecondary source • Research on time periods, interpretive argument drawing on evidence from the past

Bureaucratic Authoritarianism

started 1960s to 1980s military took over governments in latin america with US support to keep communism out. juntas. military oligarchies. used major violence in dirty wars against their people. ○ Absolute control by larger gov. type agency, bureaucratic but sometimes one person associated, group making decisions ○ Military leaders group ○ Argentine concept § Guillermo O'Donnell □ Institutional dictatorship not legacy of Iberian rule but working and acting to protect the capitalist system- 1973 in book Modernization and Bureaucratic Authoritarianism □ Because of late industrialization, imported technologies are transforming lat am traditional socioeconomic structures which leads to explosion of technocrats across in country whether in gov or military get foreign trained people coming in giving advince ® Rise of technocrats leads to new sense of identity across bureaucratic specialists ® Group way of looking at world around them and group dissatisfaction when ideas taught in europe and U.S. arent immediatley seen ® Want to work to reshape country's context in any way they can ® Think acting in their country's best interest ® Think right to temporarily align with miilitary and use violence against citizens who stand in their way and get rid of many of gov. systems while doing it • Big effort coming to US to train military School of Americas- train military to go against own people, against counterinsurgencies for goal of preventing communism, prepare lat am militaries to respond to that threat, teach torture

Patronage

the granting of benefits by a wealthier or more powerful person, a patron, to a person further down the social hierarchy. Patronage is repaid by loyalty and various services. patronage politics made corruption a necessary part of the system in postcolonial years. went from top all the way down to local politics. Caudillo often person using patronage to come into power. elections from outside looked equal and democratic but always rigged or use some kind of patronage or threat of violence. example of caudillo is Rosas.

Neoliberalism

updated version 0f liberalism that swept latin america in 1990s following period of cold war reaction and military rule. ended nationalism. wanted free trade markets. lowered import taxes. allowed international companies industries in again. helped get out of debt crisis. by getting rid of nationalist companies and state institutions many out of work, poor got poorer and lost jobs or had to work in bad conditions.

Gendered Conceptions of Honor

women judged both in colonial and post colonial by sexual purity and domestic virtue. honor extrememly important and only rich elite able to keep virtue. middle class and poor women had to work outside the homes and so did not qualify for domestic virtues assigned women. virtuousness above all else. limited educaiton. goal to better fill traditional roles. role of virtous women now to nurture republican virtues in members of their families. played limited role in political life. werent identified as citizens

Roberto Clemente

§ Born 1934 Puerto Rico played for Pittsburgh § Known for humanitarian efforts off field § Helepd others play in US § Determined to make better life for his family as well as his community § Favorite player Monte Irvin negro player when he was younger, inspired him § Played minor league when 18 § Experience racism first hand for first time □ South 1950s didn't matter if pro baseball player or not just that he was black § Little in common with pitsburgh teammates § Proud to be puerto rican § Issues with the press □ Frustrated press § Constantly tried to americanize him § Transformed stigmas surrounding latin american players § Became national hero § Civil rights movement wanted to make a change § Starness Lowered tolerance for racial prejudices § Gave interview in spanish after won series shocking the world § Dies in plane crash going to nicaragua to help § Died as a humanitarianism § Inducted into baseball hall of fame as first latin american player

Yucatan Feminist Congress 1916

§ Women's periodical created 1870 encourage women to persue educational goals, laid routs for other educational journals § Rita Cetina Gutierrez devoted life to improving women's education § Hermila Galindo created journal feminist thoughts, lobbied for women's rights § General Alvarado created socialist party one of Carranza's men, women education rights , education symbolized advancement □ Increased schools available to girls § First Feminist Congress 1916 □ 4 themes see sheet □ Limit type of women to come- middle class § Different position on women developed from congress § Place to discuss issues, wants, and goals Who were the key figures which helped to influence the First Feminist Congress in 1916? How and why this even occurred in the Yucatan during the Mexican Revolution? What were the primary issues discussed? Women's periodical, La Siemprevia, was started by Cristina Farfan and Rita Cetina Gutierrez in 1870. Encouraged women to pursue their educational goals Rita Cetina Gutierrez (1846 - 1908) Devoted her life to improving women's education Took over the Instituto Literario de Niñas (established in 1877) Hermila Galindo (1896 - 1954) Impressed Venustano Carranza and became his private secretary Created the journal, La Mujer Moderna Lobbied for women's rights (sex education, divorce etc.) General Salvador Alvarado (1880 - 1924) Governor of Yucatan from 1915-18 Socialist party and set out to establish constitutional political policies Sought to expand women's education rights and made schooling available to all Felt that "it is necessary to elevate the Mexican woman for the reconstruction of the country." The First Feminist Congress in January 1916 Announced in La Voz de la Revolución, the official Merida newspaper Basic themes discussed 1.) Freeing women from tradition; 2.) Role of education for women; 3.) Arts and occupations & 4.) Participation in everyday life. Attendees were to have at least a grade-school education and hold an "honest reputation." à limiting this event to mostly middle class school teachers 700 people attended and heard speeches from feminist writers (such as Hermila Galindo and her speech "Women of the Future") Filled with lots of disagreements Catholic conservative position, moderate position, radical position The Second Feminist Congress in November 1916 à similar to the first one Provided a place for women to discuss issues, wants and goals. Very progressive for the time period and for war times

Truth Commission

• 1970s 1980s • Atrocities under military regimes in terms of numbers ○ Truth commisionary reports from argentina § At least 12,000 people abducted § Chile at least 3,000 killed § Central america slaughter entire villages, honduras, guatemala, □ Guatemala- 150,000 dead, most indian civilians ○ Necessary part of process is truth commission- human rights investigation § Figure out what happen § Argentina has first 1984 with three goals □ Clarification ® What happened □ Report internal external factors □ Recommendation of how to preserve memory of victims § Model for later truth commissions § Argentina 16 members for disappeared report over 9,000 disappearances and try to understand what happened to each, how targeted, way treated, who involved • Problems book focused on Argentina, Chile, Guatemala ○ Historical memory ○ How national truths are created or recreated and who gets to decide what event means ○ Things can get wrapped into master narrative that leaves out many components ○ Elizabeth Jelin Argentina on memory of past § Question for future is do leave past and not open up wounds or go back and come to terms to help not happen in future and move on § Contradiction in desires of how to deal with past § Recent past so almost harder to create truth of past, people have different wants for what is told and why, history used politicized way to gain support or rally □ Not clear black and white of bad and good sides § People scared to participate consequences for them and their family § Persistance political families after everything settled, still have power and influence § Important to consider power relaitonsihp in political narratives- lot invested in how portrayed § Clarification part is key ○ Historical memory § Try to understand what happened, what to do reparations, clarify memory § Moving forward is difficult figuring out how to do it □ Reparations, monument, publications ○ Truth commission part of how to move forward and recreate society § People want different and contradictory things moving forward □ Member of military don't want to be blamed, want swept under rug and forgotten about, scared of consequences □ Mothers of disappeared- want return of their children but cant so painful, want to learn what happened □ Accountability becomes important ® First thing try to get rid of, scapegoat, first factor find where is the guilt ® How decide how much blame given to individual soldier or person making decisions ® Amnesty in beginning to get information and truth of what was done

Carnival

• Carnival- celebration leading up to Lent • Traditionally wild excessive time right before fasting period of repentance • Become important in Latin America for community based parties and parades, important part of community identity • Form social commentary and dance at same time • Important time social inversion, lower classes have role and voice during this time • Some danger, possible riot sites, tension between escape valve or potential for revolutionary revolt social inversion letting off steam letting people from bottom take central role for set period of time, carnival king and queen almost always afro-brazilian, symbolic and in truth the most important and hold most power during carnival parade

Transnationalism

• Transnationalism ○ Torn on feelings for US, how should feel towards them ○ Need them but dislike them ○ Gender identity immigrant experience seen in Juno Diaz drown • Author- child of two cultures Dominican Republic and US, NYC mixing cultures together. african religions brought over with slaves mix with Catholicism.

Azuela's The Underdogs

○ Thinking about whose fighting and how conduct of long violent guerilla war shapes mexicos people in views of why fighting and what should do after ○ Using novel as historical source need to remember § Translation issues □ Original title translates those from below not underdogs ® Underdogs have meaning to present day sports term not intended originally, much more class based originally ® Think underdogs romanticized think fantastical story winning great battle against troops, other title more applicable, coming from lower classes and fighting for power, ® Represents shift in mindset in how to view revolution, struggles in terms of our own revolution, ourselves underdogs throwing off shackles § From one point of view narrative, his point of view of what happened § Fragmentation allows reader to put own perspective in it, episodic, lack of chronoligical consistancy § Novel not same as book, fiction, based on historical events not all truth ○ Does Mariano Azuela over idolize Macias when he battles Federales? § Romanticized, men don't miss, always wins battles, god-like figure everyone looks to, never makes mistake, not as serious to them until end when realize will and can get hurt, follow everything he says § Absurdity of war ○ How does Azuela's depiction and transformation of Demtrio Maacias throughout the course of this novel reflect the greater image of masculinity in Latin America/Mexico at this time? ○ Novel of disolusionment over time, why and how? § Seen as robin hoods but then see as robbers and murderers, why they were fighting was clear in beginning but becomes murkier ○ Worried about will things be any different if they come to power, similar characteristics of federal soldiers § Are we barbarians, are we civilized ○ Cynical novel § Cross-class alliance □ Azuela identifies with doctor □ Taken up arms with fellow mexicans yet they don't know why their fighting, intellectual capacities and capacity to govern ○ Central take away message Underdogs § Want to understand not all about politics, unorganized, violent, overarching sense disilusionment no real winner of war, political ideals corrupted in his mind, lost their reasons why started revolution ○ Central take away Motorcycle Diaries § Starting to get ideas of what fighting for in future § Ideological revolution- hes supposed to embody ideological revolution, represents it, his transformation § Understanding story tell about his politicization makes sense to reader § Coming of age story accessible to larger audience