MPA 697S References

Bennis, Warren - Organizations of the Future (1967)

Context: Bureaucracy as defined by Weber grew out of Industrial Revolution, required to be "machine model" to address personal subjugation, nepotism, cruelty, and capricious judgement. There was a need for predictability, order, precision and efficiency. Bennis identifies that times have changed and this new era demands new structure. Bennis outlines four threats to the existing Bureaucracies: 1. Rapid and Unexpected change- knowledge and population explosion 2. Organizations have grown rapidly and are much more complex and are now international 3. Shift from manufacturing to service organizations, activities are more diverse and highly specialized 4. Philosophical change to the management of people: New concept of man - understanding employees need and motivation, personal growth and development New concept of power - collaboration vs. coercion New concept of organizational value - humanistic Bennis identifies five organizational problems with existing bureaucracies and methods to address each: 1. Integration - employee motivation - create an environment in which individuals feel appreciated and that is concerned for his well-being 2. Social Integration- Problem of distribution of power, requires change at the top, theory of one-man control is obsolete, empower individuals at all levels to make decision 3. Collaboration - develop methods to bring specialists from different disciplines or different parts of the organization together, reduce conflict and fragmentation 4. Adaptation- working in a dynamic and uncertain time, need to adapt to change quickly 5. Revitalization - need for buoyancy, resilience and "fearlessness of revision", ability to learn from experience, ability to learn how to learn, use feedback to improve performance and improve processes, ability to adapt and direct one's own destiny. Bennis identifies six situational conditions that will influence organization structures of the future: 1. Environment - rapid diversification and technology change is leading to partnerships between government and business 2. Employee characteristics -need for continuous advanced training, rapidly changing technology and increased job mobility (no longer concept of owning a job) 3. Work value - employees will be vested in their professional careers, demand more autonomy, more involvement in decisions, build on relationships 4. Tasks and Goals - work will be more technical, require more intellect, and demand more collaboration - project driven work. Too complex for one person to know all. 5. Organization - "organic-adaptive structure" will need to be adaptive, able to rapidly change and innovate, flexible 6. Motivation- changing work environment, "organic-adaptive structure" will increase employee motivation and effectiveness due to increased satisfaction (self-actualization). Bennis outlines specific training needs for the future: no longer training on specific tasks 1. Train for change - attitude towards inquiry - innovation, rather than routine task 2. Systems Counseling- people aren't broken, system needs to modified, focus on social systems within organization, team work, encourage collaboration 3. Changing Motivation - quest for self-realization, personal growth 4. Socialization for Adults - focus on hiring for attitude and values in addition to technical skills 5. Developing Problem Solving Teams - promote collaborative work environment, synergetic teams, team dynamics, and team structure 6. Developing Supra-Organizational Goals and Commitments - change from maintenance to innovation, use training managers to bridge organization - shared values and goals.

Kaufman, Herbert - Administrative Decentralization and Political Power (1969)

Context: End of the 1960's social intervention, great society, civil rights movement, article points out shifts in time in PA, influence by three things: executive dominance (colonial era), representation (post-revolutionary war era) and political -administrative dichotomy (mid 1800's), desire for effectiveness and efficiency shifting power back to the Executive Branch in 1900's. Now shift to representation in 1960's. Shifts occur because different segments of the population are impacted differently - there continue to be dynamic shifts due to historical and socio-economic factors. Can be categorized in three ways - desire for increased representation, desire for better and politically neutral bureaucracies or a desire for stronger executive role. Now is the time for increased representation. Summary: Kaufmann's identifies that there is current dissatisfaction with level of representation. Segments of the population feel that they are not getting equal representation, politically and economically. Not getting their fair share. They believe that they lack the ability to have influence in the politically system. Government is too large. People feel overwhelmed by huge impersonal machines. There is a belief that day to day implementation of laws do not match legislative intent. Change is difficult and slow, only small incremental changes occur due to the "pluralistic nature of government" and multiple levels of opposition. Public administrators must be responsive to the public's needs and wants, not just the elected officials and legislators. Moving away from the traditional public administrator's duties to be more in alignment with assisting the public. Suggests that chief executives lack the power to get agencies to change, agencies have a lack of innovation and hold on traditional ways of operating. Kaufman supports the concept of more representation at the local level (federalism,) decentralization (organization by area, district), gives examples of neighborhood initiatives, involving local citizens (representatives of the community and those benefiting from services) to be part of the decision making process about program design and administration, and suggests that giving local influence on public policy, will become more important in the future. Kaufmann cautions that the cycle will repeat itself again. Individuals will become disparaged with decentralization, concerns about increased costs, lack of efficiency, lack of consistent policy, concerns about of autonomous bases of political power in regions, and pendulum will swing back to centralization - and rally "under a banner of earlier days: take administration out of politics and politics out of administration." And so the cycle will continue, but it will continue to move forward and change due changing values and the lessons learned. Contrary to : Wilson, Goodnow, Taylor (one best way, separation of power) Supports: Appleby, Grodzins (marble cake) Lipsky, Moore (public value)

Thomas, R. Roosevelt - From Affirmative Action to Affirming Diversity (1990)

Context: End of the Reagan Administration - During the 1980's Equal Employment Opportunities challenged in Courts -pro-employer. Roosevelt advocates need for change - Changing from Affirmative Action to Diversity - Moving beyond quotas to fully developing the human talent of every employee. Summary: Roosevelt argues that affirmative action is not enough and a new approach is needed. Employers must find a way to embrace the diversity of its workforce, moving beyond hiring standards and quotas. He was the first to talk about diversity in the workplace. Diversity goes beyond a focus on race, color, national origin, etc. Identified that employers much focus on all the ways each individual is unique, including age, background education, and personality. Affirmative action accomplished the goal of having a workforce that mirrored that of society. Women and minorities are now employed, but their potential was underutilized. He identified problems with upward mobility. He points out the "pipeline" had been filled with minorities and women but those hired did not have the skills or education to move up within the organization. He points out that the problem affirmative action is it placed minorities and women in all white, male dominated environments requiring assimilation rather than building on the diversity and uniqueness of each individual in the workplace. He identifies the need to enable every member of the workforce to perform at their own potential. Individuals should be recognized for their talents and abilities rather than their gender and ethnicity. This and only this will increase productivity. Provides 10 guidelines for business to consider. Managing diversity means that businesses will "develop their capacity to accept, incorporate and empower the diverse human talents of the most diverse nation on earth." Other events: 1970's Support for Equal Employment Opportunities 1971 Supreme Court Acton in Griggs decision - Reagan era - conservative judges - turned aside previous EEO rulings 1981 - County of Washington, Oregon v. Gunther - US Supreme Court action for wages for women 1989 - Wards Cove Packing Case - Supreme Court set aside burden of proof responsibility for employers (previously established in 1970's) making it difficult for individuals to win discrimination suits. Court struck down the burden of proof requirement for employers to show that its personnel practices were not discriminatory. Also focuses on equity for women. Bush Era 1990 - Congress passes new civil rights legislation that incorporated Griggs's decision once again - vetoed by George H. Bush - "jobs quota bill". 1992 - Bipartisan civil rights act passed. Builds on Maslow, McGregor, Likert, Drucker,

Grodzins, Morton - The American System (1966)

Context: Federalism - inter-relationship between all levels of government in the US, use of federal grant programs to establish nationwide standards and disperse government power- "System is one government serving a common people for a common end." Summary: Grodzin's focus is on the overall government system. He describes the working relationship between Federal, State, local governments, and municipalities as chaotic in a good way. Government is not in neat layers. Federalism involves shared powers and functions among federal, state, and local governments, each seeking to influence the others. Looks beyond the formal notion of "separate levels" of government (a layer cake) to the informal arrangements by which all levels are simultaneously involved in the governmental process (a marble cake). He uses the example of school districts to demonstrate that the process of "federal governance" is complex and that dependency is at all levels. Local districts are dependent upon all levels of government: subject to local building codes, depend on State for funding, receive federal aid helps finance school facilities, lunch programs etc. Political leaders, professional associations, etc. are involved. Education is provided through joint efforts. Identifies that the points of influence and centers for decision making are diffuse and obscure. It is often difficult for the normal citizen to determine what level of government is responsible for what function and where to go to voice a concern or advocate for change. Citizens have multiple avenues: citizens vote, contact congressman, belong to political parties, professional organizations, etc. Sometimes their interests are represented and sometimes they are not. Points out that officals at all levels do everything. Public administrators do not consider themselves as acting in one capacity when administering a program. Uses example of sanitation. Responsibilities are assigned through federal, state, and local regulations and funding comes from multiple entities as well. He does the full context of his job holistically and naturally works with all jurisdictions to get the job done. Conclusion is that shared functions do work and intergovernmental grant and transfer programs can be designed and implemented effectively. Notes on stages of Federalism: FOUR STAGES OF FEDERALISM throughout American history. I. "DUAL" (1789-1937) Central government focused on promotion of commerce and distribution of resources. States retain most remaining powers Power of the national government set forth in Article I, Section 8 of the Constitution ● Commerce clause ● "necessary and proper clause" ● McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) ● Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) II. "COOPERATIVE" (1937-1960's) Franklin Roosevelt's "New Deal" sparks a revolution in national policy-making and an increased role for the national government altering the balance of federal power. The New Deal's expansion of the national government and the executive branch further empowered the national government at the expense of state autonomy. In NLRB v. Jones and Laughlin Steel (1937), the Supreme Court expanded its interpretation of the commerce clause to allow the national government to regulate as well as promote interstate commerce. Block grants are given to states for general purposes and allow state officials greater discretion over how funds will be spent. Categorical grants are given to states for more specific purposes and most of the discretion remains in the hands of federal officials and officeholders. The national government would ensure state cooperation with federal policies by offering grants-in-aid. III. "REGULATED"(1960's) As state and local governments came to depend on grant-in-aid support, the national government further intervened in state government decision-making by threatening to withhold such grants. This is also known as "COERCIVE FEDERALISM." To regulate speed limits within states, the national government threatens to withhold federal transportation dollars thus coercing states to comply with federal mandates. IV. "NEW FEDERALISM" (1969- ) The "new federalism" trend of returning discretion to the states began in the executive branch as the Nixon, Carter, and Reagan Administrations gave states a larger role in administering federal policies. In the 1990s both Congress and the federal Courts joined the new federalism revolution. The Republican takeover of Congress after the 1994 elections led to a series of policies where the federal government "devolved" power to the states. Welfare reform is a good example of such "devolution." In United States v. Lopez (1995) and United States v. Morrison (2000), the Supreme Court reversed its course by restricting its interpretation of what constituted "interstate commerce" to justify federal government involvement in the states. The "cooperative federalism" instruments of federal grants-in-aid to state and local governments continue to constitute an important part of state and local governments' budgets.

Rivlin, Alice - Systematic Thinking for Social Action (1971)

Government is too big, continues theme shift from efficiency to effectiveness, three ways to bring program administration closer to the people: Decentralization, community control, and market model- individual control, each requires development of performance measurements) Decentralization - Country is too big, too diverse, and social action too complicated. Universal rules do more harm than good. Federal government needs to turn social action back to states and localities. Federal government is good at collecting and distributing funds. Local governments should receive funding through revenue sharing or block grants. Performance measurements need to be developed that track accountability in terms of outputs and used as incentives. (Example State and local government) Community Control - Bottom up control. Individuals receiving services from social action programs feel like objects. Want to be involved in the development and oversight of local programs. Local control would provide better level of service. Need performance measures. Redistribution of funding must be in accordance with need. States, Cities, etc would demand Reliable criteria to evaluate performance in order to relinquish funding. (Examples community boards, school districts) Market Model - Privatization- like business moves choice to the individual consumer. (example is school vouchers). Individual choice. Performance measures need to be developed and available to individual consumer so that they can make educated choice. Measurement: Regardless of model. measures of achievement need to be established. Single measures of social service performance should be avoided. Multiple measures are necessary to reflect multiple objectives and avoid distorting performance. Performance measures need to address the difficulty of the problem. Bottom line : Must have a way of distinguishing better from worse.

Waldo, Dwight - The Study of Administration (1955)

Peters purpose with this article is to compare and contrast "Conventional or Traditional Public Management as to "New Public Management" and presents a case that they both have value and purpose to be viable in public management practice today. Contextualize the Article: Traditional public administration (TPM) is what is known best by Weber and Wilson's strong emphasis on scientific and practical means of government being necessary to maintain order and institute public policy. TPM are hierarchical systems that are well-structured with clear delineation of workers roles. The criticism of TPM has been the back room political deals that make policy and the public's voice of representation comes during elections. Also with the hierarchical structure and the political dichotomy public administrators were seen as actors to carry out the decision-makers policies not to participate in the development of them. The new public management (NPM) concept is that relationships are established between public and private sectors creating business opportunities sometimes providing an enhancement to what government can do. The main criticism about NPM is that it emphasizes "what" can be done rather than "why it should be done". Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The TPM's and NPM's guiding principles are compared and contrasted below: An Assumption of Self-Sufficiency: Government will equip and organize itself in order to make and implement program for societal benefit; as opposed to the governance approach which utilizes private sector organizations in delivering public service programs by relationships valuing partnerships and collaboration. An Assumption of Direct Control: Those at the top are capable of proper decision-making within their organizations; as opposed to the need to incentivize its employees and develop a sense of organizational culture. An Assumption of Accountability Upward: Accountability goes upward from the public administrator to the elected officials to the "masters"; as opposed to accountably being internalized and professional. An Assumption of Uniformity: This is the fundamental concept that all citizens should be treated "equally" providing the same deprivations and benefits to those similarly situated individuals; as opposed to the public should have an ability to choose amongst the products offered and "serving the customer" is fundamental. An Assumption of a Civil Service System: The creation of Civil Service established a formal procedures for recruitment, pay, grading, and other aspects of internal management as opposed to there being a more trusting assumption about employees, flexibility in career and management arrangements with potential for greater equality amongst those civil servants. TPM and NPM see the civil service system as problematic. In the end the current state of public administration can benefit from blending TPM and NPM philosophies. Laws and rules as well as organizational culture, and the development of private public sector relationships to extend public services providing an enhanced array of choice in public service are important. TPM and NPM believe in the dichotomy between policy and administration which indicates there exists a mutual foundation to build upon. Whether holding firm to TPM or NPM or both, all will be needed to address the very complex policy issues facing us today such as immigration, homelessness, the war on terror, and unemployment.

Wright, Deil - Intergovernmental Relations: An Analytical Overview (1974)

In Wright's article, he begins by providing an explanation of the definition of the term IGR. He credits Professor William Anderson with the following definition: "to designate an important body of activities or interactions occurring between governmental units of all types and levels within the federal system." Wright expands on this with the following five concepts: 1. IGR occurs at all levels of government organizations. It includes all the permutations and combinations of relations among all units of government. 2. IGR is about relationships among officials in different governing bodies. This is referred to as a physiology. 3. IGR is continuous and cumulative 4. IGR includes both elected officials and administrators 5. IGR addresses financial issues, anchored in politics, and concerned with policy. In Wright's article, he identifies the five phases of IGR. I noticed in Kathy's outline of The American System (Grodzins, 1966) he identifies the four phases of Federalism. Some of the same terminologies are used, but the information in the Wright article is more current as it was written in 1974. It was interesting to see the evolution occur. The five phases of IGR are: 1. Conflict phase (Pre-1937) - The main problems identified in this phase were defining the boundaries. The participants described IGR as antagonistic, adversarial, and controversial. The manner in which problems of jurisdiction were resolved was via statutes, courts, and regulations. The Federalism metaphor was a layer cake. 2. Cooperative phase (1933-1953) - The main problems identified in this phase were economic stresses and international threat. The participants described IGR as collaborative, complementary, and mutually supportive. The manner in which problems of jurisdiction were resolved was via policy planning, broad formula grants, open-ended grants, and tax credits. The Federalism metaphor was a marble cake. 3. Concentrated phase (1945-1960) - The main problems identified in this phase were program needs and capital works. The participants described IGR as professional, objective, neutral, and functional. The manner in which problems of jurisdiction were resolved was via categorical grants and service standards. The Federalism metaphor was focused (water taps) 4. Creative phase (1958-1968) - The main problems identified in this phase were urban-metropolitan and disadvantaged clients. The participants described IGR as national goals, great society, and grantsmanship. The manner in which problems of jurisdiction were resolved was via program planning, project grants, and participation. The Federalism metaphor was fused-foliated (proliferated). 5. Competitive phase (1965-?) - The main problems identified in this phase were coordination, program effectiveness, delivery systems, and citizen access. The participants described IGR as disagreeable; tension-filled and challenging. The manner in which problems of jurisdiction were resolved was via revenue sharing, reorganization, regionalization, and grant consolidation. The Federalism metaphor was a picket fence (fragmented). Context IGR is a significant domain of political, policy, and administrative actions by public officials. IGR's success will rely on the ability of those participating to deal with complexity. "Complexity is an inherent and persistent characteristic of the several features of IGR."

Kaufman, Herbert - Administrative Decentralization and Political Power

Kaufman is writing at the cusp of a shift from stentorian, patriarchal governance methodologies to more inclusive consumer-oriented systems (specifically in the late 1960s). He proposes that there will be an inevitable decentralization of power from the rigid administrative systems that were established between the early to mid-20th Century. Which I think we have seen. He posits that the history of governance in this country is replete with power shifts between executive authority, and administrative authority, where purely political systems tend towards corruption and purely administrative systems lack representativeness. The system is in a constant state of flux, and is defined by a tension between stakeholder groups with opposing goals and values. Change is initiated when a group feels marginalized and then attempts to seize control. At its most fundamental level it is a struggle for resources by various players. More modern systems manifest as a struggle between three different expressions of power: executive authority, increased representativeness, and politically neutral bureaucracies. Power is ephemeral, though, and even with one aspect in ascendance the other two never vanish. But even in this more modern interplay of power disaffection continues to result - especially in marginalized populations. The same drive motivates these populations as motivate inside players: it is the struggle for resources. People feel that they're not getting their fair share and demand change. The problem is that populations existing at the fringe lack the coherent organization that gives other stakeholders some measure of control and motive force. Three factors contribute to this disaffection: a disconnect between promise and policy, real change is real hard, and the little guy usually gets lost in the huge, complicated systems that create policy. This is the core of the argument for decentralization: bring the government to the people in order to directly engage with them. At the time he was writing he saw such congregations eyeing administrative systems as the best places to wreak change. Organizers sought to place stakeholders within these administrative systems as internal advocates, to create citizen oversight commissions (effectively creating bureaucracies to monitor bureaucracies), and empowering street-level bureaucrats. This populist message played well at every level of elected office and he presumed (correctly) that decentralization would take hold and transform governance. But change is hard, and the iron triangles that define upper-echelon policy-making are difficult to break into for disorganized constituencies. So he identifies several points where change advocates could apply themselves to achieve the intended effect, namely in the executive offices of local governments. Once achieving such change, though, the system will continue to grind on, but this time with a new wrinkle. Democratic governance will continue to be a balance of tensions, and will continue to be a fluid interplay between opposing forces. This process is not hopeless or indeed "fruitless" because "Each time balance among the values is redressed . . . some new accommodation among the myriad interests in the society is reached". This is the force that drives incrementalism and insures that governance in the end is balanced between the needs and aspirations of the governed.

Mosher, Frederick - Democracy and the Public Service: The Collective Service (1982)

Labor explosion began in the 1969s and 1970s. Mosher discusses the differences between private and public unionization, collective bargaining, and the impact and future of the civil service system. As background, Mosher briefly discusses the passage of the 1883 Pendleton Act, and the impact unions had on establishing the 8-hour workday for federal employees. Later, the Lloyd-LaFollete Act of 1912 was passed protecting the rights of federal unions. This act remained in place for some 65 years. Of special note, union influence and growth was insignificant until the time between 1968 and 1976 where public sector membership grew by two million. 1960s and 1970s Kennedy signed EO 10987 and 10988, January 17, 1962, marking the most significant event in the history of labor relations in government. The legitimacy of unionization and collective bargaining was established. (For years, unions and collective bargaining were not used.) Results: • Growth in unionization • Growth in political power of governmental unions • Increase in employee power over employment policies, • A threat to principles of Civil Service and merit systems. Although other administrations tried to take action on collective bargaining but failed until Nixon's EO 11491 was signed on October 29, 1969. Results: • Centralization over collective bargaining-oversight by the Federal Labor Relations Council) • FLRC was empowered to make binding arbitration decisions and was a management -oriented arbiter and decider. Ford signed EO 11838 on February 6, 1975, which clarified Nixon's order but did not change the power of the FLRC. In 1978, Carter's Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1978 and Civil Service Reform Act changed the structure of the overseer of negotiation. This reform introduced big change. Results: The U.S. Civil Service Commission is abolished and replaced with o Office of Personnel Management (OPM) o Merit Systems Protection Board o Federal Labor Relations Authority After WWII, explosion of state and local governments holding memberships in unions. But what makes Public Service Different? Civil service systems are different than collective bargaining In the public sector, conditions of employment (classification, work hours, retirement, and salary) are made by legislative bodies, not administrators. So administrators can negotiate but the final say about what they can negotiate, and the final agreement must be approved by the legislative body. Public administrators do not have the same freedoms to negotiate as the private sector. Their authority is given to them by public law and by the definition of that law is limited and cannot be delegated or contracted away. The tools & weapons used In the public sector, strikes are usually forbidden but sometimes used. The public sector can use political powers to influence the legislative bodies. Who negotiates for whom? Private sector ahead of who represents labor, but the public sector is moving toward alignment with affiliated unions. In public sector, legislative bodies usually delegate to the executive Public employees should have the same rights as private employees when it comes to representation. Major Themes Collective bargaining, merit principles, civil service

Herbert, Simon A. - The Proverbs of Administration (1946)

Overall main argument is the that the propositions that make up the body of administrative theory in 1946, share the contradictory characteristic of proverbs. The traditional tenants of the Wilsonian, Taylorian, Weberian scientific management approach to public administration are not absolute, and if applied absolutely without exercise of discretion have detrimental effects on delivery of public services. Simon suggests that Gulick's PODSCORB and Taylor's scientific management principles of the bureaucratic organization as a machine, share the characteristics of proverbs, that is that proverbs "almost always occur in mutually contradictory pairs." As such, when used to support scientific theory, they "prove too much," in that for every principle of administration can be found an equally plausible and acceptable contradictory one. He challenges the one best way approach to organization and administration. Discussion principles of scientific management: Specialization; Unity of Command; Span of Control; Organization by Purpose, Process, Clientele and Places as being contextual, based on the circumstances and the kinds of services an organization provides. Without considering context, the administrative principles are ambiguous. Simon uses situational examples to illustrate the contextual nature of each of the principles. 1. Administrative efficiency is increased by specialization of tasks among the groups. Simon posits that the problem is not to specialize for its own sake, but in a manner that will lead to administrative efficiency. 2. Administrative efficiency is increased by arranging member of the group in a determinate hierarchy of authority. Simon acknowledges that no worker should be placed in an organization so that the take direction from more than one superior, but also describes difficulties that arise when the decisions of a person at any one point in the hierarchy are subject to a single authority, by require expertise in more than one field of knowledge other than that of the specialization. The principles of specialization and unity of command contradict each other in such a situation, with no procedure for resolving the conflict. Evidence of the time indicated the need for specialization took priority over unity of command. Efforts to resolve the conflict through a stated hierarchy "solves fewer problems." Ultimately, the more narrowly defined the unity of command, the greater the conflict with the principle of specialization. 3. Administrative efficiency is increased by limiting the span of control at any point in the hierarchy to a small number. Simon describes problem that officers here is that the larger the organization, the more complex the relationships among its member, and the more restricted the span of control "inevitably produces excessive red tape" as members at lower level of the organization have to navigate many layers to get to "the common superior" who can approve the interaction. Similarly, Simon describes a flatter hierarchy produces problems when one supervisor is assigned too many subordinates. He equates defining the right number of reports and layers in the span of control to "current arguments about the proper sized of the national debt." 4. Administrative efficiency is increased by grouping the workers, for purposes of control, according to (a) purpose; (b) process; (c) clientele, and (d) place. Here, Simon suggests the problem must first be solved as to the usage of each of the terms as applicable to the situation (e.g., contextualize them), as a necessary exercise in order to determine first where conflicts exist, then begin to determine how the conflict might be addressed before solving the problem of service delivery. In the second part of the essay, Simon posits An Approach to Administrative Theory in addressing the proverbial examination of the principles. He recommends defining and conducting controlled scientific experiments using the principles of the Proverbs. This entails defining the terms, operationalizing them in order that the effects can measured, and given scientific significance. He also suggests engaging the worker,"the single member of the administrative organization." He poses several questions regarding organizational structure, communication channels and system, appropriate decision points, appropriateness of dissemination of certain kinds of knowledge, and so forth referring to these questions as the terra incognito of administrative theory, the "careful exploration of which will cast great light on the proper application of the proverbs of administration." Essentially, Simon describes a truly scientific approach to analysis of the principles illustrated by the proverbs. He describes his proposed experimental program as "quixotic" given the poor analytical tools of the day. He writes "Studies dealing with the human and social aspects of administration are even rarer than the technological studies." In closing, Simon notes that administration is neither a true science (at the time) nor truly an art, but includes elements of both, and that even an art cannot be founded on proverbs. This article was written immediately following the close of World War II. Simon exposes the fact that the principles of the Proverbs are flawed, and often not applicable in the complex modern public administrative setting. What works for a metal fabrication factory or baseball team, does not work in a medical clinical setting. Maslow introduced the concept of human needs three years earlier. Simon's Proverb's piece provides another stepping stone away from the mechanistic aspects of scientific management, toward and the future inclusion of the individual as a person within an organization, and the organization not as a machine, but as a living and changing organism. As Dr. Becker wrote in response to Laura Ruble's post related to Maslow, Simon echoes softly "Hey, those are people," and adds "Let's include them in our studies." The scientific experiment Simon describes foreshadows the development of Organizational Behavior as a field of scientific study, where the human and social aspects of administration are the foundation.

Taylor, Frederick W. - Scientific Management (1912)

Principles of scientific management when properly applied must in all cases produce far larger and better results than with out such endeavor. It will result in greater efficiency of operations. Taylor posits that new duties and burdens of management new duties and burdens faced by managers under these principles. The first duty is of gathering traditional knowledge, recording, tabulating and reducing it into rules, laws, procedures and formulae applicable to everyday work, that which historically "was kept in the heads" of experienced workers. Taylor, quoting McLaurin, the president of the Institute of Technology in Boston, calls this the development of the science: "classified or organized knowledge of any kind." In this case, it is the organized, classified knowledge of skilled workers, that would be recorded as the one best way of doing something. The second duty its selection and development of workers, based on the worker's character and abilities for optimal workers to job assignment for that one best way. The third is "bringing together" the workforce under the scientific knowledge, under a one-best-way of doing things, thus making sure all of the scientific principles are consistently applied. The fourth is a division of labor by specialty with performance under close supervision. Taylor describes his vision of a close relationship between the worker and management, where "first the workman does something, then the man on management's side does something," and vice versa. Division is by specialty, and roles and responsibilities are assigned. As the two sides, worker and management, learn together under the new scientific system, they will learn that it is "utterly impossible" for an establishment to succeed without the "intimate, brotherly cooperation other." Using the baseball metaphor, where players are specialists at certain functions, the coach gives signals and orders, and the players obey them, Taylor illustrates the successful application of principles of scientific management. Context: The article as published in Shafritz and Hyde's Public Administration Classic Readings is taken from testimony before the United States House of Representatives, January 25, 1912. Taylor's book The Principles of Scientific Management was published in 1911. It was the height of the Progressive Era. The Progressive Era, roughly between 1890 and 1920 (George Washington University. The Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project. www.gwu.edu), came at the close of the first century of Constitutional governance of the United States, and took it's name, according various sources, from the idea that the natural progress of the human condition is continual improvement and that people had a responsibility to look out for one another, ideas in harmony with the political position that the government should provide for the good of the people even as the definition of "the People" evolved away from white male landowners over the age of 21 under the Declaration of Independence, to include women by 1920. Scientific management fit well with progressive ideals of a professional, merit based civil service workforce and a politics/administration dichotomy in that workers would be hired and promoted on merit, their "character," skill and suitability for a job, not through political cronyism. The principles of scientific management dovetail with Max Weber's bureaucratic structure of documented procedures, original enabling documents and hierarchical controls, and a workforce of specialized, expert career civil servants responsible for carrying out the business of the organization. However, on the other side, under scientific management, workers are mechanized and dehumanized. They are not seen as people, but as cogs in a machine. The worker exercises no discretion over the work, he simply followed orders of the superior. Scientific management was in that sense reflective of the Industrial Revolution the preceded the Progressive Era. Scientific management is meant to result in efficiency. The concept was introduced, according to Shafritz and Hyde, by Louis D. Brandeis, and used in arguments against rail road rate increases before the Interstate Commerce Commission (p. 9). Railroads were privately held business operations, yet the concepts of scientific management were embraced by government agencies as well. Where principles of scientific management are still the standard for government bureaucracies, in recent decades writers increasingly recognize that a one-best-way for delivery of public services is a myth: what works for processing an application for a driver's license does not work as effectively in provision of law enforcement, and certainly not in areas were interpretation of policy is required to the point of service delivery by the street level bureaucrat. Scientific management may produce efficiencies, but it may not result in effectiveness in delivery of government services. Simon discusses this matter in greater depth in his Proverbs of Administration, written at the end of a tumultuous period that saw the Great Depression, Franklin Delano Roosevelt's New Deal proliferation of government programs and a second World War, which will be outlined/summarized in another post. ********************* Main Arguments Frederick Taylor developed the time and motion studies, noting there was "one best way" to accomplish a task by identifying the fastest, most efficient, and less tiring methods. Taylor identified four principles for management to follow: 1. Use systematic, scientific methods of measuring and managing individual work components. 2. Study workers, then select and train them to ensure they are placed in the most appropriate role, ongoing. 3. Obtain worker's cooperation to ensure full use of scientific principles. 4. Establish reasonable divisions within work roles and responsibilities between workers and management. Context Frederick Taylor is known as the "father of scientific management." Scientific management was considered revolutionary in 1912. Taylor did not consider this a great invention. He said it did "involve a certain combination of elements which have not existed in the past, namely, old knowledge so collected, analyzed, grouped and classified into laws and rules that it constitutes science. ************************* Frederick Winslow Taylor started the Scientific Management movement. His philosophy focused on the belief that making people work as hard as they could was not as efficient as optimizing the way they did the work. Taylor proposed that by optimizing and simplifying jobs, productivity would increase. He advanced the idea that workers and managers needed to cooperate with one another. For example, a factory manager at that time had very little contact with the workers, and he left them on their own to produce the necessary product. There was no standardization, and a worker's main motivation was employment, there was no incentive to work as quickly or as efficiently as possible. Taylor believed that workers were motivated by money, so he promoted the idea of "a fair day's pay for a fair day's work." In other words, if a worker didn't achieve enough in a day, he didn't deserve to be paid as much as another worker who was highly productive. Taylor was very interested in efficiency. He applied the scientific method to study the optimal way to do any type of workplace task, by calculating the time needed for the various elements of a task, he could develop the "best" way to complete that task. Conducting the "time and motion" Taylor concluded that certain people could work more efficiently than others, selecting the right people for the job was an important part of workplace efficiency. Taylor used the analogue of Baseball: the best way of doing each act that takes place on the baseball field has been fairly well agree upon and established as a standard. Players have been taught, coached and trained through months of drills. Intimate cooperation between all members of the team. Coach gives orders and players carry it out. Taylor developed four principles of scientific management. These principles are also known simply as "Taylorism". Taylor's four principles are as follows: Replace working by "rule of thumb," or simple habit and common sense, and instead use the scientific method to study work and determine the most efficient way to perform specific tasks. Leads to better and higher quality products and larger output. Rather than simply assign workers to just any job, match workers to their jobs based on capability and motivation, and develop them to work at optimal efficiency, monitor worker performance, and provide instructions and supervision to ensure that they're using the most efficient ways of working. Obtain worker cooperation to ensure full application of the scientific priniciples, Allocate the work between managers and workers so that the managers spend their time planning and training, allowing the workers to perform their tasks efficient Current Application- Scientific management focuses on mechanics, fails to value the people side of work, does not incorporate teamwork, and doesn't address the need for to nimble in quick changing environment. 1. Taylor's Scientific Management Theory established the idea that there was only "one right way" to do something. Other theories over the years do not support Taylor, i.e. Management by Objective, Totally Quality Management, Continuous Improvement, Business Process Reengineering. All of these promote and encourage individual responsibility and the need to gain input from everyone involved in process order to improve processes, allowing for decision making throughout all levels of the organization. 2. Current theories identify that personal autonomy and input leads to increased productivity, better outcomes, and higher level of motivation. And provides opportunity to swiftly adapt to changes in the environment. 3. Taylor breaks tasks down into tiny steps, and focuses on how each person can do his or her specific series of steps best and does not promote team work. Modern methodologies prefer to examine work systems more holistically in order to evaluate efficiency and maximize productivity. The extreme specialization that Taylorism promotes is contrary to modern ideals of how to provide a motivating and satisfying workplace. 4.Taylor separates manual from mental work, modern work environment seeks to incorporate worker's ideas, experience and knowledge into best practice.

Mosher, Frederick - Watergate: Implications for Responsible Government (1974)

The author explores the reasons Watergate happened. Three theories were identified and in the end, the conclusion was Watergate was an outcome of all of the below: 1. Aberration - a one-time event, unique and not likely to happen again. 2. Extension - a part of politics and government for a long time or a result of the decline in the "American society, social, economic, moral and technology." 3. Culmination - shock to the system that without major changes, society and government will not recover. "Watergate was a product of a system which shaped and guided the behavior of its participants. System, as used here, is primarily the product of trends and forces from the past." The climate of Watergate can be viewed from two sides, political and administrative and the motivation factor was Presidential power. Re-electing President Nixon was more important than anything else, even if it meant committing criminal and unethical acts. The administrative climate was a product of the political climate in that it furthered the evolution of a strong presidency. This movement began much earlier and had been accepted since the Brownlow Report (1937). However with practical recommendations such as delegation of federal powers from Washington to the field, came troubling ideas. For example, significant growth in the White House staff was accompanied by the development of a tight hierarchy. The administrative and political characteristics of the government were becoming increasingly intertwined. This posed a threat to the many ideals and protections associated with a democratic system of government such as: • The right to participate or be represented in decisions impacting citizens • The right to equal treatment • The right to know • Free and honest elections • Balance of powers • Ethical conduct of public officials The Panel recognized that ethics had been discussed before. A ten-point Code of Ethics for Government Service was adopted in 1958. These codes were incorporated in the Federal Personnel Manual. In 1961, President Kennedy issued an executive order as a Guide on Ethical Standards to government officials. The Panel made the following recommendations: • Improve codes and direction in public service • Incorporate the Code of Ethics in the oath of office • Create a Federal Service Ethics Board • Provide a government-wide watchdog to consider complaints of ethical violations. Context This article's focus is on ethics and integrity. "...absolute necessity of integrity of the leaders in every branch of government-legislative, executive, and judicial. Without such integrity, the government cannot gain and retain the confidence of the people." Although there were many criminal actions taken during Watergate, it was the unethical behavior of officials that rocked the nation. These officials held the public trust and in a government organization, the members of the organization include all citizens within the jurisdiction. Those involved in Watergate lost site and misunderstood the term "service." Major Themes • Ethics Pillars • Accountability Classics of Public Administration, p. 321 Reply 1 reply Post by Lawrence Becker 20 days ago Re: Mosher, Frederick. Watergate-Implications for Responsible Government. (1974) This is an important piece to include in any discussion on administrative ethics. On the comprehensive exam, there is often a question where stuff on ethics fits but it is usually a part of a larger question rather than a question just on ethics itself. So, you might have a question on management and leadership that asks about ethics and organizational culture as part of the question, for instance. In any case, one of the pieces of Mosher's work that makes it noteworthy is that he's explaining that the Watergate is, in some ways, a logical result of what started with the Brownlow Commission. There are good administrative reasons to centralize decisionmaking but the logical endpoint is that that creates a problematic organizational culture. Interestingly, this was a central focus of some of the Anti-Federalist writers in the late 18th century arguing against the ratification of the Constitution. One piece that might be worth looking at from a PA perspective is "Letters of Cato No. 4 and No. 5." In these essays, Cato warns that the proposed presidency will be too powerful and, worse yet, the presidency as an institution will become like a royal court with a lot of "yes men" around the president, etc. Watergate looks a lot like what Cato was warning about. When we think of cycles of thought on these issues, one useful analogy is to imagine a pendulum swinging back and forth. We want efficiency and effectiveness and so we have a Brownlow Report (or something like it) from time to time that says, "we need to streamline and centralize and make it easier to get things done." And when the pendulum swings too far in that direction, we get a situation or scandal or crisis like Watergate where we say, "we need to democratize and decentralize and be careful about the concentration of power in the hands of too few." Of course, we then come full circle because we feel the system becomes inefficient and unresponsive.

Allisaon, Graham T. - Public and Private Management: Are They Fundamentally Alike in All Unimportant Respects? (1979)

As a political scientist and director of the Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs at Harvard's JFK School of Government, Allison turns Wallace Sayre's assertion that public and private management are fundamentally alike in all unimportant respects into a question and suggests that in the 50 years since Sayre's proclamation, there is still a lack of sufficient research to answer the question. Before concluding that "public and private management are at least as different as they are similar, and that the differences are more important than the similarities", he discusses (1) the difficulty in defining "public management" and how the lack of common terms and overarching framework has led to confusion; (2) how public and private management are alike, referring to general management practices and Gulick and Urwick's POSDCORB model; (3) how public and private management differ by synthesizing ideas and lists from such notables as John T. Dunlop; Hal Rainey, Robert Backoff, and Charles Levine; and Richard E. Neustadt (pp. 397-403); (4) actual job differences as described by the Administrator of the EPA and the CEO of AMC; and (5) a proposed research agenda to move toward a better understanding of the differences and similarities. Allison asserts that it is articulation of the general management perspective and the development of self-consciousness about private business managerial tasks that led to advancements in business administration in the 1920s and that similar efforts could advance our understanding of public administration as well.

Goodnow, Frank J. - Politics and Administration (1900)

Goodnow writes about there being two separate functions of government: Politics and administration. Politics is the "policies or expression of the state will and Administration is the execution of these policies" and the three functions of government, judicial, legislative, and administrative must work in harmony to be effective (Clyde, 2012). Contextualize the Article: With the increasing complexity of government the three functions become more differentiated, yet in order to discharge each of their obigations there must remain harmony between the expression and execution of state will. Politics is defined for this purpose as "the act or vocation of guiding or influencing the policy of a government through the organization of a party among its citizens, including ethics and the art of influencing public opinion, attracting and marshalling voters, and weighting the possession of offices may be dependent on the political opinion or political services of an individual. Administration is commonly defined as "the duty or duties of the administrator consisting of exercising all the powers and duties of government at the local and general level" (Clyde, 2012). Although this definition of Administration seems adequate, it is misleading in the American Government System according to Goodnow. He says that the act of Administration in practice is to carry out legislative authorities "passing of special acts" and following through with judicial mandates. Goodnow says there are really only two prime functions in any government system and that is to proceed with the expression of the state will and the execution of state will. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Goodnow's concepts of the government structure with the functions of politics and administration speaks to a hierarchical system not so different than what exists today thus yielding concern that politics and administration are not as separate as they could be. It is a delicate balance to separate politics from that of administration. He seems to share his predecessors, Machiavelli and Mills, beliefs about there being an ethical construct in the layers of politics and administration and a separation of both to support the overall will of the state. In addition, Goodnow's work seems to hinge on Woodrow Wilson's the Dichotomy of Politics and Administration in the 'Study of Administration', 1887noting the need for politics and administration to be separate. Goodnow's concept of harmony amongst the three functions of government is important as we have seen how Congress and the President have been at impasses several times in recent years and government shut-downs occur. These shut-downs affect the public administrator trying to manage service delivery with no resources and having to balance public need and criticism.

Gulick, Luther - Next Steps in Public Administration (1955)

Gulick's article states public administration is the science and art of governmental systems, operations, and services and is vital for the long-term viability of how the government is run. In 1955, he recognized changes in public administration were needed to prepare for the future. He identified five areas public administrators should focus their attention preparing for modern times: 1. Be able to adapt to meet the needs of the new environment such as the international government, domestic economy, and the municipalities. Public Administrators need to be prepared for a different role. 2. Unite and partner with businesses. Recognize government and citizens need to work together. 3. Focus on the personnel. Public Administrators need to understand employee's patterns and how teams are built and how they interact. 4. Be ready for changes that will be made due to automation. Past barriers will be eliminated. Data will be readily available, and decision making will change. 5. Study the use of responsible experts in a political and professional structure. Gulick believed public administrators needed to step forward and meet the demands of a new age.

Cupps, Stephen - Emerging Problems of Citizen Participation (1977)

This article outlines the history of citizen participation, and some of the problems that administrators need to be aware of moving forward; representation and legitimacy, tactics and style, and cost-benefit analysis. Citizen participation started off as a way for the government to essentially keep itself in check and be sure that what they are doing is really in the best interest of society as a whole. Today however, there have been some problems arising from just who is in charge and what is being taken as truth. The author lays out three "emerging problems," with citizen participation in today's society. The first is representation and legitimacy. This issue is one where there is a need to step back and ask, who is being represented here? Interest and Citizen Groups tend to use buzz words such as "consumer," and "environmental" to maybe put some more emphasis or importance on their claims over others. The second is that of tactics and styles. This refers to the way issues are being presented to administrators. Oftentimes it seems as though it is the loudest voice in the room, and not necessarily the most important one. "A frequently voiced complaint is the overdramatized, hyperbole, and shrillness with which citizen groups sometimes present their case." The last problem is that of cost-benefit analysis. In today's world we want to fix problems, but no one has done the research to see how much these programs or needs are going to cost to fix, and what is our return on investment; much like the implementation of Obama Care. While the Affordable Care Act has some good intentions, no one seemed to do any research or analyzed how much this was actually going to cost, or what kinds of problems could arise out of it. We are still seeing fallouts of the program and seeing increase health insurance costs due to the very sick who weren't able to get insurance signing up, but no younger, healthier individuals signing up as well in order to help balance the program. Or maybe to the author's earlier point, someone did do the analysis, yet no one in the room heard or cared to listen.

Ascher, Charles - Trends of a Decade in Administrative Practices (1950)

Ascher asserts that World War II was the crucible in which modern PA was forged. Fundamental reforms that occurred between 1940 and 1950 affected the government organization and service delivery and new ideas arose in extremis. The war highlighted areas that needed reform and gave entrepreneurs opportunities to develop solutions. This led to an explosion of administrative bureaucracy, especially at the local level. This occurred after the Brownlow Committee's report (1937) supported the establishment of more authority in the office of the Chief Executive and described the tools and authority such offices (POSDCORB). These assertions were reinforced by the Hoover Commission (1947), which sought to recommend further administrative changes to government such as extending these recommendations to all public managers. The transformative ideas he described are: Program planning and performance budgeting + Gulick's assertion that the PA's purpose is to turn policy into program (ideas to reality). Fiscal policy: separate capital budgets from operations budgets Decentralization of decision-making Organizational management (he calls it O&M) to improve procedures and improve efficiency Administration is a social process: systems can be improved by reducing hierarchy and encouraging two-way communication Engagement with the citizenry Wider use of social sciences (such as social psychiatry and anthropology to inform understanding of group dynamics) Improve legislative-executive relationships: politics and administration should function in tandem and are fundamental to what makes government different (per Appleby) Changes in intergovernmental relations: Federal agencies shifting to grant funding rather than program delivery 10. Integration of similarly-oriented agencies and creation of new agencies to reflect specialized problems 11. Humanization: "the trend away from mechanistic thinking 12. Coordination between agencies

Kaboolian, Linda - The New Public Management: Challenging the Boundaries of the Management vs. Administration Debate (1998)

New Public Management is an interdisciplinary approach to governance involving business, economics, public administration, and political science in an effort to reform democratic governance. The principles and activities are international in scope. Fundamentally NPM represents the infusion of market principles into the political realm; it is both political and economic in nature: Economic principles are used to describe relationships Policy-making, implementation, and service delivery are analyzed as a series of transactions The movement is driven by a need to maximize production and efficiency have been hampered by a rigid and obtuse bureaucracy ("bureau-pathology") Techniques and standards like customer service, performance-based contracting, competition, market incentives, and deregulation are employed to improve government performance Competition should occur both within units, between units, and with outside agencies and firms Managers should be entrepreneurial Decision-making should be decentralized Incentives should be used to improve individual performance NPM works because customer preferences are relatively fixed: they don't change much over time (no fads) Problems Public managers operating out of self interest Going rogue - can affect legitimacy Minority groups may not be actively engaging with the government Consumers are a self-selecting group and may not reflect need in unserved communities "Customer" assumes that solutions should be tailored to individual rather than systemic It's one thing to satisfy an individual, but another to be accountable to broader goals Accountability But administration is a reflection of the character of the citizenry Institutions designed to solve problems evolve to reflect the problem and the solution Engaging in politics curbs self-interest As managers are a direct contact-point with the citizenry the are themselves political agents Decentralized systems allow these agents to pass information back into the system and allow it to adapt to emergent needs Accountability is achieved through market forces, but there must be competition and information about alternatives must be available to the consumer Context The discussion about NPM in the US evolved from the National Performance Review (1993), but ideas such as using a customer service model had been evolving since the early 80s in the UK under Thatcher. It is important to remember that PA is a series of on-going reforms. There is no end point to the study and refinement of the discipline, and NPM will fade as needs and limitations change over time. Major Themes New Public Management Public sector leadership Organizational development History of PA

Laurence, E. Lynn - The Myth of the Bureaucratic Paradigm: What Traditional Public Administration Really Stood For (2001)

he main point of this article is traditional public administration. I. Woodrow Wilson - 1887 lectures advocate politics/administration dichotomy, argued for businesslike professionalism II. Frederick Taylor - 1911 Scientific Management divided formal responsibility of management between managers who did the planning and workers who performed the functions III. Max Weber - 1922 Political limitations of the ideal bureaucracy IV. Luther Gulick advocate politics/administration dichotomy V. Frank J. Goodnow advocate politics/administration dichotomy VI. Leonard D. White - 1926 Introduction to the Study of Public Administration, spoil system governed and controlled administration, capacity and control go hand in hand VII. W.F. Willoughby - 1927 Principles of Public Administration VIII. Paul Appleby - 1949 Argued that policy making was appropriate to be centralized. Administrators had no autonomy. Contextualize the article The assault on traditional public administration was by the following scholars. I. Herbert A. Simon - 1946, 1947 - criticizes traditional public administration such as Gulick II. Robert A. Dahl - 1947 - critic of scientific public administration III. Dwight Waldo - 1948 The Administrative State, 1968 stated classical theory of public administration was crude, presumptuous and incomplete IV. Wallace Sayre - Values of traditional public administration obsolete. Highlight key examples, key ideas The critics of modern public administration by the following scholars. I. David Osburn and Ted Gaebler - 1992 Reinventing Government stated American society is so busy trying to control everything inside government in an attempt to protect the public's interest and tax dollars that the outcomes are ignored. II. Robert B. Denhardt and Janet Vinzant Denhardt - 2000 dismissed traditional public administration as hostile to citizen involvement

Bailey, Stephen K. - Ethics and the Public Service (1964)

At about the same time President Lyndon Johnson was introducing The Great Society, Bailey wrote this article in memory of Paul H. Appleby and expanding on Appleby's 1952 book, Morality and Administration in Democratic Government. After noting that Appleby generally confined his remarks to the morality of the democratic system, Bailey goes on to describe the individual personal attitudes and moral characteristics required of public servants. He asserts that public servants at all levels require the "moral qualities" of "optimism" in the face of the ambiguity and paradox of government rules and procedures where there is no one right answer and every decision hurts someone; "courage" to make decisions and to maintain impersonality in decision making and relationships; and "fairness tempered by charity", compensating for decisions made with imperfect information and in the inevitable presence of self-interest in order to promote justice. He posits that the "ultimate corruption of free government comes...from the persistently cynical" (p. 240) and that optimism is crucial to avoiding that state.

Behn, Robert - The Big Question of Public Management (1995)

Behn's premise is that there are three main questions in the field of public administration which present ongoing management dilemmas and they are micromanagement, motivation, and measurement. Contextualize the Article: Behn is focusing on how Doctors and Scientists answer the "big questions" in their field and how there are three questions to be validated in the field of public management. Public Management (PM) differs from Public Administration (PA) in that PM is how we manage and lead public sector employees; how we organize public sector employees to achieve some desired goals or outputs; how we motivate employees, etc. PA is the art and the science overall and PM is like a subsection of PA. He is in the era of network governance and new public service (NPS) in which the public wants to know, and hold government accountable to the goals in which is it supposed to achieve. This new era has the emergence of stakeholders groups, beneficiary satisfaction surveys, grievance and appeals processes, and consumer movements to help with the checks and balances of the system. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Behn's article encompasses the Six Pillars of Public Administration as coined by Suzanne Beaumaster, Ph.D. which are Representation, Responsibility, Political-Administration Dichotomy, Effectiveness and Efficiency, Accountability, and Legitimacy. The dilemma remains in that it is hard to measure public sector services as they are often about qualitative measures which have great variation based on everyone in the community utilizing a public service. This is where private organizations can easily determine efficiency and effectiveness quickly.

Key, Jr., V.O. - The Lack of a Budgetary Theory (1940)

Budgeting itself is a long drawn out process, which we spend a lot of time, energy and resources in preparing the forms, documents, and reports necessary to develop the bureaucratic budget. In the end it almost always results in insufficient funds to support all aspects of the wants and wishes within the budget, therefore leaving the creator of the budget up to the decisions on what gets funded and what does not. Legislative action can play a role in determining what is or is not funded. Often the final decision makers are so overwhelmed by the budget process and lack of understanding that the public interest may get lost and a budget may be approved just so it doesn't have to be dealt with. Often agencies are left up to determine how to maximize revenues and resources to get the biggest bang for the taxpayers buck. The funding entities don't often put measurements in place to ensure a large return on investments. Often when an agency operates to a maximum efficiency, the next piece to determine is what the value of the efficiency is. Are we spending the money correctly on the correct services and needs to serve the needs of the community and taxpayers? As society progresses, it is more and more important for public officials to select expenditure which will bring the greatest return and result in high social aspirations. They need to weigh the needs of today with the needs of tomorrow. In order for the budgeting process to be successful, it is important that stability in the amount of funding availability year after year to maximize the resources and planning process. Pigou states the principle of balance is provided by the postulate that resources should be so distributed among different uses that a marginal return of satisfaction is the same for all of them. Mable Walker, 1st American writer on public finance, established a method for the distribution of expenditures on the assumption that the way we distribute expenditures is correlating to the state of progress achieved by society. Professor Dickinson believes good and services provided in a socialist economy should be free of charge to all members of society.

Brownlow, Louis; Merriam, Charles; Gulick, Luther - Reports of the President's Committee on Administrative Management (1937)

First formal assessment of government organization from a managerial perspective. The committee report focused on improving accountability. The committee recommended the creation of aides to the President to assist with the administrative tasks and the establishment of the Executive Office. The report suggested that the President have direct control over administrative offices and that the Civil Service Administration, the Bureau of Budget (later known as OMB- Office of Management and Budget (note: guidance of fiscal accountability - OMB circulars) , and the National Resources Board be part of the Executive Office. The report stated, "The times demand better government organization, staffed with more competent public servants, more free to do their best, and coordinated by an Executive accountable to the Congress, fully equipped with modern tools of management." The recommendations made in the report were very controversial. The legislature was concerned about too much power in the Executive Branch (at the President's level). The Reorganization Act of 1939 was passed authorizing only a few of the recommendations contained in the report. It created the Executive Office and added aides for the President. As a result many federal agencies were placed within cabinet level departments providing for greater accountability. Notes: Accountability/Efficiency, Era of growth in government,Franklin Roosevelt -President's committee on Administrative Management- Brownlow's Committee, New Deal Era, Conflict of power between legislative and executive branches

Follett, Mary P. - The Giving of Orders (1926)

Follet argues that scientific management is productive, that it is more effective to take orders from the situation as opposed to taking orders through the hierarchy due to the psychological impacts. Positive psychological impacts increases efficiency. Contextualize the article The disgruntled employees in the public sector at times may be a chain reaction of the hierarchical orders passed down from the authoritative figure to the subordinate. However, people are what is necessary to be changed, their habit patterns need to be changed. When orders are given by the boss the subordinate gets defensive because they feel they're self-respect is being attacked. Highlight key examples, key ideas Analyze the situation: Build up certain attitudes Giving orders can be challenging Not giving orders can be challenging as well Best method is to depersonalize the giving orders, let the situation dictate the orders not the position Provide for release of attitudes Heightened self-respect increases efficiency Adjust the released response when it's carried out Don't blame for the sake of blaming Seek solutions not blame

Goldstein, Herman - Police Discretion: The Ideal Versus The Real (1963)

Goldstein's article discussed the levels of law enforcement and the challenges faced by police officers when using discretion. He stated there were levels of enforcement and the dilemma for police is, do they provide full enforcement or something less. Full enforcement is not realistic because of limited resources and vague laws open to interpretation. Discretion is used by police officers every day. But there is a reluctance to admitting they use discretion. The reasons are: 1) it is an overt act where a position is being taken; 2) police want to maintain their image of being objective and impartial; 3) a set of criteria to follow must be developed; 4) it causes corruption; and 5) personal liability and legal issues. However, the articles also identify advantages to acknowledging the use of discretion. The reasons to admit the use of discretion are: 1) law enforcement cannot remain on the defensive; 2) must establish full enforcement is impossible; and 3) must be honest with the public, building a trusting relationship. The future of police discretion will require strong, effective administrative leadership within police organizations. The police administrator must not "pretend" full enforcement is occurring but engage the citizens, being honest about the problems facing the police. The police administrator must become the leader, no longer the defender. When the police administrator no longer distinguishes between full enforcement and discretion, but rather between the ideal and reality they operate under, the public will begin to recognize the necessity for discretion. I thought this article was a good example of where administrators have to use their discretion, especially when enforcing laws that are expressed in broad terms leaving the interpretation of the legislatures' intentions difficult. Politicians may intentionally make laws ambiguous to provide greater flexibility in enforcement.

Perry, James L. and Wise, Lois R. - The Motivational Bases of Public Service (1990)

Government has a negative reputation in the public's eye. That crisis can be turned around by understanding what motivates public servants and the methods of stimulating positive public service. Government is different than private business. Contextualize the article Through the history government has developed a negative stigma from the public's perspective. In an effort to turn that around there has been much scrutiny by many scholars. Some argue that government should mirror the private sector. Others argue that government is completely different from private sector. Over the past recent years two developments have become the focus for strengthening public service ethic. The public choice movement where people are motivated primarily by self-interest, and the second is the monetary incentive systems, controlled by one's supervisor. Perry and Wise argue that more research is needed to truly address the crisis facing American government with the decline in public confidence. Highlight key examples, key ideas Motivations of public servants are: • Rational - o individuals become public servants in order to participate in policy formulation - Steven Kelman argument o individuals become public servants because they can relate personally to programs such as foster care, etc. - Anthony Downs argument o Individuals become public servants because they advocate for special interest such as child protective services, etc. • Norm-Based - o individuals desire to serve the public interest - Anthony Downs argument o loyalty to duty and government as a whole - Frederick Mosher argument o social equity - Frederickson argument • Affective o Commitment to the social importance of a particular program - Luther Gulick argued the nobility of the great objectives of the public service would be more lasting than those based on profit motives o Patriotism of benevolence, meaning the love and desire to protect all people that live within our political boundaries - Frederickson and Hart

McGregor, Douglas Murray - The Human Side of Enterprise (1957)

Government must utilize social sciences to make our human organizations truly effective. The human capital within our organizations can generate unimagined resources of creative human energy. Theory X: Management's main role is to organize people and resources to meet the end needs, by guiding, motivating, controlling and modifying the employee's actions. Employees must be persuaded, rewarded, punished and controlled, actions must be directed. A method for directing behavior involves being permissive, satisfying peoples demand and achieving harmony. Overall Management must be "Firm but Fair." Everyone experiences the following needs: Physiological- want until we get it then want something else. Safety-Motivation kicks in to want to be at the next higher level. Also safety concerns arise when the fear of favoritism, discrimination or loss of employment is of concern. Social- Need for belonging acceptance by co-workers, friendship. Management often sees the Social aspect as a threat to the organization. Management will try to control this to ensure a takeover is not imminent. Ego- needs related to one's self esteem or reputation. These needs are rarely satisfied for long. Staff in lower levels of hierarchy will not necessarily obtain this need. Self-Fulfillment- recognizing one's own potential, and continued self development. Often this need is pushed aside to fulfill the above need first. Theory Y: A New Theory of Management: Management does not motivate people, they develop the capacity for assuming responsibility, create readiness, and direct behavior towards organizational goals. Management makes it possible for people to recognize and develop these characteristics for themselves. This is the process of creating opportunity, releasing potential, removing obstacles, encouraging growth, providing guidance. Peter Drucker calls this "Management by Objectives" Important ways to create the above theory. Decentralization and Delegation-Frees people to direct their own activities and take responsibility. Also fills the ego need. Job Enlargement-Acceptance of responsibly from the bottom of the organization-up Participation and Consultative Management-encourages people to direct their creative energies towards organization objectives and gives them a voice. Performance Appraisals- Allowing input form employees on their success and progress towards accompanying their goals they established.

Barnard, Chester - Informal Organizations and Their Relation to Formal Organizations (1938)

In 1938, Chester Barnard identified the acceptance theory of authority that argued authority is more about those that accept the authority of another over others. It is less about naming an authoritative person on an organization chart. He described the influence of those at the bottom of the hierarchical organization chart. The influence of the executive has less to do with administration and more to do with securing cooperation from employees using feedback. Barnard determined that very large organizations include smaller, less formal groups of people. He referred to these groups as informal organizations. Barnard defined informal organizations as: 1. Crucial to the operation of a formal organization because it is the basis for communication, builds a cohesive team through a willingness to serve, and maintains a feeling of personal integration and self-respect. 2. Indefinite and structureless. 3. Requires a certain amount of formal organization and usually cannot persist without a formal structure. 4. Relations of a person to a large organization is through those in which there is an immediate contact. Context Chester Barnard developed the acceptance theory of authority during the Pre-World War II era. This theory fits within the classical approach to Administrative Management. Henri Fayol's general theory of management was developed during this same time. Barnard showed that the acceptance of orders does not depend on the person in authority, but the willingness of the worker to comply with the orders being given. He stressed the importance of an Individual's behavior and believed other theorists had underestimated the variability of individual behavior and the impact this has on organizations effectiveness. He introduced the concept of "zone of indifference". This concept suggests that direction must be perceived to be carried out without conscious questioning of authority. Incentives can be used to expand the zone, but material incentives alone are limited in their ability to effect compliance. The decision-making process is dependent on communication, especially in the informal organization. Pillars Efficiency and Effectiveness

Sayre, Wallace S. - Premises of Public Administation: Past and Emerging (1958)

In his analysis and summary of pre- and post-World War II literature on public administration, Sayre describes the development and codification of old, or traditional, orthodoxy and the emergence of new PA premises following the war. He credits such PA notables as White (1926), Wilson (1887), and Goodnow (1900) as well as the Pendleton Act (1883), the Taft Commission studies (1910-12), the Budget and Accounting Act (1921), and the Classification Act (1923) with the introduction and acceptance of the main elements of the "old orthodoxy": (1) the politics-administration dichotomy; (2) scientific management; (3) the executive budget as an instrument of rationality, coordination, planning, and control; (4) rational and scientific personnel management; (5) neutral/impartial career service; and (6) the body of administrative law prescribing standards of due process. Synthesizing the dissenting opinions of F.M. Marx (editor, 1946), Simon (1947), Waldo (1948), Appleby (1949), and Stein (1952), as well as sociological studies of bureaucracy such as Selznick's TVA and the Grass Roots (1948), Sayre proposes a new set of premises, or a "new orthodoxy", for PA: (1) PA is "inescapably" bound up in specific values that reflect the culture and context of the time; (2) PA is a "major political process" that includes the selection of values and the use of discretionary power; (3) organizational structure determines which value(s) or interest(s) will have priority; (4) management techniques and processes have costs and benefits, and will fall out of popularity as new versions come along; and (5) PA responsiveness and accountability to elected officials (popular control) is problematic in a government increasingly more reliant on the use of discretionary power by administration.

Kingdon, John W. - How Does an Idea's Time Come? Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Policies (1984)

In the midst of the reinvention phase (1980s to 1990s), Kingdon briefly explains the public policy-making process as (1) setting the agenda; (2) specifying the alternatives; (3) choosing an alternative; and (4) implementing the decision. In this article, he discusses how he set out to study the processes leading up to the decision phase, relates the questions he sought to answer, and provides a brief preview of the book describing what he learned in the process. He describes three of the pre-decision processes—problems, policies, and politics—and their role in decision agenda setting. Building on the Cohen-March-Olsen garbage can model of organizational choice, Kingdon describes problems as having their own stream in which the "float around" until some significant change brings them to the attention of policy-makers. Similarly, he explains that accumulated knowledge and ideas for solutions (policies) have their own stream in which they are awaiting a problem to solve. The third stream, politics, is composed of political events, national mood, public opinion, turnover in elected officials, etc. To make it onto the decision agenda, these streams must come together in conjunction with an open policy window, usually generated by some compelling problem or a major event in the political stream.

Katz and Kahn - Organizations and System Concept (1966)

Katz and Kahn argued against the theory of " One Best Way" and the "Machine" theories of Taylor, Weber and Gulick. They argued that organizations are open systems and are influenced both the external environment as well as the internal environment. They used social science examples to validate their point. They argue that PA is not a Science and is unlike the theory of relativity, etc. the input and outputs of organizations change depending on the environment and over time. They compare organizations to the biological needs of the human body and cell structure. Systems theory focuses on relationships that are both external and internal to an organization, the structure of the organization, and their interdependence. The general characteristic of all open systems is that they are not limited to one method of accomplishing an objective - there is not one best way - there are many ways. They acknowledge that organizations are social devices that have the purpose of efficiently accomplishing a stated purpose in a group setting and this may be a challenging because each individual's goal may or may not be may not be aligned with the organization's stated purpose. Basically: Organizations are dependent upon the external environment. The external environment affects both the organization as a whole and the individuals working within the organization. Organizations must be flexible and not rigid in order to changes in the external environment. There are many ways of accomplishing a goal. Dispels the "one way" theory. Organizations required flexibility. There are many acceptable ways of accomplishing an objective (dispels theory of only one way.) Open system are learning systems, open to error variances created by external forces. Introduction of feedback loop. Relationship: 1960's Beginning of Humanistic Period Argues against Old Orthodoxies of Gulick, Thompson, Weber Continues work of Applybe, Simon, Maslow, Waldo

Kingdon, John - Agendas, Alternatives, and Public Politics (2011)

Kingdon defined that there are five-stages in the policy making process: agenda setting, policy formulation, decision-making, implementation, and evaluation. Contextualize the Article: It is hard to know where the policy window is sometimes as publicized issues can raise them into this window and sometimes not. The policy window requires three streams which are the problem, the policy, and the political appetite to do something about the agenda present (Kingdon, 2011). Kingdon is similar to Behn as he doesn't quite figure out what drives those things in a systematic way but he does identify what the variables are and that's something (Becker, 2015). Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Although the recent shooting of an African American young male by a Caucasian police officer raised this policy window issue again regarding civil rights and gun control. In the end civil rights meaning the equity of treating every individual who is in the same situation should be treated in the same way. This was the overarching policy that was revisited from President Kennedy and Martin Luther King's advocacy to make this the norm of our society.

Lindblom, Charles - The Science of "Muddling Through" (1959)

Lindblom rejected the rational approach to decision making in policy formulation (decisions made with total information). He was a proponent of an incremental approach to decision making in public policy formulation defined as making small, additive changes. Lindblom describes "successive limited comparisons" as the "branch" method. The "branch" method allows administrators to look at policies that differ to a small degree from the policies currently in effect. This method reduces the number of alternatives to be evaluated while concurrently reducing the scope of the evaluation. Lindblom described this as looking at two nearby branches, not the whole tree, roots and all. Incrementalism considers only a few options, decisions are negotiated, change over time, are reactive, and political considerations are taken into account. The formulation of public policy is less about the will of the policymakers and more about events and circumstances. According to Lindblom, successive limited comparison, or muddling through, is the cause of incrementalism in policy development. Seldom are radically different new policies developed. Administrators are inclined to build on existing policies, making adjustments using a continuous progression. This incremental approach sometimes frustrates citizens and other interested parties, leaving the impression that the government is slow and unresponsive. Lindblom believes that "muddling through" is positive. He believes this approach is efficient because it analyzes realistic options more quickly than the root method. He believes this method is also responsive to the goals of a large set of constituents.

Gulick, Luther - Notes on the Theory of Organization (1937)

Luther Gulick describes 7 activities and duties of a chief executive. The 7 functions of managers are POSDCORB as described below: Planning - Identifying and outlining the things that need to be done, the methods to achieve the purpose that is set for the organization. Organizing - Establishing a formal structure of authority as depicted in an organizational chart. Staffing - The personnel function, hiring and training the staff and maintaining positive conditions of work. Directing- Continuous decision making using specific and general orders, performing as the leader of the enterprise Co-ordinating - Connecting the various entities and process of the work. Gulick notes that any manager will have a finite amount of time and energy, and discusses the span of control under this function. Reporting - Keeping those to whom the executive is responsible as well as subordinates informed through records, research, and inspections. Budgeting - Fiscal planning, accounting, and control Context POSDCORB is an acronym used in the field of management and public administration that depicts the classic view of administrative management. These 7 functions also were identified in a staff paper written by Luther Gulick and Lyndall Urwick for the Brownlow Committee (1937). Gulick used the military organizational theory and the theory of management written by Henri Fayol (1916) in developing his theory of organization. Gulick states the exact number of subordinates handled under any single manager depends on the stability of the organization, specialization of the subordinates, and whether their manager has a comparable background. Gulick never identified an exact number of subordinates that any one manager can control, but other studies have suggested 3 to 6 direct reports for one manager, but it depends on the organization.

Machiavelli, Niccolo - The Prince (1525)

Machiavelli's philosophy begins to establish the concept of "free will" amongst the people meaning they could "shield themselves against misfortune. He claims high confidence in the power of human self-determination as compared to "divine destiny" which was the beliefs in this era of Medieval and Renaissance thinkers. Machiavelli's beliefs separated politics from ethics and set the precedent for looking at the decisions needing to be made by the public administrator must be practical and work for those policy efforts on the ground that are being carried out. He was not well received for these concepts. Contextualize the Article: Machiavelli had his European rulers as guides and opted for a bit of a change in his style of public administration. He was best known as a philosopher which meant he operated from a point of ethics which was not generally the concept of the rulers at the time; ruthlessness, deceptive, and coldhearted were the adjectives attached to many of them. Machiavelli is known for, separating politics and ethics in political ethics which is characterized as providing a framework for evaluating choices and making a decision based on fairness, reasonable behavior, and what precedents existed prior. His country, Italy was embroiled with political conflict and distress engaged in blackmail and extreme violence and witnessing this he pushed for a unity of government within his homeland with his focus on politically active citizenry hoping the citizens will be considered in political decisions affecting them. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Machiavelli was highly controversial and lost many political cabinet positions, was jailed, and tortured, yet believed strongly in the right of balance for citizens to have a say on what the government was doing to them. In this era a public administrator still was anyone compelled to find greater security in being feared than in being loved. Acting upon one's ethics is what creates the ethical piece. Ethics are defined as a branch of philosophy dealing with values and relating to human conduct with respect to rightness and wrongness of certain actions and to the goodness and badness of the motives and ends of such actions. Leaders, like public administrators, are only viewed as good if they have secured public trust, legitimacy and value the best outcome for their community.

Simon - The Proverbs of Administration (1946)

Main Arguments •Criticism of administrative management principles are vague and conflict with each other; •Vague definition of specialization (by client, local, or function?) and whether or not specialization increases efficiency; •Doesn't understand why the importance of reporting to one person has to be called out since it is impossible to comply with conflicting orders (authority) and this could create conflict with span of control principle in large organizations; • Suggested researched based approach to organization analysis with a focus on decision making. Context •Taylorism Scientific Management •Gulick Notes on Theory and Organization 1937 • New Deal • Information Organizations and Their Relation to Formal Organizations Barnard 1938 Article Title, Authors and Date Proverbs of Administration Simon 1946 Related Pillar •Economy and Efficiency •Responsibility •Authority • Decision Making

Follet, Mary Parker - The New State, The Giving of Order (1918)

Mary Parker Follett was a Social Worker who was a strong advocacy for those in need of public assistance through government and became a public administrator. She emphasized the human nature of government, democracy, and the role of local community. She brought forth the concept of lateral processes within hierarchical organizations which opposed the main type of organizational typology structure defined well by Max Weber. She is also known as the "Mother of Conflict Resolution". She believed that many bureaucrats have become accustomed to simply giving orders, but she recognized that most people do not follow them without coercion. Follett focused on the role individual motivation and group processes play in the work environment. Contextualize the Article: This lateral process organization style enhanced the notion that people count as human beings and as workers. It allowed for "authority of expertise instead of authority based on three categories traditional, legal-rational, and charismatic. Follett, as a social worker and public administrator, valued the human relationship and brought forth the belief that workers in a similar environment do better with establishing relationships and work environment can benefit in many ways by valuing these existing and "reciprocal relationships" through improved efficiency, effectiveness, responsibility, and accountability. Organizations can be integrated and power-based dynamics can shift from "power over" to "power with" which has an implied notion to work alongside rather than over shifting the power-base. She also believed that through these "reciprocal relationships" conflict could be mitigated and most would strive towards cooperative and collaborative relationships. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The key concepts of Follett's philosophy are: • interrelatedness - 'coactive' as opposed to coercive • power with an emphasis on 'power-with' rather than 'power-over' people; where the 'situation' will dictate the action that needs to be taken • a community-based approach with the idea that natural leaders are born within the group • the leader guides and in turn is guided by the group • teaching is carried out by leading • a skillful leader influences by stimulating others • the idea of fluid leadership where leaders and followers are in a relationship and the role of leader flows to where it is needed - informal leadership is in the workplace. Although her work is post Frederick Taylor's it was in direct contrast to the scientific management model that had existed. Follett's work is not prevalent in American bureaucracies yet her concepts have been a forefront in private companies since the 1980's and Peter Drucker, management expert, has used her model for companies worldwide.

Merton, Robert - Bureaucratic Structure and Personality (1940)

Merton is a sociologist and is advocating for sociologist to become involved in the science of Public Administration. His article focuses on the social nature of Public Administration. He seeks to address personality and personality traits affects the Public Administration. He argues that the bureaucratic structure can lead to inefficiency. Although Weber believed that, in concept, strict adherence to rules would result in reliability, predictability, and efficiency; Merton points out that strict adherence to rules actually creates dysfunction, and causes bureaucrats it to appear dominant (in power), arrogant, and impersonal. He called bureaucrats "Schimpfwort's", stating that the strict adherence to rules can cause blindspots. His concern was that as changes occurred, individuals would be unable to respond to the change and would be unable to modify their practices because of their adherence to outdated rules. Administrators/officials within the bureaucratic structure were under pressure to be "methodical, prudent, and disciplined." Adherence to the rules caused rigidity. He was concerned that this rigidity would cause a displacement of goals and ultimately result in the bureaucracy's inability to serve the public it was charged to serve. He identified several problems with structural conformity: 1. Career Oriented: Rewarded for conformity. The better one adhered to the rules the more opportunity for advancement, promotion, seniority, compensation, pensions. 2. Self-Entrenched: when there is a threat to the organization or work and they take pride in what they do (their craft) so there is a tendency to defend the work "as-is" rather than to embrace change 3. Emotional attachment - What might have originally been established as a technical means becomes a norm, a sacred way of doing something.

Lipsky, Michael - Street Level Bureaucracy: The Critical Role of Street-Level Bureaucrats (1980)

Michael Lipsky defines street-level bureaucrats as service workers that interact directly with citizens while performing their jobs. He emphasizes the importance of the low-level public service employees to the agency and services delivered by government. Lipsky's key points are: 1. Street-level bureaucrats cause a lot of public controversies due to debates over their scope and function and the impact they have on people's lives. 2. Street-level bureaucrats, such as police officers, teachers, and health workers are familiar to the people they serve, but not necessarily as accountable as people would like them to be. 3. Street-level bureaucracies directly affect people and change their lives. People become hopeful that these bureaucrats will help them on an individual basis. 4. Street-level bureaucrats provide a "visible, accessible, and blamable, collective target." Context Up until 1980, when defining bureaucracies, the role of public administrators had focused on the higher level executives with direct control over policy formulation. Lipsky identified that in reality, it is mainly the low-level public employee that has the most impact on citizens. So instead of focusing on the higher level officials, the focus of attention should be on the low-level employee known as the street-level bureaucrats. Classics of Public Administration, p. 412

White, Leonard - Introduction to the Study of Public Administration (1926)

PA is the study of management, focus on efficiency due to growth of government and increased taxation, identified the need to utilize the technical expertise of Public Administrators to assist legislators, need to move beyond the times of "just muddling through." Refers to Scientific Management and the establishment of the US Chamber of Commerce. Need to act more like business. Overview: White believed that the study of PA should be founded on management and not on law. He believed that PA was the management of people and materials for the sole purpose of carrying out the business of the state in an efficient manner. "Public administration is the execution of the public business; the goal of administration activity the most expeditions, economical and complete achievement of public programs. " Good administrators are responsible to eliminate waste, conserve material and energy, and ensure that public service is delivered in the most rapid and complete manner. Work should be carried out in a routine fashion. Lower ranks should conduct the work and bring matters of importance to the attention of their superiors. The issues being addressed by legislators are too technically and need to shift that responsibility to those in public administration that have the technical knowledge. He refers to prior times of just "muddling through" and identifies that the need increased accountability as a result of the significant increase in government programs and spending as well as the public's concern for accountability. Increasing taxation is leading to increased accountability and efficiency. He refers to the United States Chamber of Commerce, established in 1912, was made up of businessmen, and that businessmen want to see efficiency and economy applied to government in the same way it is applied to business. He makes the connection that an efficient and economical government is a prerequisite for prosperity and business success. It is important to have an honest, sound, and intelligent administration. He refers to the scientific management movement and that the movement has identified dissatisfaction with how many public offices are being managed/operated

Simon, Herbert - The Proverbs of Administration (1946)

Proverbs exist in contrary pairs which creates advantages and disadvantages depending on the perspective being evaluated. Simon's challenge is that depending on the situation both pairs of the proverb could be seen as correct or controversial, yet there is no way to determine which one is best. Simon's theory challenges the idea of existing theories, Weber, Taylor, and Gulick, that there is one right or best way to do public administration. Contextualize the Article: In Herbert A. Simon's article he writes from the premise that "proverbs are ideal" as they exist in contrary pairs; however the problem is there is no way to know which one is the proper one. He analyzes four administrative principles; specialization, unity of command, span of control, and organization of groups by purpose, process, clientele all of which can create contraindications thus decision-making is disrupted and efficiency is problematic. Simon discusses the concepts of Public Administration as neither being a science or an art but rather the sum of the combination of both. The Impasse of Administrative Theory says instead of viewing public administration as having principles and convictions to build a foundation of theory (science) it identifies the elements of public administration to be "merely describing and diagnosing administrative situations". In Simon's work by finding faults through lack of proverbs and concept alliances it minimizes the industrial effort set forth by every man and woman in the workforce. Contradictory pairs lead to opposite organizational recommendations so a public administrator never knows which one to apply and it leads to project implementation stalls, delays, or revamping. The system has to manipulate one of the four administrative principles to get back on track or move onto a new course. Efficiency and effectiveness are generally lost in these type of situations. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: In my experience, the use of proverbs are questions used in psychological tests and psychosocial assessments to evaluate one's ability to think abstractly or concretely. Higher levels of abstraction trends an ability of deeper, more intellectual reasoning with inclusive and rationale decision-making capacity. Proverbs are the grey matter in the system. It bridges the science and the art of public administration mucking up the clarity by bringing the human element of emotion and rational decision-making together.

Dahl, Robert - The Science of Public Administration - Three Problems (1947)

Robert Dahl claims that Public Administration will never be a science for three main reasons: normative values remain unclear; human nature is involved and unpredictable; and general principles for one region may not apply to another region in the same way. Dahl explains the three problems of the science of Public Administration as follows: 1. Normative values - Do administrators value efficiency over morality? Dahl says this problem happens from the "frequent impossibility of excluding normative considerations from the problems of public administration." He explains this had been the intent with the politics-administration dichotomy and the accompanying focus upon scientific means to achieve efficiency. Dahl argued that we must "recognize that the study of public administration must be founded on some clarification of ends." 2. Human Behavior - Can human beings offer enough predictability to be studied as a science? Dahl says the problem happens from the "inescapable fact that a science of public administration must be a study of certain aspects of human behavior." He criticized the tendency to treat organization in formal, technical terms and to regard human beings that establish organizations more or less as "material." The study of administration must, he argued, embrace the whole psychological man and must not presume that man is a simple machine responding only and fully to goals of self-interest narrowly conceived. 3. Social Setting - Can generalizations be made between governments, countries? Even when policies and practices differ? Dahl says the problem here concerns the origin of principles of administration. He believes the study of Public Administration has been too narrow. "The study of public administration inevitably must become a much more broadly based discipline, resting not on a narrowly defined knowledge of techniques and processes, but rather extending to the varying historical, sociological, economic and other conditioning factors ..." Context Dahl was a bit before his time when he looked at public administration from a more humanistic approach. This article offered a different perspective that was later combined with more scientific tendencies to make changes in government and policies.

Simon, Herbert A. - Birth of an Organization: The Economic Cooperation Administration (1953)

Simon's position within the Economic Cooperation Administration gave him an opportunity to witness the birth and initial evolution of an agency. In this case study he describes some of the problems/opportunities/lessons managers faced in developing and implementing the mission of the ECA. A new agency's development is affected considerably by the environment in which it is established; an environment defined by legal, economic, and social parameters. Foundational concepts drive programming, it is thus critical to get underlying decision-making processes and program concepts right at the beginning. It is an evolutionary process, though, so managers must be prepared to adapt to exigencies. Managers should seek out natural allies in similar fields and doing similar tasks. Program creep is the result of administrators' attempts to broaden their unit's function, basically an imperialistic urge to accrue influence and authority. Access to influence and authority allows managers to implement their programs according to their individual definitions/standards. Employ technical experts Utilize principles of organizational management to build administrative systems and monitor their performance Power accrues at transition points, which manifest in offices that control access to information, legitimacy, funding, and approval Developing an organization is essentially problem-solving: organizations develop in order to solve a particular problem. The relationship is thus reflective and both the agency and the issue evolve together. The motive force for change is the civil servant. Organizations should employ strategic planning with clear organizational structure and a clear mission. Context Written somewhat as a reaction to the Hoover Commission which indicated that change can occur within an organization without affecting productivity and performance. The author disagreed: changing the organization changes the environment and the goal/problem; agencies and the environment are interrelated. Major Themes Management Organizational development Change

Taylor, Frederick - Scientific Management (1900)

Taylor's theory of Scientific Management is about efficiency in the work environment. He used systematic observation and study to define the optimal efficiency in the work environment which is to produce the greatest outcomes for the least amount of cost or resources. Contextualize the Article: Taylor's theory of Scientific Management emerged during the Industrial Revolution, since much growth was occurring and factory work was significant. This Revolution caused movement from a tribal and rural society to an industrial society needing to use resources at a different rate due to its expansion (Beaumaster, 2015). Taylorism sought to standardize methods and use the best working conditions to produce the best and largest results based through "incentive and initiative". This theory worked nicely with Wilson's belief that government should operate in a business-like manner as it would be seen as efficient. The risk with this theory is that workers and managers are cogs in the wheel and valued only for how they make the wheel go or stop. With factory work there is a need to be systematic in processes, but they only focus on efficiency without effectiveness, which is achievable goals and objectives, so value is lost. This theory in operation dehumanizes the employee lacks what is in the best interest of the public; in fact it seems like a mind-numbing work environment which can lead to many other societal problems like domestic violence, alcoholism, etc. Taylorism would be in direct opposition with Follett's belief about the care of the worker as well as Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs of those in the workforce. It does align with Wilson and Weber's bureaucracies. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Taylorism has the following main components: 1. Structured procedures for workers to perform their tasks; 2. Use work methods that have been scientifically studied; 3. Select, train, and develop employees based on science; 4. Equally divide work between worker and manager, so manager is planning the work of the employee; 5. Management has a duty to enforce adopted standards; 6. Workers are seen as incapable of knowing what they are doing.

Rosenbloom, David - Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers (1983)

The article outlines three distinct approaches to Public Administration theory; managerial, political and legal. The author explains what he means by the three distinct approaches to public administration theory. The managerial approach follows the teachings of Woodrow Wilson, and the need for public administration to be effective and efficient. This approach would keep political biases out of the public administration, and enable administrators to be promoted based on merit. It also takes an impersonal view of individuals, where employees are viewed as, "an appendage," and clients are turned into "cases." The political approach, "stresses the values of representativeness, political responsiveness, and accountability through elected officials to the citizenry." The view of individuals is now broken out into groups or categories such as by gender or race. The legal approach is one where agencies now start to act like the courts, whereas legal values are of the utmost importance. With this approach, the individual is now seen as a unique person with their own needs and circumstances. These three approaches fit into the separation of powers in government. The managerial approach closely relates to the executive branch of government, the political approach relates to the legislative branch, while the legal approach related to the judicial branch. The author warns however, that in order to get things done more efficiently and faster, we are moving toward, "the rise of the administrative state." This reduces the separation of powers, where all three approaches are now prevalent in the administrative branch of government. This change changes how we would view public administration, and how the theories have to evolve as well.

Derthick, Martha - Ways of Achieving Federal Objectives

The author describes coercive governance, an environmental condition under federalism wherein Federal agencies influence State agencies to achieve federal goals. The same processes can be seen at the local level, but with both Federal and State agencies dictating programmatic decisions to the locals. This is achieved in several ways: creating allies in the lower-tier government through the creation of new offices and agencies to serve Federal mandates and the professionalization of personnel. The idea is to either create an agency based on some rulemaking and mandates, or to create technically trained agency staff at every level of government that share experience and training -- either way the result is agencies sharing values and goals. The other means of coercion is withholding funding. Since State and Local governments are dependent upon federal funding for mandated program delivery and pass-through obligations, they must adhere to Federal priorities and guidelines. The application processes for these funds also serve to align lower-echelon agencies with Federal priorities. Finally, there are many instances where Federal (and in the case of local government State) funds can only be used for specific programs and projects. This is particularly prevalent in health and human services delivery or in transportation infrastructure projects. Notes: this article was written in the 1970s at during a re-evaluation of federal funding for state programs. If memory serves, I believe this was around the time the CDBG program was developed. Regardless, it highlights one of the environmental complications that circumscribes and often undermines local and state governments' abilities to initiate policies that reflect local needs and values.

Torfing, Jacob; Triantafillou, Peter - What's in a Name? Grasping New Public Governance as a Political-Administrative System (2013)

The authors attempt to define the next stage in PA evolution: New Public Governance (NPG). This is a contemporary reform philosophy that has developed in response to the perceived failings of New Public Management (NPM). NPG Centered around citizen participation and networked governance Based on interdependency, collaboration, and trust Seeks to reduce complexity and fragmentation resulting from NPM PA occurs as part of an ecosystem rather than a separate, distinct rules-based entity Focus on process, outcome, co-production Participatory governance drives democratization Policy- and service-delivery is improved by cooperation, negotiation and inclusion of stakeholders rather than NPM's agentification, competition, and 'choice' Founded in theories on organizations and networks, active citizenship, empowerment, participation Objective is to leverage citizen participation to improve input and output in order to foster legitimacy This is in opposition to the notion that citizenship is a passive state where individuals are simply vested with legal rights by a governing body NPG is a system where the government directly engages with the citizenry to develop and implement policy Requires technology to empower non-state actors and to monitor compliance with performance standards Assumes that administrators, citizens, and other private stakeholders will participate in the process Problems will occur in areas that have a strong anti-system or anti-government identity People who elect to participate self-select, so reaching communities of need will continue to be difficult Feedback into the policy-making process is no longer dependent upon elections, but the multiple vectors for input can overload government with too much information Context Classical PA (CPA) emphasizes legality, impartiality, objectivity (a la Weber), while NPM emphasizes a business-oriented management mentality with competition and market dynamics central to policy-making. The authors consider both to be attempts to reform problematic governance, and that NPG is the next step in an evolution of PA. They see features of CPA and NPM being retained, and NPG as a further refinement. It is important to note that NPG - like NPM - seeks to improve policy output by changing the system itself, whereas other reformers would argue that the system itself works and that it is constituent pieces of the system that require better management. CPA sought to govern through rule-based regulation of society and economy to deliver public services while NPM developed institutional designs that self-regulated to produce services. NPG similarly develops institutional designs to produce public benefit, but focuses on facilitating collaboration rather than the competition espoused under NPM. This is a form of metagovernance where government serves to bring actors together, facilitate collaboration, mediate conflict, support decision-making, and ensure the solutions developed are implemented. This is very similar to Locke's view of government as a referee, in a much more active role. Major Themes Reform GPA History of PA

Tolbert, Pamela; Zucker, Lynn - Institutional Sources of Change in the Formal Structure of Organizations: The Diffusion of Civil Service Reform 1880-1935 (1983)

The authors attempt to discern the forces that drove civil service reform at the turn of the 20th Century. Adoption wasn't universal or even universally accepted as important or necessary. Several environmental features contributed to the adoption rates of various local governments: early adopters were attempting to resolve specific problems in municipal governance while later adopters were responding to the growing legitimacy of civil service procedures. The authors derive much of their information from the published content of the National Municipal League from 1894 - 1915. Organizational theory can be explored along two vectors Viewing organizations as rational actors (rational) Viewing organizations as captives of the institutional environment in which they exist (political) The initiation of civil service reform represents the first attempt to rationalize local administration Professionalization Written examinations for entry rather than cronyism Tenure Insulated civil servants from political influence Vesting responsibility for personnel appointments in a central agency or commission Pendleton Civil Service Reform Act of 1882 Established that federal civil service jobs would be awarded on merit Institutionalized written examinations at the federal level Created United States Civil Service Commission Made it illegal to fire or demote employees based on politics Ended campaign contributions to elected officials in exchange for a federal civil service position Did not apply to state or local gov't Only three states (NY, MA, OH) adopted civil service reforms during this period Local governments were autonomous of state & federal authority Cities initially adopted civil service systems to counter the spoils system & the resulting disaffection with local governance amongst the citizenry to reassert control over systems dominated by political bosses representing immigrant populations in this sense, reform is a nativist attempt to regain political control in these instances civil service reform was used as a political weapon by social groups to maintain or regain political control Allowed some officials to define administrative positions in such a way to ensure appointment of group members. Since civil service eliminated political patronage it represented an effective way for Anglo-American elites to attack immigrant-dominated political machines Establishing criteria for appointment to office that were difficult for immigrants to meet Standards of education Literacy Rules establishing tenure Civil service reform adoption was also a reflection of socio-economic features in cities Supporters tended to be educated and middle class Their values were consistent with those being adopted as reform Efficiency Impartiality Rationality Adoption was affected by the political structure within each city Sprawling bureaucracies were more resistant to reform due to powerful stakeholders that were invested in the status quo More political activity and thus more opportunity for political influence Entrenched bureaucracies could actively oppose civil service reform themselves Civil service reforms were much more rapidly adopted when states mandated them and when mandates derived from a single source. Once reforms began, they developed inertia Progressive movement Scientific management became vogue Cities rushed to reorganize around idealized business corporations Reform attempts spread to almost every major city A timeline Most debates over civil service procedures occurred before 1900 After 1910 were generally discussed without much conflict After 1915 these reforms began to be rapidly adopted Was a reaction to a general recognition that new procedures were needed rather than from external pressure By 1920 civil service procedures were accepted as the proper way to conduct city business By 1935 a bureaucracy-based civil service system was the norm for every stratum of government Federal and state legislation post-1935 began to require the use of local civil service procedures Coercive federalism Established view that civil service was the 'one right way' Once civil service was established it was very rarely dropped by local governments Other reforms of the time similarly reflected attempts to 'rationalize' public service City manager form of government Nonpartisan local ballots City-wide elections These structures are now nearly universal Civil service procedures are now ubiquitous Local government structures very much resemble each other Institutionalization is not just a process or procedure, but represents social change A fundamental change in the way individuals perceive the world Reform manifests in two ways Reactive/Proactive Internal/external Both forces contribute to changes in the civil service system Formal structures arise from internal sources Directly: problems of coordination or control Indirectly: power, leadership, and socialization to specific organizational roles Formal structures arise out of external forces Features of the institutional environment These processes are not incompatible and often occur in tandem, overlap and influencing each other Changes in formal structure occur Due to lack of consensus or a degree of conflict within the organization Societal legitimacy (fads), regardless of their value to internal organizational function These can be enacted to bolster legitimacy Adoption of such reforms fulfills a symbolic requirement Is no less necessary! Remember politics! Once upper-echelon governments adopt reform dependent organizations respond through coercion either Legal mandate or other formal means Dependent agencies adopting the reforms to adapt Reform can be stalled or blocked by strong interest groups that lose due to reform, or through lack of consensus on the value of reform Context The establishment of the civil service ideal was messy and not without conflict. Initially at least there was much resistance to the change as powerful interests realized the threat a formalized civil service posed. Once popular culture shifted to embrace (fetishize) science and business, though, the citizenry came to expect legitimate organizations to display the trappings of rationality. Thus the reforms espoused by the Progressive Movement occurred as much due to social pressure as from the concerted efforts of academics. Major Themes History of civil service

Willoughby, William F. - The Movement of Budgetary Reform in the States (1918)

The budget is an instrument of democracy, correlating the Legislative and Executive Branches, and municipal reform (Hyde, 2012). President Taft ordered the Taft Commission of 1912 to develop budgetary reform. Contextualize the Article: This article is written in 1918 after the earlier 1900's in which the United States is becoming more settled into a country and the increased capacity and complexity of government had to be addressed. During this time and prior a budget was focused on "line-items" which lacked overall objectives but met the need of government's request for funding. Willoughby help devise a more current budgeting system which involved "three major threads" (Shafritz, 2013). These three threads are: 1. How budgets would advance popular control, expenditures and limitations laws; 2. How budgets would enhance legislative and executive cooperation due to ongoing conflict over budgetary deficits, balance, and control; and 3. How budgets would ensure administrative and management efficiency because of its attention to it or lack of attention to it based on managerial practices. In 1921 the Budget and the General Accountability Act was passed creating the Bureau of the Budget and the General Accounting Office adding another layer of government (Shafritz, 2013). It was not until the 1930's when more budgetary reform occurred focusing on "performance budgeting" shifting from line-item budgeting with a focus on accountability to a budget process allocating funds for set activities which was a more "scientific management" process. "Budgeting is the single most important decision-making process in public administration" (Shafritz, 2013). Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The Six Pillars: Accountability, Responsibility, Efficiency, and Effectiveness.

Behn, Robert D. - The Big Questions of Public Administration (1995)

The main point of this article is leadership in Public Administration. I. Micromanagement How can public managers break the micromanagement cycle? Trust - lack of trust between units of government and red tape prevents empowerment of employees Governance - Legislators write policy statements that are ambiguous, confusing and contradictory at times Entrepreneurship - the engineering model supervises the execution of policies, the entrepreneurship model defines the goals of the policies II. Motivation How can public managers motivate people to work energetically and intelligently towards achieving public purpose? Classic public administration motivation method was known as the carrot and stick approach. However, this approach is one of control. Understanding that for most individuals what we get paid to do is not the number one thing we would normally want to spend our time doing. Understanding that employees within an organization have contributions to make in terms of identifying objectives to achieve and the best way in which to achieve it. III. Measurement How can public managers measure the achievement of their agencies in ways to help them increase those achievements? It's important to identify the "we don't control everything" as a common excuse against measurement. Finding the link between the objective and the action will provide the best method of measurement. Contextualize the article Micromanagement, measurement and motivation actually go hand in hand. Effective measurements of the outcomes produced by public managers can motivate public managers to deflect micromanagement. Another way of looking at it is if micromanagement would cease, public managers would be motivated to effectively provide positive measurements. Highlight key examples, key ideas Due to the complexity and volume of legislative policies at times public administrators select which policies to follow. The policy makers then retaliate which in turn is perceived as "micromanagement".

Willoughby, William F. - The Movement for Budgetary Reform in the States (1918)

The main point of this article is the accountability and transparency delivered through the document known as the budget. This document serves as the legislative form of representing the opinion of the people by detailing the appropriations per program per department. It's expected that dichotomy is visible by administrators preparing and enforcing the will of this people based on the legislative decisions. The movement demanding transparency, "municipal government" (Willoughby, 1918) with improved methods of administration were heard by legislators, as means of directing were automated in order to ensure administration was efficient. This was to be established through an effective accounting and reporting system. Highlight key examples, key ideas The key behind the Movement for the Budgetary Reform article was to establish dichotomy were there exists a separation of powers in that accountability is established in the interest of the people. Much like Goodnow's article speaking to dichotomy with harmonization in order to derive effectiveness the budget document when written efficiently and transparent leaves no room for miscommunication thereby maintaining a harmonious efficient government. ************************** Willoughby's work sets the precedent for the understanding of the budget as a political tool. He identifies the budget as an "instrument of Democracy", and asserts that it is the best tool for meeting the requirement that government be conducted in accordance with popular will by giving the public the means to know "how government affairs have been conducted in the past, what are the present conditions and what program for work in the future are under consideration". Willoughby is stating that the budget, if administered appropriately, is the most effective tool for public evaluation of their government. Willoughby also asserts that the budget is an "instrument for correlating legislative and executive action". Adoption of an effective budget demands effective working relationships between these two branches of government. ********************* William Willoughby emphasizes that budgets are a major instrument of public administration as they have the power to do the following: 1. Promote democracy by leveraging popular government 2. Coordinate the legislative and executive action by giving these two branches equivalent roles 3. Ensure greater efficiency (inherited from municipal budgetary reform) Context Willoughby highlighted the importance of the budget in the context of checks and balances between executive and legislative branches. He was from the "legislative administration school" and believed the accountability of administration belonged to the legislative branch. He believed there was a difference between what was meant by "executive" and "administrative" and thought the Constitution gave administrative control primarily to Congress.

Hamilton, A.; Madison, J. - the Federalist (1978)

The main point of this article is the foundation for public administration. I. Public Administration - Origins II. Movements towards modernization Contextualize the article The foundation originated with the intent from the original framework of three separate institutions of authority: legislative; judicial; executive in order to maintain checks and balances. Governance was intended to be both vertical meaning hierarchical and horizontal meaning collaborative. I. Legislative - Makes laws II. Judicial - Interprets laws III. Executive - Enforces and implements laws Highlight key examples, key ideas The key idea was that Alexander Hamilton and James Madison both wanted checks and balances to ensure economic prosperity which also addressed the needs of human nature. The goal was to not have the federal government rule over the states with an iron fist, but rather provide for autonomy among the states. The evolution led to Dillon's rule taking effect which created the local government agents of the state. I. Alexander Hamilton - good government produces good administration II. James Madison - strong central government, checks and balances

Sinek, Simon - Start With Why (2009)

There exists a way of acting, thinking , and communicating that creates the ability for some to be leaders and some to be "natural born leaders" as they inspire those around them because they think in the WHY (Sinek, 2009). Contextualize the Article: The natural born leaders' job is to personify the WHY which is one's purpose, cause or mission. A great leader sees the destination and is able to communicate its vision to the employees. The three spheres in this principle are the WHAT, HOW, and WHY, the WHY being at the top of the pyramid. Those that can do the HOW figure out the route it would take to get there and the WHAT people figure out how to communicate WHAT is done first as they are analytical and rational in thought as well as experienced in language (Sinek, 2009). These three depend on each other as one cannot do well without the other. These concepts in a leader and the employees of an organization lead to the ability to have measurable change and successes. The WHY creates a leader who is not going to be lumped in with others as they possess the essential component of success. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Great leaders who ask the WHY questions and possess the WHY factor also integrate accountability, responsibility, representation, effectiveness, and efficiency into the core business practices which establish them as credible and legitimate business partners leading to much public trust and value.

Gaus, John - Trends in the Theory of Public Administration (1950)

This article explains how the theory of public administration is one that is always shifting and changing. Contextualize the Article The author highlights numerous writings from history that we as public administrators study and learn from. While we should not just ignore the writings from long ago, it is important to remember that the public administration changes over time. What may have been truth or science during its time may have slightly evolved. Historical literature also does not emphasize one of the key factors in public administration that we see today, bureaucracy. Highlight Key Examples, Key Ideas The belief that public administration is a science is true; however science really is something that someone proves at one point in time, which others cannot disprove. Government has evolved and continues to as years go on. As government changes, our jobs, roles and responsibilities change. We as students need to read the past to understand the premise, but also work towards discussing the changes that influence us in today's life. We should constantly analyze the changes and redefine the theory based on our own experiences.

Rainey, Hal G.; Backoff, Robert W.; Levine, Charles H. - Comparing Public and Private Organizations (1976)

This article explores the idea common at the time that public and private entities were "converging" in terms of management constraints and challenges. The authors assert that Public Administration remains a unique and distinct field with unique implications for management training and practice, and identifies areas in which Public Administration differs from Business Administration/Private industry: degree of market exposure, Legal/formal constraints, political influences, coerciveness, breadth of impact, public scrutiny, public expectations, complexity of objectives/evaluation and decision criteria, authority relations and the role of the administrator, organizational performance, incentives and incentive structures, and personal characteristics of employees. The authors assert that these identified areas of difference are a strong basis to continue to pursue the idea of differences in public and private management which may impact training.

Romzek, Barbara S. and Dubnick, Melvin J. - Accountability in the Public Sector: Lessons from the Challenger Tragedy (1987)

This article uses the Challenger shuttle tragedy and the resulting Rogers Commission investigation to emphasize the importance of managerial/institutional perspectives, and not just technical perspectives, when evaluating the root causes of issues. The Rogers Commission identified a faulty part as the cause of the loss of the shuttle, with managerial problems such as a lack of awareness of issues with the part in question as a "contributing factor". Romzek and Dubnick assert that management issues, and in particular an effort to manage a broad range of expectations placed upon NASA from the political system, was also a leading cause. The authors identify four types of accountability: legal, political, bureaucratic, and professional. They assert that NASA's attempt to pursue political and bureaucratic accountability distracted NASA from attention to professional standards and mechanisms of accountability. The article can be seen as a criticism against placing a high priority on meeting political pressures, which can lead to failures in other critical areas. In essence, professional accountability (which would have prompted management to give weight to the opinion of a professional regarding the dangers over external political pressures) was overshadowed by political accountability.

Beaumaster, Suzanne - Public and Private Differentiation (1997)

What distinguishes a public organization from a private organization on the basis of their practice of public administration and organizational theory? Contextualize the Article: The most profound difference that distinguishes public from private organizations is "the impact of the organization's task environment on its inner workings and general behavior" (Rainey, 2009). Theorists proclaim that there exists a blurring of distinctions between these two entities especially in relation to roles, concepts, structures, and functions. Benn and Gaus state that the distinction falls into three categories, agency, interest, and access (Rainey, 2009). Agency refers to whether one acts on their own or as a public agent; Interest refers to whether the citizens will be better or worse off by service delivery or profits; and Access refers to whether how transparent and available their facilities are to the public (Rainey, 2009). Historically there was ownership in the public services delivered, but currently public organizations are distinguished by the level of technical knowledge and expertise to address the multitude of community problems, thus providing the "safety net" services that no private organization would be willing to do. The five main differences noted by the author are 1) performance measures, 2) hierarchical administrative and authority roles, 3) areas of supervision and delegation, 4) externalities and politically sensitive decisions, and 5) tailoring management techniques to conform to specific contexts (Beaumaster, 1997). Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Accountability, responsibility, effectiveness, and efficiency seem to be the key dilemmas around the distinction between public and private organizations.

Gulick, Luther - Notes on Theory of Organization (1937)

Work division is the foundation of organization and the reason for the organization. Contextualize the Article: Gulick believed that the work of the executive is in the acronym POSDCORB. This means the following: P=Planning O=Organizing S=Staffing D=Directing CO=Co-Ordinating R=Reporting B=Budgeting These elements, not in any special order, follow public sector hierarchical government principles today. They work for all levels of management and subdivisions of agencies and POSDCORB can be applied to private organizations as well. The struggle may be that these elements must have accountability, responsibility, effectiveness, efficiency, legitimacy, and representation associated with them otherwise they are just a set of words that can be used to carry out any mundane task regardless as to where one works. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Gulick was influenced by Wilson and Taylor and has a model that looks scientific and efficient.

Wildavsky, Aaron - Rescuing Policy Analysis from PPBS (1969)

Writing in the late 60s, a time of great interest in the role of government in establishing social equity and amidst the emerging calls for "new public administration", Wildavsky discusses the implementation of PPBS and why it worked for the Department of Defense, but not for other agencies. He builds on Dror's (1967) declaration that policy analysis is not systems analysis and that it was dangerous to neglect the human and political side of policy (and budget) making. Wildavsky suggests that policy analysis can be very useful in providing the kind of information that can make an agency politically and socially relevant. He describes policy analysis as "the sustained application of intelligence and knowledge to social problems" (p. 251) and asserts that policy analysis "evaluates and sifts alternative means and ends in the elusive pursuit of policy recommendations" (p. 250). Citing the inappropriateness of attempting to apply PPBS to agencies where consensus on common goals cannot be reached, Wildavsky recommends that policy analysis be disengaged from PPBS and instead used to analyze lower-level agreed-upon objectives, the results of which can in turn be used to inform decision makers.

Altshuler, Alan - Rationality and Influence in the Public Sector (1965)

Written at a time when public service was considered an excellent career, Altshuler's article discusses the role of value judgments in administration and proposes "three conceptions of administrative rationality" that administrators can use to enhance the credibility of their work. He declares, "assertions of rationality are easiest to defend when they refer solely to means" and not the ends (p. 226). The first conception is technical expertness: the capacity to rank alternatives scientifically (e.g. engineering). Decision-makers rely on the factual information provided by experts and appreciate that the value judgments are left to them to make on behalf of their constituents. However, not all administrative work lends itself to technical expertise. In the case where judgments must be made and a reputation for "wisdom" is essential, Altshuler recommends two alternative conceptions of rationality. The conception of general evaluative rationality refers to the capacity to evaluate means in the absence of clear and unambiguous goals (he uses the example of planning departments). In this conception, some level of technical expertise is required, but the most valued characteristic is a comprehensive perspective on the area of concern (e.g. for planners, a knowledge of the community in question and the possible outcomes of various decisions). The conception of inventive rationality is the capacity to redefine problems and propose new means to solutions (thinking outside the box). The risk is that not all politicians welcome innovations and their proponents. In closing, Altshuler warns that the desire for political rationality has led to "ever higher valuation of scientific, as opposed to philosophic or common sense, knowledge" (p. 234). Clearly, it was a different time.

Rosenbloom, David - Have an Administrative RX? Don't Forget the Politics! (2013)

Written in 2013, this editorial explores how the politics/administration dichotomy has evolved over the decades. The main thesis is that politics cannot be ignored when considering administrative policy - and in fact such a strategy is contrary to what citizens want. "The People" distrust unfettered administration without accountability. The article specifically notes that the politics/administration dichotomy was intended to solve a specific problem (corruption), but that ensuing years brought legislation that reinforced the principles of separation (notably the Administrative Procedure Act, and the Legislative Reorganization Act), which made the dichotomy an integral part of administrative theory. The years following also accrued specific power to administrative governance bodies, especially at the Federal level; so the issue became a struggle between executive authority and Congressional oversight. The author specifically cites micromanagement as a tool utilized by political bodies to manage administrators, demonstrating that the push-back from executive branch agencies against political interference is rooted in a quest for power and autonomy. The author decries these attempts to create policy "to serve the needs of better management" rather than "the purposes of the political system" as anti-populist. He cites "New" Public Administration - driven by "customer satisfaction, rather than processes" - as one of the solutions to the problem.

Goodnow, Frank J. - Politics and Administration (1900)

'Politics and Administration' examines the difference between politics and administration in a government system. We often refer to this as the 'politics administration dichotomy'. Goodnow asserts that there are two distinct functions of government: politics, which in general describes the will of the state (Goodnow provides the following definition from the Century Dictionary: "the act of guiding or influencing the policy of a government through the organization or a party through it's citizens... The art of influencing public opinion, attracting and distributing public patronage, so far as the possession of offices may depend upon the political opinions or political services of individuals.")., and administration, which is the act of executing upon that will. In short, politics is the act of setting policy or direction, and administration is the act of making that vision a reality. Goodnow states that harmony must exist between these two functions (the law and it's execution) in order to avoid political paralysis. This requires that one function must be subordinate to the other so that they are not in conflict. Generally, administration is subordinate to politics. The adminstrator carries out the orders of the politician/governing authority. In America, this harmony is achieved through the party system. This differentiation between politics and administration is seen in other literature of the time. Weber discusses a similar structure in his work on Bureaucracy, in which he discusses the necessity of levels of authority within an organization to carry out the work. This ties in to Goodnow's observations on politics and administration, which identifies the necessity for separation between the two. The bureaucratic form of administration creates a system in which politics and administration can be somewhat naturally separated by allowing the execution of policy to slow through several layers of administration. ******************* The main point of this article is the dichotomy of public administration. The two distinct functions are politics and administration. The main principal is to separate the two powers. The political power represents the will of the state. The administrative power executes the policy. Contextualize the article Although it is necessary for dichotomy it is also necessary to "harmonize" (Goodnow, 1900) the two. In order to achieve harmony it requires one side to sacrifice to the other. The side that sacrifices is normally the administration side since the political side represents the will of the people. Highlight key examples, key ideas The key idea within dichotomy is to ensure a separation of powers in order to prevent politics from influencing administration. The separation is established through the formal legal separation of the governmental bodies. **************************** 1. Government of the United States is founded in a separation of powers among the legislative, executive and judicial branches. As governance becomes more complex, the Politics is the expression of the will of the people. 2. The three branches of government formulate law based on the will of the people. Administration is the execution of the will of the people. Any power that is not legislative (the Congress), executive (Presidential) or Judicial, is administrative. 3. Administration is subordinate to politics, yet harmony must exist between the if the ail of the people is to be executed. Harmony can be achieved only through sacrifice of independence of expression or execution of the public will. Harmony between expression and execution, between politics and administration is achieved through the two party system, where each party "busies itself" as much with obtaining administrative offices as with political offices. Discussion: The overall argument of the article is that politics and administration are necessarily interdependent in the American political system. The article was written in 1900, shortly after Wilson's The Study of Administration, which more or less introduced public administration as a science, and introduced the politics-administration dichotomy. Both Goodnow and Wilson recognize the role of public administration as execution of public law. Goodnow acknowledges the inseparability of the two principles. The federalist constitution and the two party system that has evolved together have created a political administration network of governance whereby the administrator today, perhaps appointed by a political friend, may be the next elected politician, and the elected public officer who expresses the will of the people may very well find his or herself returned to a role of executing the will of the people at the end of his or her term. Additionally, in a federal system of government, elected officials at different levels, be it national, state, county or city, may find themselves equally involved in making and administering policy, as each level of government may in certain circumstances be responsible for implementing a policy decision of a higher level of government. The closer the organization is to the people, the deeper the layers above. One example is compliance with National Discharge Pollution Elimination Standards (NPDES) and local, City or County) jurisdiction over development projects, street and road maintenance projects or even high school football team car washes for fundraising. Regardless of whether the City or County directly participated in the rule making, city and county administrators are responsible for implementing the policy. *********************** Goodnow supports Wilson theory of dichotomy and references the roles of three branches of government , judicial,executive, and administrative. (i.e. Judicial, Executive, and Legislative ) and states that the legal separation of the bodies of government that helps to prevent politics from influencing administration is constructed within the Constitution. (Legitimacy/dichotomy) Contextualize the article. (Following feudalism, post civil war era, industrial revolution era Pendleton Act of 1883 - Federal Civil Service, industrial defining Public Administrations Role) Goodnow identified how the there were three distinct branches of government, Judical, Executive, and Administrative. . He defined the Judicial as the authority that applies the law, the Executive as the authority that has general supervision of the execution of the state will (laws), and the Administrative as the authority that attends to the scientific, technical activities - those that carry out the will of the Executive and the Judicial. Goodnow states that government has two distinct roles - Politics and Administration. " Politics has to do with the guiding or influencing of government policy, while the administration has to do with the execution of that policy." Similar to Wilson, Goodnow states that , "in all governmental systems, (there are ) two primary...functions of government...the expression of the will of the state and the execution of that will...these functions are respectively, politics and administration." Goodnow shares the theory that there must be harmony between the expressing authority (political authority-Executive) and the executing authority (Administrative ) since the "expressing authority" is more responsive to the people. And that the legal separation of the bodies of government that helps to prevent politics from an influencing administration as constructed by the Constitution. (Legitimacy/dichotomy) Goodnow also refers to the party system, Republican and Democrat is another means to help ensure harmony between the functions of politics and administration. Highlight key examples, key ideas, the methodology or anything you might imagine bringing into an answer to a comprehensive exam question Theory of dichotomy, three branches of government based in Constitution, influence of political parties ************************* Main Arguments Politics Administration Dichotomy; Politics defined as setting policy to express the will of the state; Administration defined as execution of the will of the state; Two functions of government politics and administration but they cannot be separated but goal to prevent political influence on administration details; Administrative powers not expressly defined in law; Administration subordinate to politics. Context Progressive Era 1890s-1920s to eliminate corruption in government Taylorisim Scientific Management Efficiency Movement began 1880s Peaked 1910

Lewis, Verne - Towards a Theory of Budgeting (1952)

Budgeting can be boiled down to a process for choosing amongst alternatives. The basic objective in budget analysis is comparing alternatives based on evaluation of outcomes. Lewis felt that principles of economics could be employed to create a scientific way to manage the decision-making process. These features manifest in three ways: All budgetary decisions are founded in scarcity, and the first principle in Lewis' theory is that budget analysis is essentially comparing alternative uses of funds. He calls this "Relative Value", and must be used because there are no absolute standards of value. Scarcity enters consideration of relative value because funding one unit of government means not funding another (opportunity cost). The second principle is that incremental analysis - forecasting or observing the effects of adding or subtracting incremental units of some government product - can be applied to public budgets. He calls this "Incremental Analysis". In Incremental Analysts units of government are reduced to increments and then results are compared. His example is bazookas: how much more marginally valuable are two million bazookas over one million bazookas? Benefits are similarly distilled into increments, so two million bazookas can kill a million more people than one million (in an effort to win a war). At some point between two increments the additional increment has no added value -- or even subtracts value. It is possible to compare the merits of functions or programs in terms of "Relative Effectiveness". Value amongst different things cannot be established without a common denominator or objective. Lewis admits that this theory has practical limitations, in that the standards are often difficult to apply. Value, for example, is a function of need, and needs change. Thus value is mutable. The other factor is the fact that budgets are planning documents and much of the decisions are supposition; they are speculative or even "sheer guesses". Regardless, though, the decisions have to be made and he felt that his methodology would benefit the process. Notes: Lewis specifically says that his contemporary economists would never agree that government can be evaluated according to economic principles. One of the heavyweights - Ludwig von Mises - specifically argued that there are no means of evaluating the usefulness of government activities because they have no price in the marketplace. There is no "criterion of value" to apply, as opposed to private business where consumption and production are very easy to describe. Lewis felt that usefulness was in fact a feature of government programming, even if analysts can't describe precise outputs, but he was predominantly scientific in his approach and the system he advocates is rooted in science. He admits that in the real world his theory breaks down but that it was important for budget analysts to use the principles to help make decisions. ******************** Lewis was the Chief of the Budget Division of the Hanford Operations Office of the Atomic Energy Commission in the early 50s, a time when atomic energy was an important and expanding field. In his article, he proposes the "alternative budget plan" in which, in addition to applying other commonly used budget estimating and preparation methods (described in the article), the administrator submits a budget to the authorizing body that includes not only the intended budget request, but also some alternatives describing the consequences of cuts or additions in terms of what the agency could or could not do. Lewis asserts the advantages of this budgeting method include (1) changing the role of the administrator from pleader for a single budget plan to expert adviser on alternative budget plans; (2) allowing budget analysts to spend more time analyzing budget proposals instead of determining desirability or necessity; and (3) providing opportunities for all ideas to be considered rather than being immediately cut because of their cost. According to Lewis, the alternative budgeting method makes maximum use of administrative expert knowledge and judgment while providing decision-makers with more choice and control over the budget. Lewis also points out that no budget systems work well if the relationships between administrators and decision-makers are strained and that even his proposed alternative budget plan is subject to human "pride and prejudice, provincialism and politics" (p. 54).

Waldo, Dwight - The Administrative State: A Study of the Political Theory of American Public Administration (1948)

Waldo's work look at the discipline of Public Administration as a whole, and in particular the ways in which multiple factors such as current events, emerging management theories such as scientific management, and even Public Administration scholars themselves affect the discipline. Waldo asserts, among other ideas, that the increasing number of international scholars interested in Public Administration will have an impact on the discipline the future by bringing a more global perspective to the science. He also explores the idea that external factors, such as the end of World War II and atomic energy, will influence administrative thinking. Waldo is asserting that the discipline of Public Administration is fluid and evolving, and responds to the time within which it exists, as well as the primary players who are involved in researching and acting within it's confines. Waldo discusses ideas central to the time and in agreement with other literature existing at the same time, such as the the politics-adminstration dichotomy, and the idea of the division of administration in to two parts of decision (policy setting) and execution (administration). His ideas that administration is fluid and responsive to the times in which it operates is correct, and can be seen in the ways in which government has responded to many events in modern times such as the creation of the division of Homeland Security in response to the 9/11 attacks. *********************** Main Arguments In the conclusion of The Administrative State, Waldo poses three key arguments as follows: •Structured democracy will not automatically result in efficiency; •Raising question on the appropriateness or ability to operate within the politics/administration dichotomy model because of the limitations it places on the ability to address public policy issues; • And lastly the appropriateness of using the scientific model (a business model) to structure a government administration. The article challenges research being conducted in the field of public administration as being too focused on the functions administration instead of the proper organization of administration and questions whether or public administration is developed enough as a discipline/field. The article also discusses current world events that shaped the writing. Concerns about similar future events of larger scope lead to more discussion regarding concerns for public administration in the future as the role of government continues to expand and be shaped by the changing culture and values brought about by foreign influences and growth/merging of world (even unworldly) societies. The article is explains that the focus on scientific management could limiting the ability for administrators to prepare for the future and lays the foundation for why running a government using a business model like scientific management is not enough and believes that the resolution is linked to the problem of not having a sufficient philosophy of public administration. The article suggests that if public administration could focus on the purpose of government instead of government processes future administrators would be more prepared to address complex problems of civilization. The article ends by stating that public administration can adjust to the changes in society more easily by develop working relationships with other administrators across the globe but that this will require the elimination of the separation of decision making and implementation. Context This article was written about 15 years after significant expansion of government programs under FDR's New Deal began in 1933, 10 years after the Brownlow Commission presented its recommendations on administrative management which were based on scientific management to FDR expanding/reorganizing government and increasing executive powers, and just three years after the atomic bomb were dropped at the end of World War II. Note: The Brownlow Commission's recommendations were designed to implement scientific management through the implementation of the POSDCRB model (Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Coordinating, Reporting and Budgeting).

Kaufman - Administrative Decentralization and Political Power (1969)

Concerns about representation from certain groups (i.e. African Americans) Not fairly represented by the system Impact of street bureaucrat decisions Big government makes change come slow Change movements must be organized to gain political influence and this also takes time Solutions make agencies more representative of the people they serve through appointments, ombudsmen programs and redirection of power from the feds to states/local agencies (administrative decentralization) Challenges to Admin Decentralization Congress may not be as willing to fund field offices Labor opposition Remaining functions of home office after decentralization Strategy to overcome Local agencies come together to support presidential efforts Kaufmann support bureaucratic organizational structure to promote efficiency and to promote equity in representation Context 1964 Civil Rights Act 1968 MLK & JFK Assassinated Article Title, Author and Date Administrative Decentralization and Political Power Kaufman 1969 Related Pillar Authority Responsibility (Decision Making) Accountability Efficiency and Effectiveness

Wildavsky, Aaron - Rescuing Policy Analysis From PPBS (1969)

The main point of this article is that Planning-Programming-Budgeting System (PPBS) requires broad-based systems analysis to be successful. Analysis should include identifiable objectives, whether those objectives advance the organization, alternative problem solving and consideration of the future cost of solutions. In practice, it is equivalent to strategic planning, and is suited to a long-term budgeting approach, not to a narrow, short term approach. The Department of Defense initiated PPBS, but was a bad model for the rest of the federal government because other Departments and agencies lacked talented experienced staff, familiarity with the terminology, leadership who understood policy analysis enough to make use of it, and lacked planning and planners who know how to use it. In Defense, PPBS existed in a highly structured environment. When translated to domestic social programs, the context of greater "first hand" or street level experience with clients resulted in a less successful application. Data exists on the programs, by policy analysis lacked a causal relationship among them. Programs are "hodgepodge." Wildavsky writes of this environment: "A five year budget conceived in the hodgepodge terms of program structure serves no purpose." Wildavsky acknowledges the value and need for policy analysis by Congress and other decision maskers. He recommends training and tactics to increase the number of policy analysts, outside of the failed PPBS effort, as they will be needed in the current period of receptivity to new ideas, and willingness to accept new policies in post-New Deal, post WWII America. He concludes "If we are serious about improving public policy, we will go beyond PPBS to show others what the best policy analysis can achieve." Context: Wildavsky wrote this article in 1969, immediately following the departure of Robert McNamara from his position as Secretary of Defense, and the failure of PPBS on a national level. Wildavsky is adding to writings of Dror, who recognized both the promises and risks inherent in application of PPBS, where expert policy analysts were greatly concentrated in the Defense Department, but not distributed to other areas. A compelling point is made in his reference and connection of PPBS with strategic planning, an idea that would gain in popularity first in the private business sector in the latter part of the 20th Century and with government organizations in the early peat of the 21st Century. Policy analysis has also gained importance in agenda setting, in workings of policy networks with development of policy solutions ready for launch when Kingdon's policy window (or perhaps the garbage can lid) opens. Contributions of policy analysis to legitimizing and elevating policy ideas to the political agenda and the development of government strategic plans reveals what the best policy analysis can achieve.

Bryson, John; Crosby, Barbara; Middleton Stone, Melissa - The Design and Implementation of Cross-Sector Collaborations: Propositions From the Literature (2006)

This article from 2006 describes a blueprint for establishing successful cross-sector collaborations based on a literature review. The authors assert that their review of relevant literature demonstrates that cross-sector collaborations are the only way to manage wicked problems, but that establishing and implementing these collaborations is fraught. The ideal environment for cross-sector collaboration is found in the middle of the spectrum of organizations charged with managing wicked problems: at one end are agencies so specialized in their functions that they don't relate to other organizations, while at the other end are agencies that merge with other similar agencies. The middle ground between these extremes is where collaboration can occur. Collaboration occurs for several reasons, the most salient are the reality of shared-power within a problem area and criticism of governments acting alone to solve wicked problems. This is a response both to a fishbowl issue and an environmental issue, then. The simple act of criticizing changes governmental structures and systems such as through deregulation, budget cuts, and the rise of non-state actors providing public services. This weakening of government's focal control of service provision opens opportunities to collaborate. But collaboration is not necessarily a panacea, and we must remember that problems do not occur in isolation. A wicked problem is interconnected to other problems and systems of problems, and any changes made at one end "reverberate unexpectedly". For example, a fairly narrowly drawn problem such as healthcare can be seen affecting economic policy, economic competitiveness, industry regulations, education, taxation, immigration, etc. Collaborating to work on such a problem would then require stakeholders from many different groups. The authors posit several factors for succeeding in establishment of cross-sector collaborations: 1. Complex policy environment 2. Single-sector efforts to solve the problem failed 3. Strong sponsors and a clear agreement on the problem 4. Clear initial conditions: power, purpose, structure of the agreement 5. Champions at every level 6. Establishing legitimacy through engaging stakeholders 7. Managing trust 8. Managing conflict 9. Following formal planning and goal-setting for improvisation 10. Utilize stakeholder analysis of the problem in any solutions 11. Managing ambiguity in group membership, power, and resource allocation 12. Loose federations with a lead agency are more effective than rigidly-structured networks 13. Collaborations are horizontal rather than hierarchical, but they still must be governed by coordinating and monitoring activities. 14. Managing power imbalances between actors 15. Managing competing internal logistics Cross-sector collaboration is intended to produce public value, and that goal should drive all decision-making. In order to maintain this, members and stakeholders must be chosen to minimize individuals' weaknesses, and must be willing to re-engage after initial failures. This is a long-term relationship with no clearly-defined end-point. Finally, the collaboration must ultimately be accountable. Systems must include a means of providing access and transparency to the decision-making process.

Cupps, Steven - Emerging Problems of Citizen Participation (1977)

This author is writing in 1977, so the context of Public Administration in that era is particularly interesting. He's very obviously reacting to a nascent movement for more public influence on administrative decision-making, and reacting specifically to the environmentalism movement of the late 60s and early 70s. What is particularly interesting is that this predates by months or perhaps a year the Taxpayer Revolt of 1978 that gave us Prop 13. It is also interesting that he sees public participation's effects on administrative governance rather than political governance: he is more concerned about the influence stakeholder groups have on technical decisions and on bureaucratic deliberation. The basic premise is that while citizen participation has had positive effects on governance, it's frequently a distraction from administrative policy-making. But that it's also a feature of modern PA that bureaucrats must account for and adapt to. But they also must be wary of a couple of pitfalls in public participation. The first is that administrators must not succumb to fads and keep newly-emerging patterns in a broader perspective of their service to the overall community. PA is a long game and bureaucrats can't be distracted by the political gains garnered from responding to public outcry. Responsiveness is indeed important, but administrators must be cognizant of the long-term consequences of their decisions. Incremental, deliberative decision-making ("muddling through", if you will) is the best way to govern. Public pressure on administrators should not sway decisions from data-driven decision-making, whether it's changing a policy or defending one. Another problem is establishing legitimacy in interest groups: how do we know that the loudest voice is truly the most representative? His (somewhat cynical) view is that the people who shout the loudest about public interest are generally only pushing their own personal agendas: "public interest as what the public interest groups say it is". Spokespersons for such groups are generally comfortable with their positions being enacted at the expense of other groups, but ultimately administrators must balance conflicting interests in their policy decisions, and while interest groups may comprise one segment of a community, they can't claim to represent every voice. The public tends to distill complexity into facile terms, so PA must maintain complexity in the decision-making process in order to assert more effective and efficient policies. The author reasserts that while citizen engagement is a feature of modern governance that administrators must accept, it still should never supplant professional governance. The balanced approach would be technocratic with an eye to effective implementation and enhanced by citizen engagement. Yet another problem with public agitation in policy-making is accountability: who's responsible for the outcomes? Furthermore, how can one trust the data leveraged by interest groups when they're obviously pushing an agenda. For the author, public administrators ideally are judicious, detached, and scientific in their decision-making, which lends itself to better outcomes. The influence of outside stakeholder groups affects administrative flexibility by limiting the number of acceptable outcomes. Administration thus becomes policy-making by public opinion poll, and administrators held hostage to a myopic minority. Finally, there's the problem of the policy positions put forward by interest groups. They're generally cast in zero-sum terms where there can only be one winner and a host of losers, rather than everybody kind of winning and kind of losing. Administrators must insure that their decision-making reflects the true complexity of a community. These policies also lack any real accounting of their actual value: interest groups do not perform CBA to bolster their positions and do not present metrics for measuring success. Interest groups cannot be relied upon to critically evaluate the constellation of options and outcomes.

Henry, Nicholas - Paradigms of Public Administration (1975)

Henry's states that his goal in this essay is to identify the existing and emerging paradigms of Public Administration, and to justify why the study of Public Administration is an important independent field. Paradigms are defined by locus - the "where" of the field - and focus - the "what" (specialization) of the field. He identified the following as the existing paradigms: Paradigm 1: The Politics/Administration Dichotomy 1900-1926. Goodnow's separation of politics (has to do with policies or expression of the state will) and administration (has to do with the execution of those policies). Emphasis in this period on Locus - where administration should be. PA firms defined as a legitimate subfield of Political Science during this period. Paradigm 1 strengthened the notion of a distinct politics/administration dichotomy by relating it to a value/fact dichotomy. Paradigm 2: The Principals of Administration 1927-1937. Willoughby's "Principles of Administration" reinforces PA as a science by asserting it has existing scientific "principles". This period centered on "focus" - managerial knowledge and capability. The focus was on the principles themselves, and not necessarily on where/how they were applied. The Challenge 1938-1950: Dissent from mainstream PA; rejection of the politics/administration dichotomy idea (argument that they are inextricably linked and could never be separated), and the assertion that the principles of administration are logically inconsistent, and a rejection of the idea of a "principle" of administration. Reaction to The Challenge 1947-1950: Herbert Simon puts forth the idea of two kinds of PA which work in harmony - a "pure science of administration" grounded in social psychology and a "prescribing for public policy" which dealt with political economy. Unpopular with scholars of PA at the time due to no focus on public interest and human values. Tension between PA and Political Science as PA neared "breaking off". PS scholars felt the loss of PA as a sub topic would translate to the loss of grants and funding. Paradigm 3: PA as Political Science 1950-1970. PA remained within the PS realm, resulting in an increase in locus but loss of focus. Writings during this time tend to discuss PA as an "emphasis". In the 60's, PA began so suffer from a lack of "prestige" within PS with declining faculty interest in the field. Paradigm 4: Public Administration as Administrative Science 1956-1970. PA academics begin searching for an alternative due to "contempt" from the PS community. Administrative Science offers a focus. Idea that "administration was administration" be it business or public. Study of PA concerns (human values, social physchology) within an administrative science/organizational theory framework. Lines begin to blur between PA and business administration. PA struggled to find/maintain an identity. Emerging paradigm 5: Public Administration as Public Administration 1970-?. Renewed interest in Simon's "duality"/two kinds of PA. A "zeroing in" of the field on fundamental social factors unique to fully developed countries. Increased concern with policy-making process and its analysis, and the measurement of policy outputs Henry asserts that "the ways in which Public Administration defines itself will determine to a profound degree the manner in which government works". He is stating that it is important to study, define and understand PA in order to mold the type of government that we (the public) wish to have.

Maslow, A.H. - A Preface to Motivation: A Theory of Human Motivation (1943)

Motivational theory needs to be human centered not animal centered. Maslow Hierarchy of Needs was drawn from the Motivation theory which grew out of psychology and social sciences. Motivation is the internal drive that moves us towards acting and being goal directed. Public Administration began thinking about the drives and motivations of its workers in the 1940's and 1950's as they were looking for explanations. Contextualize the Article: Maslow's theory of motivation is based on the human being as a whole and takes into context the biological, situationally determined, psychosocial, and cultural factors that interplay in the development of an individual. Every person has the same five motivational needs desiring to be met and they range from basic to complex and the most basic must be met before moving onto the more complex ones. In addition human are in a state of homeostasis which is at level one. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The five human needs that motivate an individual are: 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep. Newborns, infants, and infirmed elders are reliant on their basic needs being met by others. Abuse, victimization, or trauma risks this basic need being met. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, stability, freedom from fear. These are needs that parents, teachers, coaches, extended family are supposed to build in a young person. As society ages the elderly and dependent adults require others to help them in order to achieve this. Victimization by another violates this basic need. 3. Love and belongingness needs - friendship, intimacy, affection and love, - from work group, family, friends, and romantic relationships. With the two prior needs being met one can begin meeting this need which also is a development process of aging and gaining mastery. Break-ups, divorce , and death threaten this need from being achieved or if met on may revert to it. 4. Esteem needs - achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, self-respect, and respect from others. This too is developmental with achieving academically and being career oriented. Unemployment, a poor relationship with a supervisor, or a risk to an academic achievement can disrupt this need. 5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Maslow said that one in a hundred people achieve self-actualization as many disruptions of life happen or satisfaction is experienced at lower levels of the hierarchy that one stops pursuing growth. Maslow's theory is still in use today with private and public sector organizations and it remains timely in that it helps to understand how to help those achieve success to the level they want especially with the vast civil servant roles and consumers as employees roles within public organizations.

Terry, Larry - Administrative Leadership, Neo-Managerialism, and the Public Management Movement (1998)

The author describes the effects of the Public Sector Management movement on public sector management and leadership. The market (rational) orientation of PSM is problematic in managing public employees due to lack of accountability, a negative view of human behavioral motivation, and a lack of capacity to account for nebulous concepts such as 'public benefit' or 'public good'. Neo-managerialism dominates modern PA thought An updated form of 'Taylorism' Mix of public choice theory, agency theory, transaction-cost economics There is 'one best way' to manage Derived from two distinct management theories Liberation management: "Let Managers Manage" Popularized by Thomas Peters (1992) and Paul Light (1997) Guided by the idea that public managers already know how to manage Failures occur due to systemic problems (a "bad system") Overburdened by excessive and unnecessary rules Market-driven management Guided by two ideas Competition driven by market efficiency Private sector practices are superior to public sector practices No distinction between public and private management Guy Peters (1996): "management is management" Both theories are rooted in 'managerialism' or 'managerialist ideology'. Christopher Pollit (1990) defines managerialism through the following core beliefs: Social progress is derived from increases in economically-defined productivity Productivity increases will derive from use of new technology; dominant form is the multi-functional corporation (agency) Information technology Organization technology Production technology Proper application of these technologies can only occur if the workforce is indoctrinated with the productivity ideal Management is a separate and distinct organizational function; success is dependent upon the quality and professionalism of management Plans, implements, measures improvements in productivity Managers must be granted 'room to maneuver' in order to be effective Pollitt (1990) argues that 'managerialsim' is supported by values that reinforce the idea that management is 'important' and 'good' Better management makes institutions perform better, reduces waste, concentrates resources to produce benefit objectives are clear staff is motivated attention is paid to monetary costs red tape is eliminated founded in the introduction of good business practices developed in the private sector managerialism is considered 'Neo-Taylorism' The Grace Commission (under Regan) formalized Neo-Taylorism in public administration Concerned with efficiency and administrative control These features combined with public choice theory, transaction-cost economics, and agency theory (together referred to as 'organizational economics) inform New Public Management Public choice theory and organizational economics presume that Human beings are rational economic actors and are driven by competitive self-interest People are in constant pursuit of wealth, power, status, and personal gain The rational economic actor is thus inclined to shirk, be opportunistic, act with guile, or behave in a way that is a moral hazard Public managers require extensive policing because they cannot be trusted The public manager is an instrument of public policy They should thus assume an entrepreneurial role to solve problems Entrepreneurialism and Managerialism: a market model Should be adopted in PA Osborne and Gaebler (1992) Reinventing Government Guy Peters (1996) Will improve government performance Are integral to New Public Management Managerialism represents a threat to democratic governance Public managers are public servants Entrepreneurs lack accountability Negative assumptions about civil servants' motivations are overall negative and affect legitimacy The image of cheating, lying, self-interested public managers undermines public trust Simon: human beings are more than rational economic actors driven by greed and self-interest Managerialism is incapable of accounting for public interest, since self-interest is at its core (market theories of human behavior) American values such as fairness, justice, representation, and participation can't be accounted for under managerialism Context This was written towards the end of NPM orthodoxy, after the National Performance review (1993) and addresses some of the underlying criticism of business-oriented reforms to PA Major Themes NPM Civil Service reform Organizational Behavior Management

Van Wart, Montgomery - Public Sector Leadership Theory: An Assessment (2003)

The author examines the history of leadership theory, contrasting efforts to describe private sector management and public sector management. While there are similarities and useful crossovers, public sector management is explicitly a product of a political environment and subject to conditions that make application of strictly business-oriented tools less than ideal. Public sector management can be distilled into two essential categories: entrepreneurial ideals or stewardship ideals. The importance of Leadership Effective leaders enhance organizational performance at every level, from output to morale Public leaders today face additional challenges from eras past Shared-power environment Citizens' access to leaders Familiarity breeds contempt Enchanced access is through social media, the Internet, traditional media; also greater interest in decision-making But citizens tend to be overinformed and undereducated: little understanding of the true nature of the complex policy-making environment although their understanding of modern policy problems is relatively high Have less tolerance for mistakes and structural challenges to policy-making Dominant themes in leadership Early years of study largely dismissed In 1948 Ralph Stogdill urged colleagues to abandon 40 years of research because it was inconclusive, and they did Most serious study began after this period Slow academic progress due to Contextual complexity: there are more difference amongst leaders than similarities. Issues are expressions of complex environments or context that occur in limitless permutations Issues of proper definition of descriptions and terminology Observed phenomena change through the act of observation More rigorous study began in the 1980s, but Public Sector Management has still been neglected Because public sector leadership is viewed as a mechanistic function of government (due to Taylorism and ideas from the Progressive Era) Bureaucracies are driven by forces beyond the control of administrative leaders (making their effect relatively insignificant) "Great Man" thesis (19th Century) Great men somehow move history because of their exceptional, innate characteristics Nietzsche's (1883) super-man Galton's (1869) study of hereditary genius Trait thesis (1900 - 1948) Founded in scientific mood of early 20th Century Developed alongside scientific management Informed Progressive Era management and leadership Used personality tests to define leadership qualities Lists continued to grow as research progressed (few common features) Traits identified were often contradictory: leaders must be decisive, flexible, and inclusive depending on the problem being addressed Without situational specificity the traits became laundry lists Contingency thesis (1948 - 1980s) Look at decision contexts to find patterns Ohio State Leadership Studies (1950) tested statements relating to leadership, distilled to two underlying Consideration for inclusion and good feelings amongst subordinates Initiating structure: defining roles, control mechanisms, task focus, work coordination Combined with humanist and human relations movement of 1950s and 1960s to better describe phenomena Reaction to rigidly hierarchical theories of the past Created elegant constructs that were useful teaching tools: lead to centralization of training and education of managers Felt that leaders had special responsibility, are capable of dramatic change, can energize followers Theories were ultimately failures due to trying to explain too much with too few variables Ethics were largely ignored Robert Greenleaf (Servant Leadership, 1977) was one of the few to explore ethics in this era Focus of leadership study was at lower levels (not executive) Transformational thesis (1978 - present) Emphasis on leaders who create change Three subschools of leadership form around the idea of leading change Transformational: emphasized vision and organizational change Leadership (1978) by James McGregor Burns Transactional leadership was being studied Transformational leadership was being ignored Charismatic: focus on influence processes and behavior used to inspire higher action in subordinates Entrepreneurial: focus on mangers making practical process and cultural changes to improve productivity These schools helped to invigorate academic and nonacademic study of leadership Servant thesis (1977 - present) Leaders are ethically responsible to their subordinates and to society Manifested as 'employees' in private sector 'citizens' in public sector Era influenced by social movements of 1960s & 70s Multi-faceted thesis (1990s - present) Emphasis on integrating major schools, specifically transactional (traits and behaviors) and transformational (visionary leaders, entrepreneurialism) Affected by highly competitive global environment and need to provide more sophisticated and holistic models of leadership Main themes of leadership debate What is the leader's proper focus: technical performance, human resource development, or organizational alignment? Characterized on one level by technical and mechanistic descriptions of organization and function Represented by classical management (POSDCORB) and scientific management Leaders don't work: they depend on followers to do the work Leadership demands a more humanistic approach Maslow's higher needs Leadership is situational Transformational leadership: the essential function of leadership is producing adaptive or useful change Leadership is service to the public interest and society (rather than to subordinates To what degree does leadership make a difference? Are leaders born or made? Great Man theory Now viewed as a matter of degree rather than a dichotomy (either you got it or you don't) Focus on leadership training What is the best style to use? Leadership can be viewed as the sum of disparate qualities and their effect Academics sought to define key traits and behaviors Follower participation Change styles (e.g. risk averse or risk accepting) Personality styles (e.g. Myers-Briggs Type Indicator) Others viewed it in relation to function Situational use of various styles Can style be changed in adults? Probably not: better to find the right leader for the right situation The Discretion Debate "How much discretion should public administrators have and under what conditions" Pits proponents of entrepreneurialism against proponents of stewardship First era (1883 - 1940s) Defined by dichotomy orthodoxy Administrators make technical decisions, elected officials make policy decisions Second Era (1940s - 1980s) Politics and administration intertwined Administrators can exercise modest use of significant discretion Third Era (1990s - present) Administrators as entrepreneurs Have wide-ranging discretion for decision-making NPM: public managers are uniquely qualified to play a large role in decision-making Major Themes History of management and leadership Public/private sector differences PDF document Eras of Mainstream Leadership Theory and Research.pdf Reply 2 replies Post by Patrick Mulhearn 15 days ago Re: Public-Sector Leadership Theory: An Assessment (Van Wart, Montgomery; 2003) The attachment is a great table from the article that encapsulates the major eras of leadership study covered. Reply Post by Lawrence Becker 14 days ago Re: Public-Sector Leadership Theory: An Assessment (Van Wart, Montgomery; 2003) OK, this is really an outstanding summary and it is an important summary in several different ways so I'll say a little more than usual here: First, this piece is really useful for you all in studying the comps so I encourage everyone to have a look at it. What's important here is not so much the contribution that the author of the piece is making but rather, that they are summarizing a lot of other work and the evolution of the subfield of leadership. So, you really want to use this more as a reference and a jumping off point to learn more about some of this other work. Second, a lot of this stuff is really the raw material you need for one of the standard kinds of questions you might see in the PSML section where we ask you "what is the difference between management and leadership?" Alternatively, you might see a question that asks, "what makes a manager a good leader?" There is so much stuff here that can be used to answer those questions. Third, notice how these different eras mirror the same kinds of eras in the literature more broadly. Finally, let me say a few things about the substance of this stuff. So, notice how studies and arguments about leadership move over time from one theory to the next. "great men" are just born (and oh yes, in that era, they ARE all men!) or leaders are those who have the right traits. or good leaders are those who are the right match for the organization or the time. or there are other theories that focus on leaders who produce the right outputs (they serve or they transform, etc.). Lots and lots to chew on here.

Kettl, Donald - The Global Revolution in Public Management: Driving Themes, Missing Links (1997)

The author is generally supportive of economic (rational) reforms to public administration and describes the NPM movement by identifying main themes and potential pitfalls. Performance measurement is important because it illuminates government's results and because it helps insure government is working in the public interest. Reform is a constant process, not a machine that one turns on and walks away from; but reforms clearly mirror the pressures that lead to their creation and introduce innovations to policymaking and implementation. Focus on performance measurement and management Asserts that NPM is the first "true revolution" of the information age Movement faces three issues Ideas of reform Linking reform with processes (like budgeting and personnel) Linking reform to structures of governance Ideas behind NPM 'managerialism' Replace rigidity with flexibility Focus on improvements to process rather than structure Reorient government away from stability towards market-style competition Let managers manage (Theory Y) Focus managers on problems that need to be solved Give them flexibility to solve them Promote adaptability Civil servants as entrepreneurs Endorse 'continuous improvement' over bureaucratic control Derived from TQM movement Build from the bottom up rather than top down Establish systems that allow cooperation between units Is fundamentally an empowering philosophy which aims to break down restrictions on managers' flexibility Make managers manage (Theory X) Change management incentives by subjecting them to market forces Top managers hired by contract, rewarded according to performance; can be fired for not producing Give managers great freedom to manage, but subject to market forces Customer service Produce quality in terms of what customers want Set goals based on accuracy of advice given, timeliness of responses, accessibility of staff, and relevance of support Processes affected Budgets Shift from demand-driven government (success defined by # of programs passed and budget allocations) to results-driven government where success is defined by programmatic effects Performance measurement is central to reform BUT! Performance measurements are difficult to produce Need to move beyond outputs to outcomes Outcome measures can describe whether a program is working but can confuse accountability due to the fact that they often depend upon factors outside the manager's control Distinction between outputs and outcomes is still central to this methodology Performance measurements can be flawed due to the on-going nature of reform: the process never stops so goals are moving targets When a new problem emerges managers are inclined to drill deeper to find a solution and can lose perspective or the connections between problems Outcomes inevitably become the metric Human Resources NPM has sought to transform the culture of public organizations Encouraging employees to think of citizens as consumers or customers to be served rather than clients to be managed Developed outcome measurements and strategic planning to guide them Created financial incentives for performance Sought to downsize government in order to foster more efficiency Gore's "reinventing government" resulted in removing 1/8 of the Federal workforce UK reform removed 1/3 of civil service employees Establishing work and performance contracts for civil service employees Managers hired on fixed-term contracts Rewards for high performance; termination for low performance Based on performance measurements Hold managers accountable through performance contracts Basic strategies for civil service reform Dismantling civil service system Privatization Delegation of authority to front-line managers Investments in training and incentives Problems still occur Managing morale problems Developing skills necessary for dealing with expanded responsibilities and the focus on measurement Motivating employees Inculcating a sense of public service in employees used to a market or profit motive The fundamental issue is organizing a process that creates worker incentives and provides sufficient support Motivation lies at the core of the human resource problem of NPM The best private employers view employees as an asset rather than a cost Dilemma: reformers want market-based incentives to drive efficient production, but government focus is more than production or output: it is the public interest Capacity Issues Managers are asked to do more with less Expected to transform old systems to meet new problems Must adapt new methods to old systems Reform does not wipe the slate clean: no do-overs Become bolt-on improvements People underestimate the degree of change necessary to implement reform and the effort required to make the reform stick Solution is to let managers manage Allow for political incentives to enter scheme Eliminate harsh recriminations for the risks taken Reform cannot be simply imposed Invest in people, processes, and technology Missing Pieces Relationship between administrators and politicians Connections between managers' performance and public budgets Government's leverage over non-government partners Questions of accountability Focus on customers and results focuses administrators downward toward consumers and away from elected officials Forces managers to look outside government for outcomes rather than within government processes Elected officials lose leverage over managers Typically enforced through budget control Focus on privatization introduces a bottom-up influence which counters traditional top-down control Traditional control focuses on symbolic actions Government by contract removes control over these symbols and focuses instead on performance measures Governing under this system demands developing new connections between policymaking and policy implementation Officials hold managers accountable for results, assumes citizens will be better able to hold elected officials accountable But it makes it easier to shift blame Managers lose control of outcomes provided by contractors Officials must more clearly state goals in policy-making process Managerialism radically changes the nature of the relationship between elected officials and voters It is tempting to push the private sector into anything it can do without ever asking whether it should do it Search for certainty in complex environment can tempt managers to view everything in terms of processes More useful to view this system as performance-based management rather than measurement Allowing the process to focus too much on measurement often leaves key decisions to the measurers Performance-basis must be incorporated into every feature of government (especially budgets) Focus on management can help managers do their jobs more effectively Can improve communication through definition and common terminology Types of decisions affected Budgetary Programmatic Managerial Demands integration of politics and management Accountability Reformers must answer two questions How to provide sufficient capacity? What are the boundaries of government? What does the government do? Government is not business Pursuing public interest is not a business concern Market-style management cannot move beyond creating efficiency Context The author is writing at a time when NPM has become fully realized and implemented worldwide. He is attempting to both describe the movement and to provide a critique of some gaps in its development, to help further reform the reform. He is unabashedly supportive of the idea of market-based governance. Major Themes NPM Management Reform

Wilson, Woodrow - The Study of Administration (1887)

The point of Wilson's article is that there should be a separation between politics and administration known as the 'Dichotomy of Politics and Administration'. Contextualize the Article: The politics made had to address the changing nature of society, post-civil war and pre-world war, such as citizen increasingly mobility as the states of the Union has expanded and railroads were possible; there was increased commerce with the profits from the gold rush, steel and agriculture exports; and the states were in a growth spurt. The administration, separate from politics, was the visible part of government and efficiency was important to Wilson. Wilson focused on politicians making policy that hopefully could be enacted into practice, but earmarked the public administrator to ensure that the public service being delivered were efficient, a virtually new concept for government. Wilson is known as the Father of Public Administration because he spoke about public administration and its need to be focused on efficiency and he understood that the United States were de-centralization so assuming eastern styles of politics and administration would work here was challenging. He chose to adapt rather than adopt their styles of political principles. Today he would be credited for making strides in government efficiency yet criticized for not having accountability and effectiveness as a measure of efficiency. His practice of the dichotomy model bears the fostering of like methods of government in the pursuit of common purpose, honorary equality, and honorary subordination. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Wilson says "Our duty is to supply the best possible life to a 'federal' organization, to systems within systems to make town, city, county, state, and federal governments live with a like strength and an equally assured healthfulness, keeping each unquestionably its own master and yet making all interdependent with mutual helpfulness, This is the interlacing of local self-government with federal self-government which is a modern concept". Government should be safe and legitimate as determined by the way it conducts its business in public view. Wilson set the path for public administration theory to birth ideas from sociology, political science, human motivation, psychology, and law in America thus creating a different way of delivering public service to the community. The Deficit Reduction Act of 2005 with the emphasis on ending fraud, waste, and abuse, in government would be exactly what Wilson's philosophy was striving for. His theory is timeless and he remains the Father of Public Administration because there are strong elements in his theory that are applicable in current government operations today. ************************ The main point of this article is to identify the purpose for study of administration as discovering the most proper, efficient, successful actions of government with the least cost and energy. Contextualize the article Government is complex and multiplies due to the expansion of these complexities. The purpose for the science of administration is to study government in order to "straighten the paths of government" (Shafritz & Hyde, 2012)) by seeking efficiencies. Reform must be slow and full of compromise. The pillar of dichotomy which states politics is the foundation for setting the tasks of administration but must be separate so that it doesn't manipulate the administration of the tasks established. As the Holdee of accountability, public opinion plays the part of authoritative critic. Although public criticism is beneficial it's not always efficient. Highlight key examples, key ideas In studying the government history of the chief nations in what is known as the modern world three periods of growth have been identified: 1) Absolute rule by an administrative system 2) Constitutions are framed to do away with administrative control and replace it with popular control 3) Sovereign people develop administration under the control of the constitution. ************************** Main Arguments •Separation of administration and politics, administration should be focused on execution of orders after policy decisions have been made; •Absolute ruler creation nation shift to democratic form of government (more interests to consider); •Increased the scope of government responsibilities, increasing size of government and sophisticated society; •Need to educate the people on governance issues and implement will of people; •Efficiency achieved through specialized/ civil service operating within a structured hierarchy ; • Believed that government efficiency would be increased through the study of administration. Context •Written post-Civil Service Reform (Pendleton Act of 1883) •Industrial Revolution •End of Civil War 1865 and Reconstruction Era 1877 •Taylorism movement began in 1880's (Scientific Management 1912) Also see - Henri Fayol (theory of business administration)

Appleby, Paul - Government is Different (1945)

This piece discusses the differences between public and business administration/management, including the differences in personality/experience needed to successfully manage government over business. Appleby identifies three aspects that differentiate government, and therefore government management, from all other insitutions: breadth of scope, impact, and consideration; public accountability; and political character. Appleby asserts that public management/administration differs from business administration primarily because it is public. Everything a government organization or government official does is conducted within the public realm and is open to scrutiny and criticism. In fact, by nature of being a public entity, government invites scrutiny and criticism. The government is tasked with efficient stewardship of public resources, and thus must be responsive to public concern. This means that public perception and attitude surrounding government is much different. Appleby gives the example of disimissing an employee to illustrate this point: while in the private sector, it is assumed that a dismissed employee deserved the dismissal and thus little credence is given to their complaints against the company, in the public sector this is not the case. If a dismissed (or disgruntled) public employee speaks out against the organization and suggests wrongdoing, there is an obligation to investigate. It becomes a matter of major public importance, and much energy and resources are spent investigating. Public agencies and public managers live under constant external scrutiny. Responding to this, and the focus of government on public good rather than the good of the business, requires a different type of personality to be effective in management than does private industry. A public manager must be comfortable with and be able to manage the pressure of the needs, desires, actions, thoughts and sentiments of the community they are serving. ****************************** Explain what the overall main argument or point of the article is The main point of this article is the significant difference between government and private business. "Government is different because government is politics" (Appleby, 1945). Contextualize the article When comparing the differences between government and private business, the key differences are the bureaucratic system of government specific to personnel, the public interest mentality, and the transparency of all governmental actions. Highlight key examples, key ideas According to Appleby the essential character of government is the span of public accountability that defines the political character. Every action is scrutinized by the media resulting in judgments by the public for every move made. The scope of coverage provides legitimacy simply because government promotes the protection of public interest. By the same token a disgruntled employee has the power to shed a negative light by discrediting the department. There isn't much that can be done when it comes to disciplining governmental employees due to the exhaustive resources it takes to take action against an employee compared to private sector where an employee can't possibly discredit their employer because they in turn lose credibility simply by being discharged.

Follett, Mary Parker - The Giving of Orders (1926)

Main Arguments •Management and staff should work together to create procedures; •Staff will be more cooperative if management treats staff with respect, considers input etc..; •Staff will inherently be resistant to being bossed around; •Staff have in intrinsic need to have the ability to exercise some level of control over their work just as they do in their personal lives and they don't want to be micromanaged; •Staff should have some level autonomy in execution of procedures for situations that may not have been thought of when the procedures were developed. Context •Taylorisim Scientific Management 1912 • Bureaucracy Webber 1922

Bao, Guoxian; Wang, Xuejun; Larsen, Gary; Morgan, Douglas - Beyond New Public Governance: A Value-Based Global Framework for Performance Management, Governance, and Leadership (2012)

New Public Management (NPM) has been demonstrated to be problematic in achieving the goals of PA, and while New Public Governance (NPG) is a good start at reform, the authors present the idea that it is simply another step towards a more inclusive and thus representative system of governance; namely a purely values-based approach. While the article outlines some features of what a values-based system would look like, their point is to foster future discussions about better ways to achieve legitimacy and effectiveness. NPM did indeed produce some benefits Proactive problem solving Better systems integration More encompassing metrics for system evaluation However, there are still weaknesses in the field In PA there is no universal denominator such as "profit", "market share", or "return on investment", so applying strict business methodologies will never fully describe systems of governance In government there is no true 'central authority': executives cannot govern by fiat as they can in business NPM attempts to use administrative solutions to solve what are ultimately political problems. Utility in business is clearly defined, but in government it is subject to political calculus NPG on the other hand Is value-centered, with the goal of output being the common good (not just efficiency, effectiveness, and responsiveness) Views the role of government to be a facilitator for achieving agreements among wide-ranging stakeholders Is rooted in the idea that public good is a coproduction process involving public, private, and nonprofit sectors Government performance should be viewed from a perspective of organic wholeness with each aspect (public, private, nonprofit) working together to represent the unique needs of the community The development of a fully values-based system is dependent upon three factors Contextual setting Disparate values Aligning policies and leadership strategies to address characteristics of wicked problems Core political values Vary from community to community (and indeed nation to nation) Influence decision-making at every level and become fully-reified by the decision-makers Authority structure and processes These are the systems through which collective action is initiated and sustained Some examples are rule of law, bureaucratic systems, political parties, the military, and gatekeepers of information that flows to and from the citizenry The authors assert that new organizational leadership and management competencies are necessary to realize such a system First, legitimacy suffers when leaders are not viewed as trustworthy Reputation affects legitimacy Governments are judged now by their ability to create authority that is responsive to horizontal power arrangements and expectations of the citizenry This is in contrast to the classical PA view of a rigidly hierarchical system with a top-down power structure Leaders must now be capable of functioning both within the new horizontal power arrangement and still be effective in the vertically-oriented PA environment They will ultimately be judged by their efficacy in creating and maintaining networks Value-centered approaches to governance leadership should focus on the following: Facilitating integration of strategic leadership with tactical and operational concerns for performance measurement and management Develop relationship management skills in building trust and confidence in government Understanding the importance of public processes as the primary instrument through which public value is expressed and created Valuing individual and organizational learning - individuals need to be creative in their problem-solving and thus organizations should address their needs, rather than individuals' being fully-integrated into a system Maintain strong organizational cultures Use a values-based approach to identify and create shared goals and common values to be used in negotiating between participants Context It has been recently established that the business-based practices espoused in NPM have failed to achieve the goals of reform, and several academics worldwide are struggling with establishing what's next. While NPG seems to be taking hold, in a policy environment defined now by networked governance, the authors feel that NPG could be further rendered to address the pluralistic nature of modern governance. A values-based approach starts with the understanding that stakeholders will generally espouse contradictory ideologies and will thus allow government officials to start with coalition-building in order to successfully deliver public benefit. Major Themes Public sector management & leadership reform

Gruening, Gernod - Origin and Theoretical Basis of New Public Management (2001)

New Public Management is the outgrowth of environmental forces and reflects the influences of different - and sometimes contradictory - schools of thought. External and internal environmental factors have led to its development; it is thus a reflection of both pure science and applied science. NPM includes features of generations of thought in political science, public administration, and economics. The differences in the theories can be viewed as clashes between researchers' motives: scientists are concerned with truth, while practitioners search for solutions (this harkens to Simon's assertion that practical and applied sciences are different, even if they're still both 'science'). He makes a further distinction that Public Management and Public Administration are the products of two separate schools of thought, although the distinction appears to be mostly academic. Characteristics: Budget cuts & privatization of gov't services Contracting out gov't services (to community organizations) User charges and fees for service, voucher systems, the concept of the citizen as a consumer Competition (both internally and with external agencies), giving managers the "freedom to manage" Politics/Administration dichotomy, accountability for performance, performance measurement/accounting/auditing Strategic planning and improved personnel management Use of information technology Streamlining or combining administrative structures Enhanced citizen participation Context Every feature of NPM can be derived from historical perspective. The Progressive movement, for example, defined what's known as "Classical Public Administration" and it was followed by "Neoclassical Public Administration" which was a reaction (by people like Simon) to perceived inconsistencies or failures of the ideas promoted by Wilson, Gulick, and Taylor. In the late 60s and early 70s more Libertarian/Conservative ideas began to develop based on the idea of personal choice. The metric for determining performance and effectiveness in government was how free individuals were to pursue their interests. This was promoted by people like Mises who felt that features of government such as the Welfare State were a form of tyranny. At the same time some more human-centric philosophies were being floated based on the work of Maslow, which resulted in what's known as "New Public Administration". This was an idea pushed by people like Waldo in the late 60s and sought to move away from formalized and mechanistic administrative systems to more participatory and inclusive systems. They felt that administrators should be facilitators for public participation in governance. The idea of Public Management developed as academics and researchers began to once again incorporate advances in management developed in private industry. These concepts developed along two main axes: Rational/Mechanistic PM includes concepts like zero-based budgeting, management by objective, rational strategic management, and performance measurement Humanistic/Organic PM: total quality management, culturally-oriented strategic management, leadership, mission-driven policy Major Themes History of PA New Public Management

Peters, B. Guy - The Changing Nature of Public Administration: From Easy Answers to Hard Questions (2003)

Peters purpose with this article is to compare and contrast "Conventional or Traditional Public Management as to "New Public Management" and presents a case that they both have value and purpose to be viable in public management practice today. Contextualize the Article: Traditional public administration (TPM) is what is known best by Weber and Wilson's strong emphasis on scientific and practical means of government being necessary to maintain order and institute public policy. TPM are hierarchical systems that are well-structured with clear delineation of workers roles. The criticism of TPM has been the back room political deals that make policy and the public's voice of representation comes during elections. Also with the hierarchical structure and the political dichotomy public administrators were seen as actors to carry out the decision-makers policies not to participate in the development of them. The new public management (NPM) concept is that relationships are established between public and private sectors creating business opportunities sometimes providing an enhancement to what government can do. The main criticism about NPM is that it emphasizes "what" can be done rather than "why it should be done". Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The TPM's and NPM's guiding principles are compared and contrasted below: An Assumption of Self-Sufficiency: Government will equip and organize itself in order to make and implement program for societal benefit; as opposed to the governance approach which utilizes private sector organizations in delivering public service programs by relationships valuing partnerships and collaboration. An Assumption of Direct Control: Those at the top are capable of proper decision-making within their organizations; as opposed to the need to incentivize its employees and develop a sense of organizational culture. An Assumption of Accountability Upward: Accountability goes upward from the public administrator to the elected officials to the "masters"; as opposed to accountably being internalized and professional. An Assumption of Uniformity: This is the fundamental concept that all citizens should be treated "equally" providing the same deprivations and benefits to those similarly situated individuals; as opposed to the public should have an ability to choose amongst the products offered and "serving the customer" is fundamental. An Assumption of a Civil Service System: The creation of Civil Service established a formal procedures for recruitment, pay, grading, and other aspects of internal management as opposed to there being a more trusting assumption about employees, flexibility in career and management arrangements with potential for greater equality amongst those civil servants. TPM and NPM see the civil service system as problematic. In the end the current state of public administration can benefit from blending TPM and NPM philosophies. Laws and rules as well as organizational culture, and the development of private public sector relationships to extend public services providing an enhanced array of choice in public service are important. TPM and NPM believe in the dichotomy between policy and administration which indicates there exists a mutual foundation to build upon. Whether holding firm to TPM or NPM or both, all will be needed to address the very complex policy issues facing us today such as immigration, homelessness, the war on terror, and unemployment.

Fung, Archon - Varieties of Participation in Complex Governance (2006)

The author (2006) discusses techniques and tactics for fostering better public inclusion in governance. The central question of modern public administration is what sort of and how much public participation should there be in democratic governance. There are no formal systems for direct democracy, no centralized process for every voice to be heard, so inclusive governance must be by proxies. Furthermore, there is no unified voice of the electorate: it is composed of myriad interests and sub-groups. The author insists that while direct democracy is not in itself a good fit for modern PA, it is a complementary system that should be employed to engender legitimacy. It is a tool that fills in the gaps of representative democracy and provides opportunities for discrete representation of individuals' values. Incorporating the public demands identification of who will be included, how information will be transmitted to and amongst the people so engaged, and how to effectively implement any ideas that bubble to the surface. It is important to encourage public participation because it is often the only way for marginalized populations to engage in governance, and in fact public managers should structure public engagement so as to be optimally inclusive of such populations. Some problems require expert, deliberative bodies (such as administrative systems or elected bodies we traditionally consider as governing bodies); but academic researcher and public managers' experience have established tools and techniques to leverage public participation to improve policy-making. Generally, the public is engaged in a process after sector failure: much like the conditions that lead to cross-sector collaboration, public participation is sought as a solution to wicked problems. Some of the techniques for effective public participation in marginalized communities include the use of community organizers to publicize meetings in low-participation areas, focusing on specific policies that are of interest to such populations (such as education, social service policies, or Social Security and Medicare). The best way to guarantee representative samples is targeting specific stakeholder groups and randomly selecting individuals from amongst them. This is effective to counter the cattle-call meetings where participants self-select for participation (people who are generally engaged already or have a particular axe to grind). Another technique is the employment of commissions comprised of lay stakeholders. These techniques effectively aggregate "mini publics" that reflect the character and culture of the community. This is still not pure direct democracy, but it gives non-traditional players a seat at the table. All of these tools create an overlapping system of mechanisms that provide coverage of gaps in traditional administrative/political governance. People generally engage with government along several axes: as spectators bearing witness to a public deliberation (city council/ board of supervisors meetings), organized discussions (charrettes or other facilitated discussions), or through the use of consultants or other outside, technical specialists. Essentially public engagement is used to accrue legitimacy in decision-making, regardless of whether the ideas generated are practical. The author believes that engaging marginalized populations is further a means of insuring equity in decision-making. He asserts that uninclusive policy reinforces inequity because decisions affecting marginalized populations generally do not include the point of view of such constituencies. Engaging such stakeholders specifically in the budgeting process - especially in establishing funding priorities - helps to improve overall equity in governance. While the ideas produced in direct democracy may actually be impossible to implement, the ideas generated by stakeholder groups will often be innovative due to the application of fresh perspectives on the problem or because participants will be looking for solutions without consideration of administrative constraints. These groups often possess on-the-ground intelligence that provides public managers granular data they wouldn't otherwise access. The critical feature of such endeavors, though, is excellent facilitation. Public participation must be directed and managed in order to provide the types of information that is useful to public managers.

Weber, Max - Bureaucracy (1946)

The main point of this article is defining the characteristics of Public Administration. I. The three elements of bureaucracy: a. Regular activities distributed as official duties A hierarchical system of subordinates, chain of command The position of the official is based on his/her official duties There are appointed official bureaucratic positions or elected officials b. The authority to give commands by defined rules Management is based on written documents c. Methodical fulfillment of these duties Specializing derived from expert training Contextualize the article The characteristics of bureaucracy which existed in 1946 exist in today's government. We still have elected and appointed officials, we still follow a chain of command, there are written policies that dictate the authority we are to follow, we still have technical skills where we are expertly trained in specific specializations. Highlight key examples, key ideas The key idea is that the foundation for the classic public administration remains the same foundation today.

Addams, Jane - Problems of Municipal Administration (1904)

Main Arguments Founding fathers didn't contemplate complexities of running an industrialized city; Government not responsive to daily needs of the people; Government more focused on enforcing rules than helping people; Fake politicians, corrupt agencies, lack of enforcement of the peoples will; Average citizen ignored by government and therefore understandably doesn't vote; Local government should have the right to determine scope of services based on local needs. Context Progressive Era Reforms Taylorism Efficiency Era Scientific Management Shame of the Cities published in 1904 exposed public corruption in major cities - goal was to promote political reform Local Government/City Manager Movement National Municipal League formed in 1894 Goal was to elect honest and competent men to city hall Developed a model city charter - featured strong mayor 1906 city manager delegated executive authority from council- Virginia first example Goal was to neutralize political power and to place management of city into the hands of an outside expert, business manager or engineer

Noonan, Peggy - Courage Under Fire (2001)

Peters purpose with this article is to compare and contrast "Conventional or Traditional Public Management as to "New Public Management" and presents a case that they both have value and purpose to be viable in public management practice today. Contextualize the Article: Traditional public administration (TPM) is what is known best by Weber and Wilson's strong emphasis on scientific and practical means of government being necessary to maintain order and institute public policy. TPM are hierarchical systems that are well-structured with clear delineation of workers roles. The criticism of TPM has been the back room political deals that make policy and the public's voice of representation comes during elections. Also with the hierarchical structure and the political dichotomy public administrators were seen as actors to carry out the decision-makers policies not to participate in the development of them. The new public management (NPM) concept is that relationships are established between public and private sectors creating business opportunities sometimes providing an enhancement to what government can do. The main criticism about NPM is that it emphasizes "what" can be done rather than "why it should be done". Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The TPM's and NPM's guiding principles are compared and contrasted below: An Assumption of Self-Sufficiency: Government will equip and organize itself in order to make and implement program for societal benefit; as opposed to the governance approach which utilizes private sector organizations in delivering public service programs by relationships valuing partnerships and collaboration. An Assumption of Direct Control: Those at the top are capable of proper decision-making within their organizations; as opposed to the need to incentivize its employees and develop a sense of organizational culture. An Assumption of Accountability Upward: Accountability goes upward from the public administrator to the elected officials to the "masters"; as opposed to accountably being internalized and professional. An Assumption of Uniformity: This is the fundamental concept that all citizens should be treated "equally" providing the same deprivations and benefits to those similarly situated individuals; as opposed to the public should have an ability to choose amongst the products offered and "serving the customer" is fundamental. An Assumption of a Civil Service System: The creation of Civil Service established a formal procedures for recruitment, pay, grading, and other aspects of internal management as opposed to there being a more trusting assumption about employees, flexibility in career and management arrangements with potential for greater equality amongst those civil servants. TPM and NPM see the civil service system as problematic. In the end the current state of public administration can benefit from blending TPM and NPM philosophies. Laws and rules as well as organizational culture, and the development of private public sector relationships to extend public services providing an enhanced array of choice in public service are important. TPM and NPM believe in the dichotomy between policy and administration which indicates there exists a mutual foundation to build upon. Whether holding firm to TPM or NPM or both, all will be needed to address the very complex policy issues facing us today such as immigration, homelessness, the war on terror, and unemployment.

Kettl, Donald - The Transformation of Governance: Globalization, Devolution, and the Role of Government (2000)

"Government at all levels has found itself with new responsibilities but without the capacity to manage them effectively." (Kettl, 2000) Although the government maintains the formal authority to act on behalf of the "people," it has seen its responsibility distributed to nonprofits and profit-driven enterprises. Because of the movement towards more public-private partnerships, the already complex nature of intergovernmental relations becomes even more stressed. Not only must a local public administrator work with officials at the state and federal level, but they must also coordinate programs with nongovernmental organizations. These multi-dimensional relationships raise questions about accountability and responsiveness, with public administrators receiving blame and credit for actions they do not have control over. This article discusses globalization, devolution, and the role of government: Globalization - more decision-making has moved from the national to international level. The use of ad hoc and multinational organizations in the decision-making process has generated a system of governance without government, management, or control. Devolution - the federal government's work has begun to be performed by local or non-governmental agencies. This complicated series of implementation, where many organizations are involved sets up a complex network and creates the problem of having one person being in charge of an entire program. Kettl used Welfare reform as an example where devolution has spread administrative responsibility thus introducing political risk. The point being, these programs have created partnerships that serve multiple purposes and will be hard for governments to undo them. Partnerships have increased at a high rate of speed. The question is, how do we manage these relationships? Vertical relationships, as developed during the New Deal era (1930), allowed elected policymakers to delegate authority to administrators in exchange for accountability for results. The hierarchical chain, driven by authority, provided the critical linkage between front-line workers and policymakers. Horizontal relationships have changed that accountability. The question is how can government build the capacity to manage horizontal partnerships effectively? The example used in the article was the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). FEMA changed their approach by focusing on preventing damage from disasters through intergovernmental and public-private efforts. FEMA worked with state and local officials to improve evacuation plans. Governance - in the twenty-first century, the American government is more likely to resemble the catalytic strategy that FEMA developed than the New Deal (1930) models that dominated administrative orthodoxy. Governance problems: 1. Fitting traditional vertical systems with the new challenges associated with globalization and devolution, and integrating new horizontal systems into the traditional vertical ones. 2. Providing the capacity to govern and manage effectively in this changed environment. Is the Federal government still relevant? The rise of global pressures in international policies, with the increase importance of state and local governments and nongovernmental partners in implementing domestic programs, highlights the need to determine the future role of the federal government. Global pressures, coupled with the tensions and inaction on Capitol Hill are a sign of the disparity of congressional behavior and the mission that twenty-first century asks of it. The government in the US has become increasingly interwoven in the world's governance. The federal government shares the domestic policy with state and local governments and nongovernmental organizations. These changes are not the result of an explicit policy decision; rather they grew gradually, incrementally, from numerous decisions over two generations of public policy. They have cumulated into a fundamental transformation of governance. This transformation poses substantial challenges for public institutions and how we manage them. Context: The end of the "reinventing government" era had come, and public administration centered on globalization, marketization, and technology. There was great uncertainty how governments would respond to the rapid changes occurring globally. The ever increasing speed of communications systems and the Internet has allowed information to be available real-time. In 1999, Daniel Bell predicted the nation-state has "become too small for the big problems of life and too big for the small problems." Perhaps, neither centralization nor decentralization, as has been used during the past 150 years, can be utilized in the same manner anymore.

Kettl, Donald - The Politics of the Administrative Process (2012)

"Public administration inevitably is the translation of politics into the reality that citizens see every day" (Kettl, 2012). Contextualize the Article: The jobs of public administrators is to enact those political decisions made. Public administrators have a responsibility to the pubic which is two-fold: to be accountable to those elected officials by operating within conditions that are efficient and economically minded; and ethical behavior which is the avoidance of conflict of interests or acting or condoning unethical activities. Accountably is defined by Kettl as those to which the public administrator is accountable to, the people for its actions and he views this as a relationship between these two. Public administrators have their job to act in the public's best interest even though this is sometimes hard to define. This has been a historical perspective of public administration and it is a societal responsibility to instill such values of public service which should be accountable within our political system as it influences the performance of American government and guides democracy. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: It is important to understand the complexities that exist within the intergovernmental structure because of the varying degrees of power and decision-making within each level and between levels of government with which a public administrator has to maneuver.

Lipsky, Michael - Street Level Bureaucracy: The Critical Role of Street Level Bureaucrats (1980)

v Individual low level employees decisions in delivering services represent agency policy Substantial discretion over execution of work (i.e. police, social workers, lawyers) v Low level employees can have a lot of power Influence through formal (unions) and informal groups (friends) v Constraints on higher officials over the autonomy of lower level employees and the ability to hold them accountable as follows: Civil Service Rules Vague performance measures Service delivery rules v Decision in service delivery impacts benefits and or sanctions that influence people's lives with the biggest impact being to poor people not in alignment with traditional bureaucratic view of impersonal rules based decision making v Focus on street bureaucrats because large size of workforce greatly influences government spending These employees influence political issues such as on size and scope of government Context Civil Service Reform Act 1978

Rosenbloom, David - Public Administrative Theory and Separation of Powers (1983)

v Managerial Approach to public administration Originated from Reform ERA efforts to separate politics from business functions of government, Wilson's Politics/Administration Dichotomy, Taylorism Efficiency and Effectiveness Org structure based on Webber theory: limited overlap, hierarchal, rational structure for pay and duties to motivate economy and efficiency, merit based, politically neutral Impersonal view of individuals (employees and public) v Political Approach to public administration inherently at conflict with managerial approach Originated from Appleby recognizing that administration is not separate from politics; this shift from management focus to political focus places values on representation, political responsiveness and accountability instead of efficiency Org structure political pluralism in administration to meet various demands from society to advance policy (may make large costly government questions on efficiency acknowledged) Individuals viewed as a part of a group based on similar interests(i.e. women, blacks, farmers) v Legal Approach to public administration Origins very old but not focused on as much (overshadowed by managerial approach ) Administrative Laws (Goodnow 1905), judicialization of administration(safeguard rights), constitutional law Values based on procedural due process, focus on individual rights, equity (fairness) Org Structure traditional hierarchy models at odds with approach; instead focused on whatever allows for maximum protection of individual rights of private parties Individuals viewed as unique with unique circumstances v Political culture focused on separation of powers, these models/values apply to different branches of government Managerial = executive branch (to execute laws) Political = legislative branch (to create laws) Legal = judicial branch to ensure laws are applied appropriately v These same types of systems (checks and balances) are being transferred to public administration Context v 1980 Equal Opportunity Commission Guidelines regarding harassment and discrimination v 1981 Zero Based Budgeting Rescinded v 1982 President's Grace Commission Author, Title, Date Public Administrative Theory and Separation of Powers David Rosenbloom 1983 Related Authors Wilson Study of Administration Gulick Notes on Org Theory Taylor Scientific Management Waldo Administrative State Allison Public and Private Management 1980 Reply 3 replies New Post by Lawrence Becker 13 days ago Re: Public Administrative Theory and Separation of Powers Good summary of Rosenbloom but putting this together, what does this tell us about either the state of the field in Rosenbloom's view or where we're headed next? The separation of powers is important to think about in the context of PA for two big categories of reasons. The first is the most obvious: Because legislative, executive, and judicial authorities share power over administration, the Weberian model of bureaucracy does not quite work as theorized in the American context. Congress and the judiciary directly influence administration, not just the president. So that's a major complication. And this is true at the state and local level as well. The second reason is really broader. The separation of powers is a reflection of the political culture in the United States. We like democracy (lots of public participation at every turn) and we like diffusion of power and decentralization of power. Again, this is in conflict with the Weberian ideal of bureaucracy.

Long, Norton E. - Power and Administration (1949)

As part of the postwar (WW II) move away from Wilson's politics-administration dichotomy and Taylor's scientific management principles, Norton asserts that "the lifeblood of administration is power" (p.257) and that the authority granted by legislation and an adequate budget do not automatically ensure that the institution will have sufficient power to carry out its mandates. Administrators must also seek broader support (power) from interest groups and constituents, even though their interests will inevitably be in conflict. Consistent with Waldo's thinking that administrative expertise is necessary to the policy implementation process, Norton goes on to say that the very act of dealing with conflicting interest groups and constituents furthers institutional knowledge by exposing new opinions, information, and ideas that might not otherwise have become known. The key for administrators is striking a balance between various factions without alienating them and losing their future support.

Gaus, John M. - Trends in the Theory of Public Administration (1950)

In this synthesis of PA research and literature of the 30s and 40s, a time of significant change, Gaus describes the difficulty in defining 'trends', 'theory', and 'administration' especially as they relate to the study of public administration. He praises the preceding efforts as "substantial evidence of a persistent effort" to make sense of the field while also citing the need to study administration first-hand and to also study developments in other fields that can be related to PA. He asserts, "administration is an aspect, a process, of every phase of government" (p. 165) and though it may be studied in parts, they should be considered in light of the whole. He suggests that administrators and scholars have the best direct access to experience of PA and that they have a responsibility to contribute to and move the field of PA forward. He posits that, because it is about humanity, the field of PA is and must be much broader than other more specific fields. Gaus states that the task of students of administration is to question, experience, and re-define all aspects of PA, modern and historical, in order to encourage its continued evolution. Most telling about his attitude is his inclusion of a quote from "young friend", "It seems to me it would be disastrous if public administrators ever felt they'd achieved a philosophy if that were to mean that they felt they had answers and needed no longer to share that quest with the everyday person with whom they come in contact."

Simon, Herbert A. - The Proverbs of Administration (1946)

The main point of this article is the administrative principles, which support that administration is an art not a science. Simon points out that if it were a scientific theory administration would not only tell what is true but also what is false. Contextualize the article This article focuses on efficiency of government. The four principles of administration that support efficiency are: specialization, hierarchy of authority, span of control, grouping of worker. (Simon, 1946) Highlight key examples, key ideas According to Simon the proverbs of administration that make government efficient are: A) Specialization: with expertise being focused and developed there will always be different people doing different things within their specialization B) Hierarchy of Authority: the goal is to establish unity of command, which will ensure that individuals will receive orders from only one person C) Span of Control: which limits the number of subordinates to no more than 6 per supervisor D) Grouping of workers: group workers within the four criteria of purpose, process, clientele, place It takes an art to be able to establish efficiencies by apply the proverbs from above. New Post by Lawrence Becker 1 day ago Re: The Proverbs of Administration (Simon, Herbert A., 1946) Here, Simon is using "proverbs" in a pejorative sense. He is poking fun at earlier theorists who went to some lengths to touch on the most important "principles" of administration. To Simon, none of that work is systematic enough to give real, concrete guidance to administrators or scholars on the path forward.

Wildavsky, Aaron - Political Implications of Budgetary Reform (1961)

This article discusses the budget as a political tool, and challenges the desire to reform the budgetary process without also reforming the "distribution of influence" in the budgetary process. Wildavsky points out that the budget is not looked at as a whole during the budgetary process. except by the President, who does not have control over the final result. Thus the budget is created through a system of competing priorities and interests, and any reform must start with these rather than with the budget itself. Wildavsky discusses scenarios such as an agency wishing to cut budgets for under-performing programs, but not being successful in doing so because outside interests exert pressure to retain a "popular" program despite it's health. This assessment is very much in line with the idea of the budget as a political tool. The budget is not necessarily being formulated with an eye to efficiency or effectiveness, but rather as a response to outside pressures and interests which may have a bearing in the political arena at a later date.Wildavsky asserts that quantitative research needs to be conducted regarding how budgets are allocated (ie. why some departments are more successful than others) before attempting large scale budgetary reform. The results of this research can then be used to decide how reform should look (or if it should be attempted).

Moynihan, Donald P.; Pandey, Sanjay K.; Wright, Bradley E. - Pulling The Levers: Transformational Leadership, Public Service Motivation, and Mission Valence (2012)

This article documented the results of research conducted to evaluate the relationship between Public Sector Motivation (PSM) and the power of mission statements. The article focuses on how public leaders can motivate employees based on the attractiveness of the organization's mission and goals. Main Arguments The theory of the research is that Transformation Leadership motivates employees. Transformation Leadership, opposed to Transactional Leadership, is a style of management that raises the level of goals of the organization so that employees are striving toward goals shaped similar to those based on Maslow's Theory of self-actualization. Those goals motivate employees to work towards these altruistic goals on behalf of the community. (James MacGregor Burns 1978) Context The results of this study were published recently. It highlights the fact that there are an unlimited number of management theories on how to motivate public sector employees but limited studies that provide empirical evidence to help public organizations decide which theories to deploy. This study is relevant to helping public managers identify the most effective public management techniques to maximize outcomes. The nationwide study was conducted by surveying key executives of jurisdictions with populations greater than 50,000. Survey participants included assistant city managers (or equivalents) and key department heads as agreed upon by the International County/City Management Association. The survey was designed to identify whether or not the City Manager equivalent provided transformational leadership and to then evaluate the correlation between the responses to questions related to motivation and the power of the organization's mission. Of the 3,300 organizations surveyed, 46% provided responses. Researchers acknowledged that concentration on executives may influence the result if there is a favorable bias towards the City Manager along with the fact that the results might be different if non-executive level staff were included in the survey. Overall, the findings supported the researchers' theory indicating that transformational leaders have the ability to increase motivation of the organization and clarity of goals which in turn increases the power/influence of the organization's mission.

Weber, Max - Bureaucracy

This essay outlines the defining characteristics of bureaucracy as follows: Fixed and official jurisdictional areas ordered by laws or administrative regulations; Office hierarchy/graded authority create an ordered system in which there is supervision of lower offices by higher ones; Office management is based upon written documents ("the files"); Office management presupposes thorough and expert training; A fully developed office requires the working capacity of the official, despite a limited term; The management of the office follows general rules which are more or less stable and exhaustive, and which can be learned. In addition, Weber also outlines the defines the characteristics of the position of the official, some of which are as follows: Office holding is a "vocation", it requires training. Loyalty is not devoted to a person (the official), but rather to impersonal and functional purposes - ie., the state, church, community, party, etc. The personal position of the official is patterned in a certain way, which includes a level of esteem related to the office. Weber points out that this social esteem is low where the demand for expert administration and the dominance of status conventions are weak . There is a difference between an appointed and elected official: appointed officials are a "pure" type of bureaucrat, while an elected official is not a purely bureaucratic figure, as the power of the official in this instance is derived "from below" - from the people rather than from the administration. Weber asserts that normally the position of the official is held for life, although this may not apply to the a specific position but rather to the administration generally, as reappointment may occur. The official receives a fixes salary and pension at retirement. Many of the characteristics of both bureaucracy and leadership that Weber outlines are still in play in public offices today. In particular, the focus on layers of supervision, written documentation, and rules which can be learned. We see this in particular in the onboarding of new employees; in both HR orientations and office training, we rely on historical written documentation to familiarize and train new employees. Additionally, regarding the characterisitics of the official, while we may not formally recognize a "life term", the structure of the public organization does imply a life term because public service rules inhibit the ability to remove individuals from office. Finally, the salary and pension structure Weber identifies is still in place. In fact, government is perhaps the last area of industry in which you can find a guaranteed pension benefit upon retirement. ************ In the article, Bureaucracy, Weber was describing an "ideal" organization but realized that creating one was not necessarily possible. "How well can the organization function given you must have people in it?" His view of the human being seemed kind of a necessary evil, and that the bulk of humanity is fairly stupid and unproductive. Because of this, when we look at Weber's bureaucracy theory we should keep in mind that it is based on perfection. Theoretically, in a perfect world, the organization would function at its optimal level. But Weber understood this "ideal" theory and reality, were two separate things. Sometimes when reading material on bureaucracy, critics are very harsh about the viability of the perfect system. I don't believe Weber would have assumed that by introducing this rigidity, everything would run flawlessly. On the other hand, Frederick Taylor fully believed that his theoretical ideas were perfect for operationalization. ******************** Max Weber was known for the modern public administration and incredible scholarly influence in the fields of law, philosophy, social sciences, and public administration. Weber 's premise of modern public administration acknowledges the need and dependency on the bureaucracy as it has means to provide for power and politics, public finances, and the maintenance of armed forces for protection. He believed all areas of bureaucracy like politics, the economy, culture, religion, and society had involvement and could benefit from a bureaucratic system as it could provide structure, guidance, worker compensation, and safety services that could be delivered to the people through means of a public administrator who sees his/her job as a "nature of duty". Contextualize the Article: Max Weber's Bureaucratic theory or model is sometimes also known as the "Legal-Rational" model. The model tries to explain bureaucracy from a rational point of view. This is present in bureaucracies as they operate today. The US Military is based on Weber's principles of a bureaucracy and he emphasized the role of the public administrator as human. The focus on the workforce's expertise to optimize efficiency and effectiveness along with establishing a compensation for status of worker as well as levels of seniority assisted with the productivity of this post World War 1 era. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Weber's main focus of a bureaucracy is that it has the following elements: 1. Division of Labor, which means clear roles and layers in the labor force to instill efficiency in the delivery of the product (outputs); 2. Hierarchy, which is a level of graded authority and this is fundamental in state, ecclesiastical structures, private and large organizations; 3. Rules and Rationality is increased knowledge and expertise which sets the West apart from Eastern part of the world; 4. Impersonality means the worker is objectified and used for the physical capacities he/she brings to the work environment. This is similar to Frederick Taylor's view that people are a cog in a wheel, yet in the postmodern era of Weber he began to merge the subjectivity with the objectivity philosophically which was moving closer to later Maslow's theory of considering the "person as a whole"; 5. Rules Orientation means documented standards and procedures; 6. Neutrality is the trouble distinguishing between the role of a scholar and a politician. Opposite of Woodrow Wilson's dichotomy of politics and administration Weber argued that values and science were interdependent and separate from his political influences and views. ******************** Max Weber was a historian that wrote about the emergence of bureaucracy from the more traditional organizational forms (like feudalism) According to Weber, bureaucracy is a particular type administrative structure developed through rational-legal authority. Max Weber defined bureaucracies as large, hierarchical, consisting of formal rules, specialized tasks, and documentation--preserved originals. An organization in which staff is salaried, technically trained, and career oriented, and where job duties require expert knowledge Weber outlines six specific characteristics of bureaucracy. These six characteristics continue to be the foundation of government organization's today. (Efficient organizational structure -advantage of technical superiority) 1. Rational-legal authority/Rules- Jurisdictional areas are clearly specified - founded in legality. Regular activities are distributed as official duties, authority to give commands is strictly governed by rules in order to avoid coercive or physical means. 2. Expertise/Impartiality - Officials are selected on basis of technical qualifications, appointed not elected, and compensated by salary. Avoids personal likes/dislikes 3. Hierarchy and Fixed Division of Labor - Offices follow hierarchical principles - chain of command. Supervision of lower offices by higher offices. Subordinates follow orders of superiors, but have right of appeal. "Jurisdictional competency" each level is responsible to know and do their specific job function. 4. Written documentation - intentional, abstract rules govern decisions and actions. Rules are stable, exhaustive, and can be learned. Decisions are recorded in permanent files. Knowledge of the rules represents technical learning. Rules are known to all employees. Increases efficiency. 5. Ownership/Separation: Equipment, property, public monies, belong to the "bureau" or the office. Anything related to the means of production or administration belong to office. Personal property is separate from office property. 6. Career System/ Career Path/Vocation/ Structured Compensation: Employment by the organization is a "vocation" /career. Is considered an "acceptance of a specific obligation of faithful management in return for a secure existence." Faithful to office and not a specific person. "Modern loyalty is devoted to impersonal and functional purposes." The official is a full-time employee and looks forward to a life-long career. Ability to move from low level positions to higher level positions. After a trial period they get tenure of position based on time in position and performance and are protected from arbitrary actions. As well as fixed salary and old age security/pension. Although not identified in this article, it is important to note that one of Weber's most serious concerns was how society would maintain control over expanding state bureaucracies. He felt the most serious problem was not inefficiency or mismanagement but the increased power of public officials. A person in an important, specialized position will become to realize how dependent their bosses are on their expertise and begin to exercise their power in that position. Furthermore, the staff also begin to associate with the special social interests of their particular group or organization. Over history this has caused the shift in power from the leaders of society to the bureaucrats.

Mill, John Stuart - On Liberty (1850)

Utilitarian means doing the "greatest amount of good for the greatest many" and the many are all equal. That is no one person has any more ability to pursue doing the greatest good than any other person, in fact they would be doing it for the same reason, thus agent-neutrality. Contextualize the Article: Mill expresses his view on freedom by illustrating how an individual's drive to better their station, and for self-improvement, is the sole source of true freedom. Only when an individual is able to attain such improvements, without impeding others in their own efforts to do the same, can true freedom prevail. Mill's linking of freedom and self-improvement, has inspired many. By establishing that individual efforts to excel have worth, Mill was able to show how they should achieve self-improvement without harming others or society at large. The era of Mills was that of post-Civil War and prior World War I. The influence of the doctrine through God and European philosophy still influenced leaders during this time. Philosophers were often preachers and studiers making sense of the world and people's actions through the teachings of God. Mill's beliefs postulated on the sense that people have some control of their destiny through decision-making when it is in the best interest of the community. Overall, he advanced the belief that most would seek happiness to obtain pleasure and avoid pain. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Mill suffered a nervous breakdown early in his career and was influenced by positive psychology. It is not clear if this is how he became influenced to look at societal organization in a different way or if it was a catalyst of several events merging together. He furthered Machiavelli's belief of free will and separation of politics from ethics. A prominent cornerstone is the right to harm oneself but not the right to harm if it affects the community thus meaning that in order for this overarching philosophy to work society has to benefit from such actions but if society would be worse off by the action then it is not sanctioned. An example of this would be the current debates around public smoke-free environments and the right of smokers. Determining the utility by the benefit-cost analysis is difficult as every person has a different way to determine pleasure or pain on many issues affecting them.

Dror, Yehezkel - Policy Analysts in Government Service (1967)

When integrated into the PPBS (Planning-Programming-Budgeting System), systems analysis so markedly improved decision-making in the Department of Defense that, between 1965 and 1967, PPBS was being extended into most federal executive branches. Dror was among the first to warn against the "possible boomerang effects" (p. 199) of strict adherence to systems analysis (followed by Wildavsky in 1969) because of its reliance on quantitative knowledge and neglect of the human and political side of policy-making. Noting that public decision-making was largely based on economic theory, he called for a change in direction of the then "modern" study of political science and public administration, which he saw as having become "sterilized by an escape from political issues into behavioral 'value-free' research and theory" (p. 203). He describes the main features of policy analysis compared to systems analysis as (1) focus on political aspects of decision- and public policy-making; (2) a conception of policy-making much broader than the resource allocation view of systems analysis and that includes qualitative analysis; (3) an emphasis on creativity and innovative thinking; (4) the cooperative development with social scientists and other professionals of qualitative models and methods to be applied to complex issues; (5) encouragement of "futuristic" and long-range thinking; and (6) a looser and less rigid approach striving for constant learning, new alternatives, clarification of issues, etc. (instead of clear-cut criterion and dominant solutions) (pp. 200-201).

Frederickson, H. George - Toward a New Public Administration (1971)

(Minnowbrook Conference, changing role of Public Administrator to include social equity, Pluralist gov. discriminates against specialized minorities, need more responsive structure, NPA requires strong administration/Executive govt., Traditional PA focuses on the administrative structure (agencies themselves) to gain efficiency and effectiveness, NPA focuses on the problem and considers ways to address societal problems () Traditional/Classical PA Questions: How can we offer more or better services with available resources (efficiency)? How can we maintain our level of services while spending less money (economy) ? New PA adds : Does this service enhance social equity? Changing role of administrators - good management, efficiency, economy and social equity. Administrators are not neutral. New public administrators must seek to change those policies and structures that inhibit social equity. Administrators must carry out legislative mandates efficiently and economically and must influence and execute policies that improve the quality of life for all. Points out pluralist government leads to continued deprivation, leading to militancy, followed by repression. Representative government as it operates currently is failing. Social equity is needed to enhance the political power and economic well-being of minorities. Classical PA focuses: The bureaucracy - administration (efficiency and effectiveness) How and why organizations behave in certain ways Hierarchy Top down formal decision making Chief executives dictate policy (POSDCORB) Detailed accounting/budgeting occurs prior to expenditures at top levels of organization Centralized NPA focuses: Societal problem (poverty, crime, etc.) Example: concerned with defense than the defense department. Interested in the impact the organization has on the clients it serves rather than the organization itself. Risk taking- both politically and administratively Organized by project, group decision making More autonomy at lower levels of the organization Chief executives are policy advocates and general policy reviewers Backwards budgeting - block budgeting - wide latitude in expenditures, accounting occurs after expenditures, spending decisions occur in low levels of organization Expansion of federal grants Decentralization - Equitable distribution of services within each jurisdiction based on that jurisdiction's needs (city, neighborhood, school district) - utility Conflict with: Wilson, Goodnow, Taylor, Gulick Builds on Grodzins, Kaufman, Widasvsky, Dror

Barnard, Chester - The Functions of the Executive (1938)

Barnard poses the theory of organizational behavior, thus a collective unit rather than single employee entity post-war era. Contextualize the Article: Looking at organizations from a systems theory perspective was a new way of thinking about the complex dynamics within an organization, as the organization is an organism since it is made up of people. Organizations have inputs, outputs, processes, feedback loops, and the environment and the individuals who make up the environment and it constantly interacts within itself and outside of itself. As in systems theory one need to be aware that when a decisions made in one area it can have an effect on the other as it is in constant dynamic motion rather than static. This makes the organizational environment multidimensional requiring public administrators to be aware of the multitude of effects and the multitude of benefits. The systems perspective is very different than the classical organizational theory in which organizations are one-dimensional and very static. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: In this article Barnard theorizes that the "functions of the executive" is to balance the needs of the organization against the needs of the employees as the organization is a cooperative system interacting amongst its elements interdependently.

Adams, Guy B. and Balfour, Danny L. - Unmasking Administrative Evil: Searching for a Basis for Public Ethics (2004)

Building on Lewis's teleological (greatest good for greatest number) and deontological (duty to use moral means) ethics theories, the authors describe the principle weakness for this technical-rational approach as being focused on the individual rather than on "public ethics". Described in terms of Nazi Germany and the Holocaust, weakness of individual moral conscience relative to legitimated authority of government organizations Warn of potential failure of barriers to "final solutions" in society marked by fragmentation and economic dislocation (especially refugees) and temptation to become authoritarian Propose two possible scenarios in which public ethics will "flourish or wither" (p. 604) Liberalism of fear - based on history of bad human behavior and vices, "putting cruelty first" (Shklar, 1984), pessimistic point of view Transparency becomes primary principle of public ethics, requires legal minimum base beyond which human behavior is not allowed to sink Deliberative democracy - in which stakeholders participate in "social inquiries" to resolve issues, more optimistic, hopeful Can increase capacity of citizens to apply practical judgment and live together in context of disagreement, encourage democratic citizenship - concern for public interest, participation in governance, and sense of community Acknowledge difficulty of determining which citizens for which problems Would be unethical for public servants not to speak on policy issues, avoiding administrative evil Context: Emergence of New Public Service; individuals' fears generated by status of 50 million refugees globally and apparent lack of global governmental support

Mosher, Frederick C. - Democracy and the Public Service: The Collective Services (1968)

Collective bargaining exists in the public sector and embraces democracy; however, unless its spheres are limited it can threaten political democracy by undermining the citizens' determination as expressed through political representation of what it wants government to do. Contextualize the Article: Public sector employment is very different than private sector employment on so many levels. During this era the foster of hope and strength in the nation was pretty high despite the loss of President Kennedy, Martin Luther King Jr., and Robert Kennedy. The U.S. was winning the race to the moon; the Vietnam War was not controversial yet the Hell's Angels were emerging; suburbia was in full swing; home ownership was steady; several key pieces of legislation were passed, such as affirmative action and civil rights; and peace, love, and rock n roll was the culture. Given the era public voice was paramount and people were asserting themselves to be heard, including the workforce both publicly and privately. Televisions were on the rise which shifted how Americans experienced events occurring in real time in society so there was a personal story and face to every situation making it hard to turn away. Unions were created and not without bloodshed, The Teamsters Union was the largest and most significant in the private sector. Over the past few decades' unions in the private sector have been dissolving and at a more rapid rate than in the public sector. The public sector remains solid with union representation sometimes to the disenchantment of the pubic. One fundamental concern is that public sector unions represent public employees, yet endorse the politicians their representatives' support, so this can encompass bias and corruption similar to the spoils system of the 1800's and the early 1900's. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Mosher is talking about the fundamentals of representation, responsibility, and public trust. It is important that someone monitors the delicate balance amongst collective bargaining representation, the agreements of employee conditions, and the right to exercise the public's will through election processes to do the work.

Wildavsky, Aaron - Rescuing Policy Analysis from PPBS (1969)

Context: Budgeting methodologies continue to change as a result of the political environment, the shifts theories about dichotomy and the need for separation between politics and administration, control (struggles between the Executive Branch and the Legislative Branch) and outside influences of private business. Over the past 150 years budgeting methodology has shifted from line-item to program budgeting to PPBS later to ZBB and then performance based budgeting. All of these budgeting reform movements. All of these efforts attempt to take politics out of budgeting while trying to measure the effectiveness/efficiency of the political policies- follows scientific approach, rational approach. Wildavsky builds on Dror emphasizing that it is dangerous to rely just on quantitative data. PPBS attempted to merge planning processes (establishment of goals) and programing efforts (evaluation of existing/future programs ability to efficiently meet the established goals) into the budget system (financial estimates and resources need by the agencies to accomplish the goals) . Summary: Wildavsky agrees that there is a need for policy analysis and refers to Strategic Planning. He argues that policy analysis is a critical element in budget planning. He disagrees with basic principles behind the Planning Program Budgeting System. He argues that the reason PPBS worked well for Defense was because of its size and the overall mission. Wildavsky states that there is more to budgeting than just cost benefit analysis. He states that government must consider the voice of the people and that not all programs can be measured simple by its cost and its output. He states that there are policies that have unquantifiable benefits (qualitative vs. quantitative) - more value driven, like the "pleasure of seeing other better off, the reduction of anxiety, and that it is government's responsibility to consider these as these as a controlling force. As our Professor stated in one of his comments - "Wildavsky is saying budgeting is governing. Governing is and should be political. It is a fight over values. So, if budgeting is governing, budgeting is political, not rational." References: Schick (1966) wrote that, depending upon conditions at a given time in history, budgets have tended to emphasize financial control, managerial improvements, or planning. Rubin (1996), suggests that two additional emphases should be added to reflect dominant trends in the 1970s and 1980s, and the 1990s: prioritization and accountability respectively. Rubin also emphasizes the importance of historical context in American budgeting. Budget emphases depends upon the "time and circumstances in which the budget is drawn up." (Rubin, 1996: 112) Budgeting is considered a technical process removed from other ideas and forces current at a given time.

Caiden, Naomi - Public Budgeting Amidst Uncertainty and Instability (1981)

Context: Line Item line to program budgeting (Hoover commission) to PPBS to ZBB , Reagan Era, large deficient, zero-based budget methodology rescinded- makes reference to Performance Based Budgeting. Summary: Caiden's article outlines problems with current budgeting methodologies in uncertain and instable times. Budgeting works best when year to year adjustments are minor but that is no longer the situation. Current state of affairs demands a different approach. The following problems exist: value of the dollar dropping, state and local governments are increasingly dependent on federal subvention, growing resistance from public to increase taxes to meet growing demands, public authorities are not able to predict financial needs from one year to the next. Public resources are finite, public needs are infinite. (Sounds like 2008 as well). Inflation is a problem. Demand for public services growing due to aging population, increased levels of poverty. Acknowledges that in some areas of public administration there are no clearly defined or acceptable levels of public expenditure and that many are open ended, like, health, education, social welfare, urban renewal, crime control, and consumer protection. Due to significant changes in the environment and revenue uncertainty budgets are more complex, difficult to control and less predictable. Past experience has very little relevance. Also public administrators are more likely to protect funding and be less transparent. Impossible to track funding due to the complex maze of intergovernmental grants, subsidies and reimbursements designed for various purposes. Identifies six issues with current budget process related to uncertainties: 1. Uncertainty about novelties - need to use research and conduct systematic studies and learn from cities, counties, government corporations and business. 2. Uncertainties from an annual perspective - programs extend beyond a single year and an annual period of accounting is too short. 3. Uncertainties arising from problems in forecasting - budgets must be fluid and an annual budget cannot be expected to remain status quo in an unaltered state for the entire year. Must ensure cash flow at critical periods. 4. Uncertainties arising from centralization and bureaucratic controls -unable to track outcomes, use and effectiveness of funding that is provided in grants to outside organization. Loss of control, concern about local decision making. 5. Uncertainties from size and complexity - oversight due to size and complexity is more difficult. 6. Uncertainty from arising erosion of accountability - difficulty in ensuring public money is spent wisely and efficiently. Recommends new incentives for good performance (performance based budgeting) Caiden encourages innovation and creativity in public finance. Believes that there are insufficient incentives in public sector to prevent waste. Unanswered questions about managing large scale capital expenditures on "risky - long term public projects". Expresses concerns about the lack of methods to track contracts with private entities tasked with the responsibility of providing public goods and services with government funding.

Moe, Ronald C. - Exploring the Limits of Privatization (1987)

Context: Reagan era, conservative, less government, new federalism, privatization. Summary: This article provides an assessment of using private business as a means to obtain/deliver public services. Moe supports privatizing some aspects of government but cautions that public officials and lawmakers have not developed comprehensive criteria to assist in determining which aspects of public administration should be contracted out and which should remain. Moe emphasizes that public administrators must first consider the legal argument of Sovereignty and then consider the economic factors. Moe states that public administrators have not answered Woodrow Wilson's main question, "It is the object of administrative study to discover, first what government can properly and successfully do, and secondly how it can do these proper tings with the utmost possible efficiency and at the least possible cost either of money or of energy." Before Public Administrators move towards privatization criteria must be identified that determines what government should do based on the legal question of sovereignty. Moe also refer to Sayre and the concept that public and private sectors are different. The author uses the FADA as an example of how difficult it is to determine whether or not a private institution, functioning in the role of a public institution, is or is not considered a public institution in all aspects including, discretion, interests, rights, and privileges. Also uses the example of the unsuccessful attempt privatizing prisons and jails. The federal government possess the rights and immunities of the sovereign, the private sector does not or at least should not. The attributes of sovereignty include the legitimate right to use coercion (tax citizens and impose penalties against those who do not pay their taxes), go to war against another sovereign, can do no wrong (immune from suits), indivisible (can't assign its attributes to a private party and remain sovereign), can disavow debts but cannot file bankruptcy, and has the rights to take private property. Sovereignty isn't the only criteria that would prevent the Federal government from assigning public responsibilities to private entities, other reasons of public security, public safety, accountability, and the potential of corruption.

McGregor, Douglas - The Human Side (1957)

Early contributor to the motivational management theories, built on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs. Best known for Theory X and Theory Y. McGregor proposed that how employees are treated at work by their manager/employer affects their overall performance. He used Maslow's hierarchy of needs and compared government to several private businesses. He outlined the flaws of the Scientific Management Theory, Built on Drucker's concept of Management by objectives, effectiveness vs. efficiency. Conventional Management Theory (Weber, Taylor, Gulick) - Theory X (Management role - getting things done through other people) 1. Management is responsible for organizing the work and resources to accomplish the work, authoritative, controlling and directive. Organization needs to be hierarchical. 2. Managers direct workers and workers must modify their behavior to meet the needs of the organization. Without manager direction, employees would be passive, resistant, and lazy. (Concept of management vs. leadership). Limits employee's potential and discourages creative thinking. 3. Employees must be either persuaded, rewarded, controlled, or punished to get the work accomplished. 4. Beliefs: average person is lazy, lacks ambition, self-centered, resistant to change, gullible (not very intelligent), 5. Satisfied needs, such as physiological and safety are not motivators. Pay, safe working conditions, etc. do not provide incentive to do more, when absent (or when the employee doesn't feel that they are compensated enough) they act as de-motivators. They are attributed to "symptoms of illness" and not "human nature". Theory Y- Maslow - self-actualization, Drucker - Management by Objectives not control (Managements role arrange organizational conditions so people can achieve their own goals by directing their own efforts towards organizational objectives - egositic needs). 1. Management is responsible for organization- money, materials, equipment and people to maximize economic results. 2. People are not by nature lazy, passive or resistant. Organizational structure makes them that way. 3. Employees are ambitious, self-motivated, exercise self-control, seek out responsibility. Employees enjoy their mental and physical work duties and for them, work is as natural as play. They possess creative problem solving abilities, but their talents are underused in most organizations. It is the job of management to promote an environment that helps individuals recognize and develop their talents. 4. Management should communicating openly with subordinates, minimizing the difference between superior-subordinate relationships, creating a comfortable environment in which subordinates can develop and use their abilities. 5. This environment would include sharing of decision-making so that subordinates have a say in decisions that influence them. Steps to implement and Comparison to Business 1. Decentralization and Delegation -allow individuals to assume more responsibility, less control, freedom to direct their own work, flatter organizations- Sears and Roebuck - management by objective. 2. Job Enlargement - encourage responsibility at lower levels - IBM and Detroit Edison 3. Participation and Consultative Management - give employees a voice in decision making - Scanlon Plan 4. Performance Appraisals - have individuals set targets and objectives for themselves and participates in evaluation by doing self-evaluation semi-annually or annually on his contributions to the organization. General Mills, Ansul Chemical, and General Electric Context: Aligned with Maslow, Merton -contrary to Taylor, Gulick, PA is Science/Art - Human Behavior

Lowi, Theodore J. - The End of Liberalism: The Indictment (1969)

Following on the heels of the introduction of The Great Society and the advancement of pluralism described by Dahl and others, Lowi asserts that the growing number of regulatory agencies and the influence of special interests and iron triangles weakens the power of the legislature to provide democratic representative government by placing policy-making in the hands of others who were not elected. He believes this will lead to the end of classical liberalism as described by John Locke and Louis Hartz. (Thanks for the references, Dr. Becker.) Per Dr. Becker, Dahl would counter with the argument that pluralist systems are pseudo-democratic, with which Lowi would heartily disagree. Becker notes that Lowi's article comes out just as the New Public Administration movement is starting to take off. NPA argues that "administrators have an independent and important role to play in promoting the public interest and equity, etc." and they should have more authority. Lowi was very concerned about this trend. Themes: Democracy, political science, NPA (counter)

Kettl, Donald F. - Public Adminitration at the Millenium: The State of the Field (2000)

Format: Kettl discusses the history of PA during the preceding 100 years within the context of the different PA eras and their prevailing PA theories. He goes on to relate the constant tension and reforms to the concepts and ideas of Founders Madison, Hamilton, and Jefferson, and of early PA supporter Wilson. He describes Madisonion tradition as "rich in an understanding of the balance-of-power politics" (not administrative efficiency) as the core of good government. Hamilton, the Federalist, believed in a strong executive branch and a national government. By contrast, the Jeffersonion tradition strongly supports small, decentralized government. Wilson's approach, with its hierarchy, authority, and administrative neutrality contrasts with Madison's balance of power. Kettl points out that these themes "represent strong and recurring patterns in the intersection of American political thought and public administration." He describes how succeeding theories are rooted in these traditions and how their developments impacted PA theory, and goes on to point out that these traditions are "hard wired" into the American political culture and that their contrasting values inevitably conflict. He ends by posing three questions for the field of PA: (1) With what should we replace our reliance on the hierarchical form of government? (2) What should be the field's approach to the politics-administration dichotomy? And (3) how can PA properly test its theories and advance the state of those theories?

Golembiewski, Robert - Organization as a Moral Problem (1962)

Golembiewski is examining the field of organizational theory, and makes several points regarding organizing and organizational structure. He points out that organizational theory has been approached as a "skeletal" study, in which organizational structure is viewed as the foundation of an organization similar the way the skeleton is the foundation to a body in medicine, and that there is a "proper" way for an organization to be structured just as there is a proper way for a body to be structured. He argues that there is more than on approach to organizational structure, and that morality is an important aspect to consider. In this regard it is in reality more akin to psychiatry rather than skeletology. He states that the moral health of an organization is an important part of an organization's structure, and that this moral health finds it's basis in adherence to Judeo-Christian values. Golembiewski presents the following values as a basis for examining the structure of individual organizations: 1) work my be psychologically acceptable/cannot threaten the individual, 2) work must allow man to develop his faculites, 3) work must allow the individual room for self-determination, 4) the worker must have an opportunity to control, in a meaningful way, the environment within which the task is performed, and 5) the organization and the individual must be subject to an external moral order. Golembiewski is arguing that the focus should not be entirely upon the organization, but on the members of the organization and the benefits each receive from the other.

Frederickson, H.G. - Toward a New Public Administration (1971)

Frederickson identified the following elements of public administration as: 1. representativeness 2. neutral political competence 3. executive leadership Frederickson believed that along with being efficient and economical, public administrators should also strive for social equity. Social equity was the "new" public administration. He encouraged public administrators to work for change by reversing the "system" that discriminates against disadvantaged minorities." Frederickson encouraged public administrators to begin making changes that would empower and improve the quality of life for minorities in our society. Context Frederickson disagreed with Woodrow Wilson's theory, in that he believed public administrators should not be neutral. He supported public administrator's commitment to social well-being. He also thought public administrators had an obligation to represent oppressed citizens. The concept of "New Public Administration," encouraged public administrators to influence and execute policies that improved the quality of life for all people. He believed the "public" component of public administration was more important than the "administration" aspect. He identified 3 things for public administrators to do: 1. Distribute goods and services to the public equitably 2. Integrate systems and reduce hierarchy in government 3. Introduce bottom-up decision-making. Encourage feedback from those affected by the policy. By arguing social equity should be of great importance to public administrators, this article was controversial and conflicted with historical definitions of public administration. This article continues to be important because it introduced the idea of "New Public Administration." Frederickson brought politics back into public administration and emphasized the significance of working for the public. He challenged public administrators to not be neutral and to take political risks.

Simon - Applying Information Technology to Organization Design (1973)

Human relations movement and influence on traditional organizational structure to achieve goals of efficiency and effectiveness vs. sacrificing a bit of efficiency and effectiveness for employee satisfaction o Arguments on whether or not happy employees are more productive will become less relevant in the future due to automated information processing tools Humans no longer cog in the process but instead overseer of entire automated process Difficult to measure outcome services vs production of widgets service oriented agencies have broader goals - more sensitive to influence of externalities more/larger externalities, growth in population/technology, increased awareness impacts of narrow/specialized goals influence to decision making process - more complex - this should be the focus, how to structure decision making to process information (leveraging technology) consider restructuring the organization to focus on decision making vs. departmentalization (division of labor between people and computers) Org structure considerations Capacity to process information limited for machines and humans. Therefore scope of decision-making should consider this limitation to minimize dependence on other systems for decision-making Consideration for time sensitivity (prioritization) for decision-making More information is not always better when designing information technology systems for municipalities Information collecting is not the same as information processing Computers have limited access to external information narrow down the type of information that is useful for executive decision making

Behn, Robert - Bid Questions of Public Administration (1995)

In order for public administration to become a science, scholars must focus on the following 3 big questions: v 1) How to break the micromanagement cycle of procedural rules that get in the way of producing results Inherent lack of trust leads to structures of over-control Cycle of distrust: distrust/rules/poor performance (continuous cycle) Inherent distrust between legislative and executive branches Need to focus on building trust and leadership - identify examples of distrust that resulted in distrust being reduced Look at the governance structure - politics administration dichotomy difficult to implement How can responsibility for policy making and implementation be clarified between legislators executives and civil servants? Too much focus on engineering style of management (supervision based on defined policy) spend more energy on entrepreneurship model that defines goals and address morality issues that conflict with democratic theory by elevating focus on administrative ethics so that this is done legitimately and ethically v 2) how to motivate workforce toward public purpose Cant fire or reward them so now what? Engage phycologists instead of just economists in this area Principal doesn't always know what needs to be done to achieve a goal or what the goal should be so empower them to pursue goals with intelligence and energy by allowing them to participate in the goal setting process v 3) how to measure achievements and use the results to promote even further achievements Focus on outcomes and impacts vs. inputs and outputs Don't accept the excuse that we don't control everything so we can't be held accountable for outcomes and resultant urge to focus on outputs Figure out way to define realistic measures and use the results of these measures to move towards greater achievements v Interrelation between these three big questions Micromanagement/motivation Measurement/motivation Measurement/micromanagement Context v Move to Reinvent Government/National Performance Review v 1993 Government Performance Results Act v President Clinton Elected v Information Technology emerging trend Author, Date Title Big Questions of Public Administration Robert Behn 1995 Public Administration Review Related Articles Possibility of Administrative Ethics Thompson 1985 Politics and Administration Goodnow 1900 Giving of Orders Follett 1926 Government is Different Appleby 1945 Street Level Bureaucracy Lipsky 1980 From Red Tape to Results National Performance Review 1993

Nye, Joseph - Information Technology and Democratic Governance (2002)

Information Revolution "third industrial revolution" - compared potential impact to that of the printing of the bible and reformation in Europe Will either centralize politics or diffuse them i.e. centralization resulting from increased access (historical examples travel and communication) but diffusion from central government as state and local governments grew expanded after the 1960s Influencing trends Globalization, marketization, "information revolution" Information revolution will impact politics will foster network organizations, will impact commerce (trade/banking/production), makes jurisdictions less important, quick access to information/less response time, online news vs. broadcast news, generational influences, more choices Context Emergence of Information Technology Related Articles Inside Collaborative Networks: Ten Lessons for Public Managers, Agranoff 2006

Kaufman, Herbert - Administrative Decentralization and Political Power (1969)

Kaufmann's article discussed just how disadvantaged groups of society believe they are not getting their fair share of political, economic, and social benefits. These groups attribute this unfairness to the following: 1. Ineffective systems 2. Blame administrators because they are the implementers of the day-to-day laws the legislature develops. The public gets angry because the administrator's results do not match the legislative assurance of the value of the program. 3. Blame administrators because of the difficulty and slowness in making a change. The slowness of change has more to do with the "pluralistic nature of our government and the opportunity to veto." 4. The feeling of being lost in the large size of government and its bureaucracy and not being able to make change for themselves or the group in which they are a member. Context Kauffman contends the traditional models of representation (by legislatures) is inadequate and suggests administrators must be responsible for representing the members of the public. He also discusses decentralization and in the context of the article, Kauffman specified this is "where programs are run not just for a certain group, but by that group." He also stressed the importance of making agencies more representative of the people they act on their behalf. An example is including minorities if the agency handles assisting minorities. Kaufman believes decentralization, giving local influence on public policy, will become more important in the future. Kaufmann put emphasis on the fact that public administrators must represent the public and suggests a movement away from traditional administrator duties to be more in alignment with assisting the public.

Lewis, Carole W. - The Ethics Challenge in Public Service (1992)

Lewis describes ethics in public service as more than relying on gut instincts, the common sense approach, and posits that public administrators should consider decisions within multiple ethical frameworks. Philosophical perspectives: Duty or principle-based, deontological framework Favors means over end, based on moral principles and rules, e.g. Golden Rule Kant's perspective, dignity and worth of human beings is superior to other values Results or consequences based, teleological framework Favors end over means, impartiality and society's net benefit John Stuart Mill's utilitarian perspective, greatest good for greatest number Complicated by trustee and delegate roles associated with Locke, Bentham, and Mill Trustee - interpreter, acts in statesmanlike manner in public's best interest Delegate - faithfully represents constituents' views Context: Volcker Commission (1989) describes governmental ethics as something "instinctively sensed as correct" (President's Commission on Federal Ethics Law Reform) and concurrent with emerging weaknesses of New Public Management.

Wildavsky - Rescuing of Policy Analysis from PPBS (1969)

Limited measures of effectiveness and PPBS is being mislabeled as policy analysis PPBS (planning, programming and budgeting model 1960's DOD) resource allocation/decision making model; Not an ideal model for domestic agencies other than DOD; doesn't help set priorities between broad service areas (i.e. health, education) Not really a policy analysis tool - too much data to make executive decisions High ineffective model, requires lots of resources to collect too much data Creates tension between budget analysts and program managers on how to identify service delivery priorities; results in highly conservative planning True policy analysis as a tool to advance social change (policy initiatives/policy windows) Get congress (elected officials) to require policy analysis and consider different dis-incentive/incentive structures to prevent subpar/unnecessary proposals from analysts and to promote policy analysis on difficult problems; Policy analysis is not the same as Planning, Programming, and Budgeting: Policy analysis should be focused on significant funding changes (incrementalism): Consider politics, focus on problem solving including evaluation of alternatives, long term outlook, flexible/iterative process for resource allocation and decision making; Lack of talent to perform this type of policy analysis, goals not specified, limited benchmarks to identify success; Program budgeting really adds no value if outcome measures are not defined at this level; Opportunity to manage change towards policy analysis as government grows in size and old staff (resistant to change) turnover or are outnumbered Context 1930's Expansion of Government 1961 DOD/Rand Corporation Implementation of PPBS 1965 PPBS became mandatory for all Federal agencies Taft Commission/Budget Accounting Act of 1921 Other Articles: The Movement for Budgetary Reform in the States, Willoughby 1918 General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, Keynes 1936 Notes on Theory of Organization (POSDCRB) Guilick, 1937 The Road to PPB, Schick 1966 The Politics of the Budgetary Process, Wildavsky1964 Article Title, Author and Date Rescuing of Policy Analysis from PPBS Wildavsky 1969 Related Pillar Responsibility (Decision Making) Politics/Administration Dichotomy Accountability Efficiency and Effectiveness

National Performance Review - From Red Tape to Results: Creating a Government That Works Better and Costs Less (1993)

Main Arguments v Not enough energy spent on debating performance gaps vs. policy issues v Lack of public confidence, growing debt v Waste of resources - government only grows but obsolete programs don't go away v Spend a lot of money on programs but where are the results - ineffective welfare/housing/training programs v Red tape of bureaucracy stifles innovation to respond to emerging technology Kills employee motivation so employees just follow the rules Those who innovate (break the rules) keep quiet (or face discipline) Too many controls to prevent scandals that common issues get missed Employees not trusted so there are a bunch of rules that emphasize on process v Agencies are monopolies so there is little incentive to do anything differently -customers have no voice in funding decisions v Solutions/strategies to address based on success themes of effective entrepreneurial agencies (state/local/federal/abroad) Cut red tab: move from systems that are designed to holding people accountable for process to one based on accountability for results Customers first: use customer feedback to restructure operations (surveys, focus groups)and create employee incentives Empower employees: decentralize authority; labor management cooperation; training tools to increase efficiency; humanize the workplace Cutback to basics to produce for less cost: reengineer programs/processes, abandon obsolete activities, eliminate duplication, invest in capital, use information technology as an enabler Context v Move to Reinvent Government/National Performance Review v President Clinton Elected v Information Technology emerging trend v 1981 Zero Based Budgeting Rescinded v 1982 Grace Commission on Cost Controls v 1990 Budget Enforcement Act (requires structurally balanced budget) v 1990 CFO's Act for Federal Agencies v 1993 Omnibus Budget Reduction Act (increase taxes on wealthy, defense cuts) v 1993 Government Performance Results Act Author, Title, Date From Red Tape to Results: Creating a Government that Works Better and Costs Less National Performance Review 1993 Related Articles v The Giving of Orders Follet 1926 v The Politics of the Budgetary Process, Wildavsky 1964 v Rescuing of Policy Analysis from PPBS Wildavsky 1969 v Redundancy, Rationality, and the Problem of Duplication Martin Landau 1969 v Administrative Decentralization and Political Power Kaufman 1969 v Street Level Bureaucracy Lipsky 1980 v Public Administrative Theory and Separation of Powers Rosenbloom 1983

Hertzberg, Frederick - How Do You Motivate Employees? (1968)

Motivation is an internal process: when one wants to do something without external stimulation, then one is motivated Mythical motivators become status quo and lose their effectiveness: external motivators lose capacity to motivate at some point Reducing time spent at work Raising wages Better benefits The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but lack of satisfaction Factors inducing dissatisfaction are different from factors inducing satisfaction Factors inducing dissatisfaction stem from lower-order needs Company policy or administration Supervision/relationship w/ supervisor Work conditions Salary Relationship w/ peers Personal life Status Security Factors inducing satisfaction (job enrichment) Achievement Recognition The work itself Responsibility Advancement Growth Job enrichment demands continuous management Not all jobs can be enriched The key is to use employees: if you can't use them, get rid of them

Lindblom, Charles E. - The Science of "Muddling Through" (1959)

Policies will continue to be as foolish as they are wise as administrators engage in sophisticated problem-solving process, as well as, engaging in "flying by the seat of their pants" which is known as muddling through. Contextualize the Article: Reliance on past records, sophisticated problem-solving methods, consultants expertise, values based decision-making, and formulating the ends justifies the means are all ways administrators working succession to approximate a problem and its solutions in order to derived at better policy. One best way to "test' for a good policy or ensure a good policy would be crafted if a specific recipe is followed is a fallacy as it just does not exist. Too many variables occur in the complex and dynamic world of public policy administration, so the determination if a policy, or policy action, is successful relies mostly on just "muddling through" the process. Lindblom's theory supports Waldo's in that he is saying the public administration is significantly more complicated by its environment, including the people, than the analytical or scientific theories and that all should be considered to best estimate a good policy decision or action affecting the public.

Moore, Mark - Creating Public Value: Strategic Management in Government (1995)

Private administration is different than public administration. There is a difference between "public value" and "private value". Focus on creating public value by looking at it from two views: the view of the clients receiving the service and the overall citizens. This is different from business. In business the value is determined by those buying or using the service. Recommends public focus more on process evaluation than policy analysis to determine outcomes. States that public management will always be political. Time Period: National Performance Review - demand for continuous improvement - Streamlining the Bureaucracy- 9/11/93 - theme of make due with less, privatization, block-grants, customer service initiatives. A time of benchmarking government services against private sector. Summary: Private administration is different than public administration. There is a difference between "public value" and "private value". The value of a manager's work in private business can be measured by the revenue that is generated by the products they conceive and the profits the products produce. Government work is different, it is political. Government activities are determined through the legislative process and the revenue used to support those activities are raised through coercive powers, "taxation". Public manager are responsible to answer to both the individuals consuming the service as well as to the public at large. The value of a "product" is measured different in private and public. Private measures value by revenues and profits -profitability - a measure of the past, is used to hold managers accountable, and provides useful information for future, allows for quick reaction to market conditions. Measurement in government is focused on either a policy or a program. There is not a systematic way to gauge the performance of a government agency because agencies administer many different programs and policies are often intertwined. Government relies on policy analysis to determine if a particular initiative would be valuable and program analysis to determine whether or not it was successful. Recommendation is that government spend less time on policy evaluation and more time on program evaluation as that is aligned how private organizations evaluate product lines. The values of a "product" is determined differently in private and public because there are different customers. Private focuses on the consumer of the product and customer service. Public serves two customers and must focus on both, the client receiving the direct service and the overall citizens. Bottom line - politics remains the final arbitrator of public values just as private consumption decisions remain the final arbiter of private value. References: Wilson, Appleby, Simon, Gaus

Tyler, Charlie and Wiland, Jennifer - Public Budgeting in America: A 20th Century Retrospective (1997)

Purpose of budgets Financial control Managerial improvements Planning Prioritization Accountability Local governments drive budget innovation Strong executive administrators and weak elected bodies give greater latitude for experimentation Traditional budgeting focuses on single-year period Uses incremental approach to decision-making Preserves past decisions without re-examining them Each budgeting entity is unique Applying success or failure in one unit to another is not accurate Budget Emphases by Era 19th - Early 20th Century: Control New Deal/ Post- WWII: Management 1960s: Planning 1970s & 80s: Prioritization 1990s: Accountability Public budgeting evolved with PA Initiated out of need to control political influence over government Reform was response to social changes during patronage system Rise of immigrant populations threatened Yankee Protestants' notions of government Private-regarding (immigrants) v. public-regarding (nativist) Nativists didn't want to pay for projects that didn't benefit them Rise of urban political machines and investment in urban public services Early budgets Balance sheet Legislative authorization for expenditure Control mechanism Three basic types Simple tax levy Lack of control Dominated by elected government Tax levy & detailed appropriations No revenue estimates Levy estimates, appropriations No requirements to follow Progressive Era Reforms championed by middle-class and business Goal was to weaken corrupt elected bodies Scientific management and focus on efficiency combined with distaste for boss rule Finance reformers were in accounting, administration, and social work Sought to inject uniformity and responsibility into governance Budget and fiscal reform were an avenue to businesslike management Budget reform was central to progressive administrative reform Reforms and innovations Public administration movement (and muckraker press) created widespread disaffection with budgetary methods of the spoils system Budget estimates sent directly to elected body No supporting data Only included lump sum figures (as opposed to line-item) Spending requests were not related to revenue projections or overall spending No standardized accounting Departments bargained/negotiated with legislative bodies directly No central oversight of departmental spending First reform was the executive budget Was a method of control Commission on Economy and Efficiency (1910) President prepares and presents budget to Congress Budget message accompanies budget Outlines policy proposals and summary of financial information Secretary of Treasury submits consolidated financial report to Congress Each agency submits annual financial report to Congress Agencies establish and maintain comprehensive accounting system Budget and Accounting Act (1921) Foundation of current Federal budgeting process Line-Item budgeting Prior to this most budgets were lump sum Easy to understand Allowed central control over inputs (money) Were uniform, comprehensive, exact Allowed routines to be established Multiple opportunities to control Allowed for budget-cutting Established central budget offices (and further control) Performance Budgeting Emphasis on things that government does rather than what it buys Hoover Commission (1949) Budget information structured in terms of activities rather than line-item Performance measurements provided along with performance reports Reaction to New Deal Growth of bureaucracy demanded focus on efficiency Growth of bureaucracy after WWII intensifies interest in performance budgeting Problems: inputs are easily measured, outputs not narratives not very useful to decision-makers workload statistics described volume of activity but did not relate to cost or performance Program Budgeting Not very well defined Used synonymously with performance budgeting Was more forward-looking Long-range planning Goal setting Program identification Quantitative analysis CBA Performance analysis Planning, Programming, Budgeting System (PPBS) - 1961 & 1965 Attempt to use rational means to fuse planning, process, programming, and budget systems Derived from economics, data sciences, and planning Keynesian emphasis Budget used to accomplish fiscal objectives Provide direction to the economy Included multi-year analysis, projections of cost and benefit Utilized new technology for systems analysis and operations analysis Federal government attempted to spread PPBS to other units of government Was ultimately a failure, but vestiges remained Zero-based Budgeting Required justification of programs every budget cycle No base budgets No guaranteed funding Managers provide different estimates of programming under three scenarios Below current levels Current level Higher level Budget base included decreases AND increases Carter borrowed from business Success at Texas Instruments Abandoned by Regan No major system dominated the 80s Period of re-examination of government support Taxpayer revolt "Doing more with less" Focus on personal responsibility (diminishment of government influence on people's lives) 19 states had some limit on revenue by 1978; 43 states had revenue limits by 1994 1990s "New Performance" or Entrepreneurial Budgeting Outgrowth of fiscally-constrained governing environment Gaebler & Osborne Reinventing Government Promoted Results-Oriented Budgeting Hold government accountable for results rather than inputs Cost-savings and entrepreneurialism rewarded Long term view facilitated in terms of strategy, costs and planning Government Performance and Results Act (GPRA) of 1993 Focused on results and performance Required Federal agencies to prepare strategic plans prepare annual performance plans Submit annual performance reports comparing actual performance to projects National Performance Review (NPR) 1993 Focus on performance and results management Budgeting based on results Drew from program budgeting & PPBS Does not advocate crossing agency lines Did not concentrate on tasks activities or outputs; emphasized outcomes Flaw with performance budgeting Difficult measuring government performance Poorly defined, inconsistent metrics (unlike business) Program outcomes affected by forces outside government control Reform driven by public cynicism re: government Lack of trust in government performance Local governments have become laboratories of reform Sunnyvale, CA Each annual budget is performance-oriented Targets specific service objectives & productivity measures linked to the larger strategic plan Budget is service-oriented rather than input-oriented Rock Hills, SC Budget process built on strategic planning Budget as a policy guide, a financial plan, an operational guide, and communications device with citizenry Budget includes all funds and addresses all organizational needs through goals and objectives clearly stated and (where possible) measurable Departmental expenditures summarized in terms of Program goals Program objectives Performance measures Shifts focus to accountability and results

Landau, Martin - Redundancy, Rationality, and the Problem of Duplication and Overlap (1969)

Redundancy is considered a "liability" although it is a strong measure of "reliability". Suggesting that government practices are redundant and ineffefficent misses the opportunity to see that redundancy provides safety, rationality, efficiency, and accountability. Contextualize the Article: As Landau describes in his article in which he was on a commercial airline that had to make an emergency landing he concluded that even with private or public systems when redundancy occurs by nature there is a built in sense of reliability that accounts for the ability to be adaptable and responsible to lessen risks which increases safety. Although the public may see redundancies as wasteful and inefficient, it is important to note that this is a function of organizations that creates flexibility and safety. To tie the public administrator's hands when they need to be doing the most good for the greatest many could cause detrimental injury instead as well as greater public mistrust. This is similar to Shafritz, Russell, and Borick's discussion that when risky events or bad things happen government and its processes are seen as angels September 11, 2001World Trade Center Attacks, and Hurricane Katrina), yet when events are dissected later by the media exposes these as criticisms. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Slogans are easy to say, but in the end the public administrators' job needs to have flexibility so his/her hands are not tied thus allowing for the breakage of some rules sometimes to do the greatest good for the citizens it serves.

McGregor, Douglas Murray - The Human Side of Enterprise (1957)

Social Sciences is as important to understand in cultivating organizational environments as they are human environments which possess "unimagined resources of creative human energy" which can enhance efficiency. Contextualize the Article: The style of managing the workers in the work environment can be by hard or soft methods. These methods have variant differences and the author has coined them Theory X and Theory Y. Theory X means employers' or managers will interface with their employees as humans, engaging them in a process to motivate them, direct their efforts and modify their behavior to fit it's their needs; and employees without management intervention are passive and defiant or resistant to the organizations goals so they must be rewarded, punished, controlled, or persuaded. Theory Y means the opposite. It is the management style of "creating potential, opportunities, removing obstacles, guiding, and encouraging growth of the employee to be of greater benefit to the organization. This was also characterized by Peter Drucker in his theory of "management by objectives" which is opposite of the prior methods of Taylorism and most efficiency driven methods as they are management by control. The promotion of the "Good Society" is enhanced by exploring the benefits the blend of the theories fields amongst scientific and technology, and social sciences as the latter is proving to have great contribution. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Theory X is focus on external control and Theory Y is about self-determination and self-control.

Osborne, David and Gaebler, Ted - Reinventing Government (1992)

The main point of this article is the new direction government is shifting to in stepping up to the challenges of unsatisfied knowledgeable customers in a global economy by focusing not on what government does but how government does it. Decentralization Governmental agencies are given the autonomy to run their agency like a business, processes are now operated within their own department heads as opposed to the historical, purchasing all had to be done by one department for the entire organization. Rather than hierarchy seek participation so that as a team solutions are reached. Red tape is reduced Increasing efficiencies. Competition Customers are given choices Privatization Collaborating with private sector, contracting for services Schools Example Citizens have a choice as to where to send their children for education such as Charter Schools or Independent Study Outcome Measures Customer service driven meeting the needs of the customer because they matter prevention rather than reaction don't wait to fix the problem, prevent it from happening in the first place. Contextualize the article This article was written to address the American dissatisfaction. It detailed governments responding to the challenges of knowledge based Americans, in an environment of global economy where all levels of government shift from responding to what they do to focusing on how they do it. It moves from the historical administration of policy to managing the process and measuring outcomes. Highlight key examples, key ideas The key ideas are: Catalytic Government: Steering rather than Rowing Community-Owned Government: Empowering rather than Serving Competitive Government: Injecting Competition into Service Delivery Mission-Driven Government: Transforming Rule-driven Organizations Results-oriented Government: Funding Outcomes, Not Inputs Customer-driven Government: Meeting the Needs of the Customer, Not the Bureaucracy Enterprising Government: Earning rather than Spending Anticipatory Government: Prevention rather than Cure Decentralized Government: From Hierarchy to Participation and Teamwork Market-oriented Government: Leveraging Change through the Market.

Osborne and Gaebler - Reinventing Government (1992)

The main point of this article is the new direction government is shifting to in stepping up to the challenges of unsatisfied knowledgeable customers in a global economy by focusing not on what government does but how government does it. I. Decentralization Governmental agencies are given the autonomy to run their agency like a business, processes are now operated within their own department heads as opposed to the historical, purchasing all had to be done by one department for the entire organization. Rather than hierarchy seek participation so that as a team solutions are reached. a. Red tape is reduced Increasing efficiencies II. Competition Customers are given choices a. Privatization Collaborating with private sector, contracting for services b. Schools Example Citizens have a choice as to where to send their children for education such as Charter Schools or Independent Study III. Outcome Measures a. Customer service driven Meeting the needs of the customer because they matter b. Prevention rather than reaction Don't wait to fix the problem, prevent it from happening in the first place. Contextualize the article This article was written to address the American dissatisfaction. It detailed governments responding to the challenges of knowledge based Americans, in an environment of global economy where all levels of government shift from responding to what they do to focusing on how they do it. It moves from the historical administration of policy to managing the process and measuring outcomes. Highlight key examples, key ideas The key ideas are: • Catalytic Government: Steering rather than Rowing • Community-Owned Government: Empowering rather than Serving • Competitive Government: Injecting Competition into Service Delivery • Mission-Driven Government: Transforming Rule-driven Organizations • Results-oriented Government: Funding Outcomes, Not Inputs • Customer-driven Government: Meeting the Needs of the Customer, Not the Bureaucracy • Enterprising Government: Earning rather than Spending • Anticipatory Government: Prevention rather than Cure • Decentralized Government: From Hierarchy to Participation and Teamwork • Market-oriented Government: Leveraging Change through the Market.

Dror, Yehezekel - Visionary Political Leadership: On Improving a Risky Requisite (1988)

Visionary Leaders occur naturally in human society "Great Man" theory People emerge with the tools and talents a particular in-group needs at a particular time of need Can be minority groups or nations Visionary Leaders Is a vital symbolic role Humans have a psychological need for fulfillment of higher-order needs If those needs are unsatisfied, need for a Visionary Leader arises People need cults of personality when satisfaction of other desires go unfulfilled Modern people are generally satisfied by material things or safety/security provided by the State When those expectations are continually satisfied they become routinized People then develop an appetite for a Visionary Leader Visionary Leader manifestation is a product of unique, specific causes; random in nature Conditions that lead to need: Accelerated social change Conditions of stress or ennui Visionary Public Leadership is risky Flawed agents/ human weakness Strain & stress degrade decision-making Court politics Tendency to accrue sycophants Tendency towards dogma Belief in their own myth Malignant/pathological visions Genocide Jihad Over-utopian visions Can lead to great change Societies generally undervalue capacity/potential Visionary Leaders may constitute a mode of human evolution unconstrained by concepts of feasibility

Waldo, Dwight - The Administrative State: Conclusion (1948)

Waldo is presenting a philosophical challenge to scholars, professors, philosophers, and public administrators to see beyond the political-administrative dichotomy. This dichotomy has been identified as the "science and principles to be the "orthodox" gospel in our schools (Hyde, 2012). Contextualize the Article: The time is 1914 and it is the Progressive Era in which Scientific Management, the political-administration dichotomy, and Weber's philosophy's of the decision-makers as elected officials and the executers who carry out the elected officials policies was the way government operated most efficiently. The specialization of government is in functional aspects of administration not in the institutional aspects which is a critical distinction. Public administration needs to be accepted as an institution, not a function. It is a vital aspect of the workings of government and the elected officials who are carrying out the will of the public. Waldo believed that administration should be a combination of experience in relationships with every "province in the realm of human learning and that the "gradual reconstruction of our theory should evolve by the thinkers in many fields" (Hyde, 2012). Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The Six Pillars: Political-Administrative Dichotomy, Efficiency, and Representation. Theorist parallels: Appleby, Follett, Simon, and Goodnow.

Downs, Anthony - The Life Cycle of Bureaus (1967)

Downs discusses the organization structure specific to the life cycles of bureaus. This article takes a look at the governmental structure from within. Contextualize the article This article takes us through the life cycle of bureaus. It points out the political support that is needed to give birth to a new bureau and at times the political routinized relationships that support the continued existence of the bureau. Other political aspects of bureaus is the competition for resources in order to keep the bureau alive and the fact that those resources are being taken by other competing agencies. Downs argues the proliferation of agencies and the division of labor means that there is almost no way for an organization to preserve itself, therefore it has to go through the life cycle. However, through the bumpy life cycle of the bureau once they have become firmly established there is almost never a death to said bureau. Highlight key examples, key ideas Bureaus are created in one of four different ways: • Routinization of Charisma referred to by Weber o When a group pulls together to follow a charismatic leader • Deliberately created out of almost nothing o In order to carry out a specific function • Split off from an already existing bureau o Such as the Air Force splitting off from the Army after WWII • Entrepreneurship

Dunleavy, Patrick; Margetts, Helen, Bastow, Simon; Tinkler, Jane - New Public Management is Dead - Long Live Digital-Era Governance (2005)

The authors assert that New Public Management has been found to be ineffective at solving policy problems, and that key features of NPM have been reversed due to policy failures or have simply stalled. They refer to NPM as "middle-aged" and offer the concept of Digital Era Governance (DEG) as an alternative. DEG is rooted in the idea that information technology provides opportunities to reform management systems and methods of interacting with citizens. Failures of NPM (adopting standards of business managerialism with a strong focus on customer service): Disaggregation of public sector hierarchies Has created management systems focused on short-term outputs rather than overall effectiveness in service delivery or policy implementation Competition between providers of gov't services Has led to proliferation of micro-bureaucracies competing for shared resources Conflicting organizational identities rather than a uniform and stable whole Created an environment of complex interrelationships between units of government Incentives driving public employee performance Limited control by managers made incentivization difficult to implement Rise of 'perverse incentives': incentives to not perform or to perform below expectations Overall these failures result in a reduction in capacity for collective action and allow for fully-autonomous managers to construe public need in their own way. NPM has undermined cohesion and uniformity in government systems, this has led to questions of reliability in the delivery of public services. The resulting complexity makes it more difficult for citizens to understand internal governmental arrangements/organization and thus more difficult to access the appropriate body representing their interests. Digital Era Governance (DEG) Is - again - just one of a host of reform ideas being considered post-NPM Is not simply automating government systems, but fully-integrating technology into government processes Communication E-mail/video conferencing Service delivery Internet- or intranet-based data management Electronic procurement systems Performance measurement Major themes of DEG: Reintegration of government units using technology Reengineering back office functions 'joined-up governance' (better collaboration along shared missions) Network simplification Development of citizen-based or needs-based governance Needs-based holism through developing end-to-end processes and service delivery "one stop" access for citizens/corporations (e.g. building permitting process) "ask once" information delivery Data warehousing (e.g. collocating disparate agencies' information in one place) Creating a more agile government capable of reconfiguring to match changing needs and responding to a chaotic environment Digitization changes Electronic service delivery (as opposed to paper-based systems) Automated, "zero touch" processes Removal of administrative intermediaries to allow consumers to connect directly to state systems Facilitating self-governance ("isocracy") Open-book government allows for direct access to information Context While they readily admit that DEG is only one of a host of reforms being developed (such as "banning bureaucracy" or "post-bureaucratic administration"), the authors' main argument that NPM has failed fits into the history of PA wherein reforms lead to changes that highlight new failures that in turn require new reforms. These failures occur do to unforeseen policy outcomes or changes in society and technology that demand or allow for change. Once again the themes being proposed here are adopted from the private sector's innovation in information systems technology and reorganization around new tools such as web-based computing, electronic communications, and data warehousing across sectors. In some ways DEG seeks to reincorporate some of the principles of classic PA into modern governance, such as integrating agencies around a single client group rather than organization around discrete business processes. It is important to remember that Public Administration reform is an on-going process, and that each reform movement is ultimately supplanted by the next. The reforms suggested here - once again - reflect advances in management and service delivery adopted in the private sector and reflect both consumers' and corporations' expectations about how an organization should function. Major Themes Reform New Public Management History of PA Public v. Private sector management

Appleby - Government is Different (1945)

First to state that it was a "myth that politics was separate and could somehow be taken out of administration". "Government is different because Government is Politics". Defines the differences of business administration vs. Public Administration Key ideas: Government is different than business and Government is Politics. (Business Admin vs. PA and Dichotomy Advocated that political involvement in government was good not evil. Political involvement in administration provided a way to check on the actions/decisions of bureaucrats. This was contrary to Woodrow Wilson's belief about pure separation of politics and public administration. Government is politics because Public Administrators are charged with the function of promoting and protecting public interest. Government must act in a fair, uniform, and transparent manner. Government is the people. Government actions affect everyone and can't focus on the special interests of one group or another. No other institution has such accountability to the public, is concerned with everyone's needs, and is dependent on the people. It must take into consideration and be accountable to all the desires, needs, thoughts, actions, and sentiments of the all people. Under constant scrutiny by the media. Scrutiny provides legitimacy since every action is subject to public judgement. Significance of Attitude: Selection of Employees, Decisions, and Character: (Personnel Differences) Public Administrator in high positions must have a public interest attitude, aptitude to make decisions and get things done, organize resources to accomplish specific objectives. Business executives would fail in government. Most self-made, have strong personalities, and lack public interest attitude. Efficiency: Although public opinion is that government less efficient than business due to its need to serve all the interests of the people, because it receives a considerable amount of public scrutiny it is actually more efficient. Contradicts: Woodrow Wilson views on Dichotomy. Changed future discussions related to the separation of politics and administration.

Gulick, Luther - Notes on the Theory of Organization (1937)

1. Theory of organizational structure for Public Administrations 2. Cautioned about highly trained professionals- knowing whats best for the people, rather than listening to the voice of the people 3. Provide an outline of the Role of the Executive - POSDCRB Per Gulick " Work division is the foundation of organization; indeed the reason for the organization." Gulick was the first to outline the responsibility of Executives in Public Agencies. He identified seven areas of responsibility known as: POSDCRB , Planning, Organizing, Staffing, Directing, Co-ordinating, Reporting, Budgeting. This is still discussed today when discussing "management vs. leadership" concepts. He also cautioned that it was important to continue to listen to the voice of the "people" rather than relying soley on experts who "think they know what is best based on their expertise". Also that there is a tendancy for expert to assume knowledge in areas where they have no expertise. Gulick's theory on structure and organization: 1.Division of work: specialization, reasonable division of work into specific tasks. Specializing by skills and capacity. (uses example of shoe factory or building a house -rather than each person make the full shoe, divide work into smaller functions and specialize function). Improves quality and efficiency. Justification for specialization - As work becomes more complex, knowledge and work is advanced, individuals will be less likely to retain or have intimate knowledge of all the skills needed. 2. Specific system of authority - single directing executive authority, top -down structure, work overseen by supervisors, in such a manner that each worker understands where his piece fits in the whole. 3. Co-ordination through Organization - making sure that everyone has a clear picture of the work to be done and how each person's part fits into the whole. a. define the job to be done - specific objective b.provide a director to see that the objective is realized c determine structure, number of staff, specific work units d. establish a structure of authority, (level and complexity of work will determine size of work unit) consider three factors: diversity of function, element of time, element of space. 4. One master - each person is to be supervised by one person - "unity of command" to eliminate confusion, inefficiency, and irresponsibility. 5. Technical efficiency - group must work together and be unified, functions that are combined must be homogeneous in nature. Gulick's caution about the traits of experts: "Caveamus Expertum" "Common man is a better judge of his own needs in the long run than any cult of experts" - "Democracy is a way of government in which the common man is the final judge of what is good for him." Gulick pointed out that it was important to concerns about experts/professionals by trade. Pitfall is the experts begin to assume they know what's best for the people or what the people need, rather than listening to the desires of the people. Also that experts assume knowledge and authority in areas that fields in which they have not expertise. Gulick's definition of role of Executive : POSDCRB Planning - identify what needs to be done and how Organizing- structure - subdivision of work Staffing - hiring and training staff Directing -decision making, making orders, providing instruction Co-ordinating- make sure all parts work together Reporting -keeping everyone informed above and below, records, research, reports Budgeting -fiscal planning, accounting, control This builds upon Taylor's work as well as Weber's. Follows the first text book on Public Administration by Kingsley. Continues on the theme of ensuring the people's voice is heard in public policy development and implementation.

Maslow - A Theory of Motivation (1943)

Abraham Maslow developed the Hierarchy of Needs model in 1940-50s USA, Theory remains valid today for understanding human motivation, management training, and personal development. Maslow's was the first to present the idea that it was the responsibility of employers to provide a workplace environment that focused on the employee as a person, encouraging and enabling employees to fulfill their own unique potential (self-actualization) Public Administration began thinking about the drives and motivations of its workers in the 1940's and 1950's as they were looking for explanations. Contextualize the Article: Maslow's theory of motivation is based on the human being as a whole and takes into context the biological, situationally determined, psychosocial, and cultural factors that have an influence in the development of an individual. Each person has the same five motivational needs and they range from basic to complex. The most basic must be met before moving onto the more complex ones. In addition human are in a state of homeostasis which is at level one. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: 1. Biological and Physiological needs - air, food, drink, shelter, warmth, sex, sleep, etc. 2. Safety needs - protection from elements, security, order, law, limits, stability, etc. 3. Belongingness and Love needs - work group, family, affection, relationships, etc. 4. Esteem needs - self-esteem, achievement, mastery, independence, status, dominance, prestige, managerial responsibility, etc. 5. Self-Actualization needs - realizing personal potential, self-fulfillment, seeking personal growth and peak experiences. Links: Maslow argues with Taylor, White's concept of Scientific Management and Wilson's Bureaucracy. Taylor, White and Wilson focus on production and efficiency. Treat people as machines. Maslow's introduces the theory about motivation and how human behavior can impacts productivity building on Merton and the introduction of Sociology. Later, Herzberg, McGregor, and Argyris take Maslow's theory and develop theories on motivation and organizational behavior.

Appleby, Paul - Big Democracy (1945)

Appleby's premise is that it was a myth that politics could be isolated from administration as the political immersion in public administrations operates as a way to oversight the discretionary activity of bureaucratic power, thus "government is different because government is politics" (Shafritz, 2013). Contextualize the Article: There is no other institution whose every action is held fully accountable to the public. Furthermore, no institution other than the government simultaneously deals with such a wide scope of issues and people. In the New Deal Era Appleby's concept sensitively burst the notion that "public administration's distinction between politics and administration does not exist. Appleby draws up the differences between the actual entities of government and private businesses and that politics exists within institutions. Government is fundamentally different from private business because it is far broader than any other entity and it must consider the diversified will of the public. Private organizations primarily for profit, without a great deal of energy and resources spent on public interest. Government exists specifically to promote and protect public interest. No private institution encompasses the breadth of government's activities or is held publically accountable, meaning public scrutiny, debate, and investigation. In the New Deal Era with tremendous growth in governmental programs and communities, like suburbia, and private organizations this was likely a time of expansive and challenging thinking around classical public administration principles. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: The Public Administration Six Pillars: Responsibility, Accountably, and the Politics-Administrative Dichotomy. Appleby correctly identifies that government is held accountable with public scrutiny, debate, and investigations as some recent examples is the shooting in Ferguson, Missouri and Hurricane Katrina which played out in the news media 24/7, and several public administrators were named as responsible for such events or the conditions that led up to them.

Derthick, Martha - American Federalism: Madison's Middle Ground in the 1980's (1987)

In this article, Derthick discusses intergovernmental relations and the state of federalism in the U.S. near the end of Reagan's second term as President. She starts the conversation with a brief description of Madison's "compound republic" as he called it in The Federalist. She focuses special attention on the period of 1965-1980 when several grant-in-aid programs were "revised by the introduction of general revenue-sharing" (p. 480). This era was followed by Reagan's attempts to reduce revenue-sharing schemes and move toward block grant programs. At the same time, Congress was taking steps to centralize more programs in an effort to promote its goals and introduced at least three new types of coercion: (1) the threat of "cross-cut" sanctions, or broad cuts to grant programs beyond the program in question; (2) partial pre-emptions, in which states had the option to decline participation in federal programs and the associated federal funding; and (3) the state "option" to promulgate its own regulatory standards to meet federal goals or "permit" the federal government to assume control. At the same time, the courts added to the tension with their support of individual rights with little regard for states' rights. She concludes that the "current debate" (in 1987) continues to turn on the same federalist and anti-federalist concerns the Founders argued.

Finer, Herman - Administrative Responsibility in Democratic Government (1941)

1. Finer believed in an anti- rational approach - subservience. (Weberisc). He acknowledge how large government had grown and the large percentage of people employed by the government. He argued that Democracy meant that Elected Officials should make the decisions and Public Administrators should implement the decisions. Finer believed that public professionals could not be trusted to make decisions about the public good. Finer (1941) states that "the servants of public are not to decide their own course; they are to be responsible to the elected representative to the public, and these are to determine the course of action of the public servants to the most minute degree that is technically feasible." (p.336). 2.He believed that subjective responsibility was important for assuring efficiency. Used comparison to Hitler: Democracy has three roles: a .Politicians and employees work for the "wants" of the people, not what they think is "good" for the people, b. Elected officials have the power to oversee the technical work of Public Administrators c. Public Administrators must be "obedient" to the orders of Elected Officials and the Public. 3. He warned against malfeasance by public administrators (waste and damage due to ignorance, negligence, and technical impotence) and overfeasance (over zealous, beyond law, know what is best). Must be aware of those that are too good and too bad. 4. He expresses concern that Public Administrators will be reactive to public opinion, i.e. complaints, media, etc. and that new policies will be developed as a result based on public opinion rather than the action of the legislature. 5.Finer argued that internal checks, such as technical expertise and professional standards were not enough to deter corruption within a bureaucracy. 6.Finer argued that legitimacy is established by Politicians through the legislative process because their actions reflect the feelings, beliefs, and wishes of the people. The technical knowledge and the professionalism of public administrators was not sufficient to establish legitimacy and deter corruption. Link to others: Weber - Dichotomy Wilson, Goodnow, F.J. ,Gulich, Luther, Finer - have same belief - Expression of will (legislature), execution of will - public administrator Friedrich, Carl (1940), Waldo, Dwight (1948) The Administrative State, Rohr, John (1986) - Ethics, New Public Administration

Waldo, Dwight - The Administrative State (1948)

1. Waldo outlines the present state of Public Administration up to 1948. He cautions against focusing solely on the orthodox tenants. Identifies the need to look at the human aspects of PA. He identifies the Orthodox tenants as: a. Politics-administration formula (decision and execution are separate and distinct), b. Pure democracy equates to efficiency c. Current debate about whether the execution of the work is or can be a "science". Science in the orthodox context means fact finding and the rejection of theory. Orthodox also means the scientific method, outlined by Taylor. d. Values of American business can be applied to and adapted by Public Administration 2. He cautions against focusing solely on the functional aspects of administration and empirical studies (observation) rather than scientific research. He refers to M.L Cooke, Ordway Tead, Henri Fayol, Oliver Sheldon, Lyndall Urwick and Elton Mayo as well as Mary Parker Follett. He advocates that answers should evolve out of experience and that experience should be used to advance and change the field of Public Administration. 3. He advocates that Public Administrators need training about what their responsibilities entail. 4. He advocates that human learning should be utilized to advance the field. Concepts: Scientific Management, Dichotomy, PA as a Science/Art , builds on Simon, Merton and Maslow - Change from Classical and Progressive Era

Behn, Robert D. - Rethinking Democratic Accountability (2001)

Accountability basically means one has to answer for their actions. Through one's actions in the best interest of the public, trust is built which leads to legitimacy. The standard for accountability in government is centered around three major concepts, accountability for finances, accountability for fairness and accountability for performance. There are both holders and holdees of accountability. Holders are held accountable. Holdees expect accountability. Highlight key examples, key ideas When Accountability holders do good things, it's quiet and there is no recognition. However, when they do something bad, it's escalated and everyone knows about it. Accountability is ethical standards that are established to ensure fair treatment of citizens, vendors, and contractors during the delivery of governmental services. Everyone is expected to be treated fairly. Elected officials are expected to expend the public's money with prudence. Power constraints are established in order to prevent the abuse of power by officials in public administration. That is the purpose of dichotomy separating Politics from Administration. However for a holder to be held accountable expectation needs to be clear. Consequences for accountability are often seen as a form of punishment either in the form of monetary penalties, imprisonment or even termination. In order to establish these expectations guidelines are established which outline rules, procedures and standards that are expected to be followed. The challenge with obtaining accountability within the three major categories arises when being held accountable for performance when also being held accountable for finances and fairness. Fairness sometimes takes time. The delay in the time it takes to turn a negative attitude around, causes poor performance therefore causing a conflict in accountability between the fairness expectation and the performance expectation.

Behn, Robert - Big Questions in Public Management (1995)

Behn asserts that one of the defining features of a science is having so-called 'big questions' that drive exploration. He describes three questions relating to management dilemmas: micromanagement, motivation, and measurement. The three are all interdependent. Micromanagement is influenced by features such as governance (control and direct management of individuals), entrepreneurship (giving individuals sovereignty), and trust (a disparity of it in the relationship between different units of government). Motivation is circumscribed by the fact that managers can't fire or reward anyone. It is a question of control between a principal and an agent: whether legislative/administration, citizenry/legislative, or manager/civil servant. Measurement is difficult because outcomes are not always obvious or can't be agreed upon by stakeholders. The three questions don't necessarily have answers but can guide efforts to explore and improve PA. Notes: His conclusion sort of undermines his thesis (all the sciences he compares PA to have definitive answers to their questions). Behn was writing just after the Government Performance and Results Act (1993), which sought to improve government performance management.

Thompson, Dennis - The Possibility of Administrative Ethics (1985)

Dennis Thompson questions whether Administrative Ethics is possible to achieve. He uses two ideas of the role an individual in an organization, the ethics of neutrality and the ethics of structure. He implies both of these must be rejected to achieve administrative ethics. 1. Ethics of neutrality - Thompson says for an administrator to achieve the ethic of neutrality, they must stay morally neutral, but to do this they cannot be held ethically accountable for their actions. But can they be objective? 2. Ethics of structure - Means an administrator cannot be held responsible or accountable for the policies or actions of the agency or department they work for. Therefore, we cannot cast moral judgments about government offices who merely find themselves somewhere in the structure. Thompson continues by saying that administrative accountability is an illusion if either of these two theories are completely valid. Administrators would not be liable for their actions. Administrate ethics that would seek to make moral judgments of those actions would be an impossibility. The only way to maintain the possibility of administrative ethics would be to demonstrate these two theories are mistaken. He concludes by saying administrative ethics is possible with basic research. Context The words ethics, accountability, morality, and responsibility became important in the 1980s. Codes of ethics were being developed, and individual responsibility was being discussed. In Thompson's article, he challenges the notion that administrative ethics is even obtainable, but at the end of the article he supports this concept and provides practical case studies to demonstrate why. Thompson's article continues to be relevant as he provided ways for an administrator to argue a case of innocence. He also highlights cases that are indefensible by using history of procedural flaws, personal knowledge, and continual inaction of an agency or an individual. As Dr. Becker noted in my outline of Herman Goldstein's, Police Discretion: The Ideal Versus the Real (1963), both Goldstein and Thompson thought in order to construct an ethics of administration, the ethic of neutrality would need to be rejected. "The ethic of neutrality holds that implementers can be objective. Thompson argues (and I think Goldstein argues the same here) that objectivity is not possible."

Frederickson, H.G. - Towards a New Public Adminisration (1971)

Explain what the overall main argument or point of the article is The main point of this article is the evolution of public administration. As time progresses public administration becomes evolves however, the foundation stays the same, it's simply changing from a centralized efficient economical model to one of social equity. Contextualize the article This article speaks to the traditional bureaucracy that has established government is capable of stability. It speaks to the foundation of efficiency detailed previously by Simon which attempts to become an efficient government with limited resources. Frederickson speaks to a world of change, which advocates decentralization, contracting, sensitivity training and organizational development. Highlight key examples, key ideas Traditionally public administration has been knowns as the efficient, economical and coordinated management of services. The basic foundation for the new public administration is change. Frederickson speaks to a vast difference between public administration and public service. Unlike previous authors that spoke of the history of public administration in a structured hierarchy Frederickson speaks to a new era of inclusive progressive professionalism as opposed to traditional Planning Organizing Staffing Directing Co Ordinating Reporting Budgeting image.

Denhardt, Robert and Denhardt, Janet - The New Public Service: Servicing Rather Than Steering (2002)

In this 2001 article, Denhardt and Denhardt discuss how differently public policy is developed since Osborne and Gaebler's Reinventing Government and the new public management (NPM) movement with its focus on markets and entrepreneurialism compared to the more traditional methods. Contextualize the Article: They describe three policy-making methods and their associated theories as (1) traditional, or orthodox, bound up in legal and political rules; (2) NPM, having to do with economic and market considerations; and (3) new public service, in which citizens participate in governance with a focus on serving the public's interests. They discuss two weaknesses of NPM: (1) NPM imposed on administration a new set of values largely drawn from the private sector that do not support public spirit or public service; and (2) entrepreneurial agents or agencies can become arrogant in their belief that they know what is best, failing in responsiveness and accountability. In addition, the Denhardts take issue with NPM's use of the term "customer". Customers are focused on their own needs. "Citizens" focus on the common good. They also note that "customers" with more money and influence tend to be accorded special treatment. They assert that new public service is more democratic and that investing in citizen involvement can lead to increased citizen trust of government and improved government responsiveness to the public. They describe this new role for administrators as requiring new skills, brokering, negotiating, and conflict resolution.

Denhardt, R.B. & Denhardt, J.V. - The New Public Service: Putting Democracy First (2001)

In this 2001 article, Denhardt and Denhardt discuss how differently public policy is developed since Osborne and Gaebler's Reinventing Government and the new public management (NPM) movement with its focus on markets and entrepreneurialism compared to the more traditional methods. They describe three policy-making methods and their associated theories as (1) traditional, or orthodox, bound up in legal and political rules; (2) NPM, having to do with economic and market considerations; and (3) new public service, in which citizens participate in governance with a focus on serving the public's interests. They discuss two weaknesses of NPM: (1) NPM imposed on administration a new set of values largely drawn from the private sector that do not support public spirit or public service; and (2) entrepreneurial agents or agencies can become arrogant in their belief that they know what is best, failing in responsiveness and accountability. In addition, the Denhardts take issue with NPM's use of the term "customer". Customers are focused on their own needs. "Citizens" focus on the common good. They also note that "customers" with more money and influence tend to be accorded special treatment (as is evident today). The Denhardts assert that new public service is more democratic and that investing in citizen involvement can lead to increased citizen trust of government and improved government responsiveness to the public. They describe this new role for administrators as requiring new skills—brokering, negotiating, and conflict resolution.

Rosenbloom, David H. - Public Administrative Theory and the Separation of Powers (1983)

In this article Rosenbloom focuses on the "weak or absent theoretical core" of Public Administration, which he asserts prevents PA from emerging as an independent discipline. He states that this is in part because the field of PA has been studied through the lenses of three distinct and disparate approaches: the management approach, which focuses on running government in a "sound businesslike manner"; the political approach, which asserts that politics and management are entertwined and thus cannot be separated; and the legal approach, which focuses on the administrative law aspect of public administration. This article summarizes some of the larger "movements" seen throughout the history of PA, and identifies the lack of cohesion between these lenses as a problem for the further advancement of PA. He asserts that each of these approaches may be appropriate lenses for examining branches of government rather than PA as a whole, and that synthesis between these approaches is necessary in the study of PA as a whole.

Landau - Redundancy, Rationality, and the Problem of Duplication (1969)

Irrational to assume that elimination of duplication and redundancy will improve public administration Redundancy/duplication increase reliability and limit uncertainty Overlap allows system to address issues that weren't caught by less efficient parts of the system Allows agencies to make mistakes without completely disrupting the organization US government is built on a system of redundancy (i.e. separation of powers, federalism) and this system has been working PPBS efforts to eliminate duplication and redundancy will require significant effort Risks to redundancy/duplication/overlap Goal displacement Excessive cost for risk mitigation/compliance Questions of authority for organization Context 1930's Expansion of Government 1961 DOD/Rand Corporation Implementation of PPBS 1965 PPBS became mandatory for all Federal agencies Taft Commission/Budget Accounting Act of 1921 Other Articles: The Movement for Budgetary Reform in the States, Willoughby 1918 General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, Keynes 1936 Notes on Theory of Organization (POSDCRB) Guilick, 1937 The Road to PPB, Schick 1966 The Politics of the Budgetary Process, Wildavsky 1964 Rescuing Policy Analysis from PPBS, Wildavsky 1969 Article Title, Author and Date Redundancy, Rationality, and the Problem of Duplication Martin Landau 1969 Related Pillar Responsibility (Decision Making) Efficiency and Effectiveness Accountability

Allison, Graham - Public and Private Management: Are They Fundamentally Alike in all Unimportant Aspects? (1980)

Is Sayre's assertion that public and private management are fundamentally alike in all unimportant respects correct? Not enough research conducted to answer the question. What is Public "Management" v Is it management of policy, resource, program or; v Is it personnel planning management, workforce planning, collective bargaining/labor management, productivity/performance measurement, organization, financial, research/audit Similarities in Public/Private Management v POSDCRB Differences in public vs. private management v Environmental factors (legal/political/market exposure); internal structures and processes v government decisions based on short-term political needs v politically appointed managers hold positions for a shorter time v no standard measures of performance for government v civil service and the union v government focus on equity vs. efficiency/competitiveness v more media focus on government v decision making process - more input from various internal/external groups v heavy court/legal influence in government Context New Public Management - business like activities for government functions; motivation, empowerment, competition, customers Emergence of Internet and e-Government Regan Elected President 1980

Bennis, Warren - On Becoming a Leader (1989)

Leaders are important in establishing the "state of mind that is society and with no leadership in the nation then no one is home or secure (Bennis, 1989). Contextualize the Article: Bennis identify that a leader must be authentic in order to lead and to have collaborative influence and public trust. He notes that three elements are needed in a leader who is considered important. The three elements are: 1. Be responsible for the effectiveness of the organization; 2. Be a consistent touch stone or anchor that people will know are always there; 3. Be able to establish and maintain integrity. Bennis is talking about a leader developing self-assessment and self-reflection capabilities in order to an "authentic leader which is one who remains true to oneself and is able to be viewed as having integrity. Highlight the Main Ideas,Examples or Methodology: A leader must have self-awareness; understand the world and its context to all relationships and appreciate their complexities; build constituencies with people that create support and diversity; address the conflict and pursue creative avenues to move beyond for the greater good; see the future of possibilities; and utilize non-government entities to forward causes and mission that benefit the public interest through networks and collaborative relationships. Key theorists: Follett, Maslow, Simon, Greenberg, Arganoff, and Thomas. I think John Stuart-Mill could be on this list too (?).

Levine, Charles - Organizational Decline and Cutback Management (1978)

Levine's article pointed out the administration and agencies serving our country were approaching a period of stagnation and a decline in growth. However, at the time almost all public management strategies were based on the traditional growth of revenues and expenses. Budgeting was based on incremental additions to a fixed base. This way of thinking is in opposition to decline and cutback management. At the time of this article, no plan was in place to address declines in revenue, cutbacks or operating with fewer funds than before. Levine advises that before making any decisions, a review the causes of the situation is necessary. He defined four categories of organizational decline: 1. Political Vulnerability (Political/Internal) Does the organization have a high level of instability. Instability is often found in younger organizations (not well established.) 2. Problem Depletion (Political/External) A problem followed by an extreme commitment of resources (short-term crisis). 3. Organizational Atrophy (Economic-Technical/Internal) -declining performance that can lead to resource cutbacks or weakening of the organizational capacity. (ex. inconsistent and perverse incentives 4. Environmental Entropy (Economic-Technical/External) - Capacity of the organization to support the public erodes. (ex. financially troubled cities with declining economy). Once the cause is determined, he provides various strategies to manage properly cutbacks to be most effective and efficient. (p. 353) He encourages the government to prepare for an unavoidable decline and to have methods for corrective action before it is necessary. He recommends two potential ways administrators can help the public deal with decline. 1. "Mandated" cut backs by individuals and 2. Reevaluation by administrators of agencies on the efficiency of using their resources. He cautions the most tempting future won't likely be the route taken. Context: Before this article was written, the country was already starting to "worry". "Interest rates were climbing, the availability of natural resources was extremely limited, and a shift in areas of economic growth was obvious. However, government budgets kept increasing because they were always developed under the assumption of growth." Managing cutbacks and decline strategies were never taken into account. Levine's article tried to help administrators face the reality of what was ahead and in tried to bring a sense of reality regarding the future. The main lesson is for public administrators to be aware that economic declines will occur, and they need to be prepared to determine the cause and implement the appropriate strategies.

Mosher, Frederick - Watergate: Implications for Responsible Government (1974)

Summary: Identifies that Administrative power has been increasing since 1930's, movement was accepted practice and began with the Brownlow Report in 1937. (Reference to the pendulum swing). Expressed concern that the administrative and political characteristics of the government were intertwined. Problematic and threat to democracy leading to imbalance in power and unethical conduct of public officials. and impacted citizen rights to participate or be represented in decisions impacting them, equal treatment,transparency,free and honest elections Emphasizes the importance of ethical behavior in people who aspire to and gain public office. Public officials have an obligation to the public to a higher set of moral and ethical standards. Refers to values Compares PA to Business: certain things are forbidden in government: Acceptance of certain kinds of gifts, promise or threat of governmental action under some circumstances, carrying and secreting large amounts of cash, withholding information to which the public should be alerted, leading or disclosing information that is considered private. References: A ten-point Code of Ethics for Government Service was adopted in 1958. Federal Personnel Manual. President Kennedy executive order 10939 May 1961: Weber - Politics as a Vocation, Appleby

Kotter, John - What Leaders Really Do (1990)

Most organizations over-managed and under-led Successful organizations recruit or develop individuals with leadership potential Important to expose them to experience that develops that potential Challenge is to combine strong leadership skills with strong management skills Some people can be strong managers but lack capacity to be strong leaders Implies that 'leadership qualities' are either inherent in an individual or not Difference between management and leadership Management is about coping with complexity By planning and budgeting Setting targets and goals Organizing and staffing Accomplishes plan by controlling and problem solving Leadership is about coping with change By setting a direction Developing a vision "Aligning people": communicating vision to committed stakeholders who then form coalitions Achieves vision through motivating and inspiring Setting a direction v. planning & budgeting Planning is a management process Designed to produce orderly results Is deductive in nature Not designed to produce change Setting a direction is a leadership process Does not produce plans: produces visions and strategies Is inductive in nature Designed to be aspirational: what the organization should become Planning without direction is a waste of energy/effort Vision & strategy constrain planning, preventing consideration of every eventuality Leadership focuses management Aligning people v. organizing & staffing Managers organize people to create systems that can implement plans Aligning is more about communicating than design Involves talking to people to build momentum Audience can extend throughout the organization and beyond Individuals must be cultivated to buy into a vision of the future Credibility is necessary to get buy-in Aligning leads to empowerment People in complex organizations feel powerless to change the environment Alignment empowers people by Communicating a clear sense of direction Aims everyone at the same target Gives individuals a role in the vision Motivating v. Controlling Motivating people involves satisfying basic human needs Achievement Sense of belonging Recognition Self-esteem Control Living up to ideals Good leaders motivate by Articulating organizational vision Must connect with the audience's values This personalizes the vision, allows individuals to internalize it Provide coaching, feedback, and role-modeling Help people grow professionally Instills self-esteem Recognize and reward success The more change/uncertainty in the operational environment, the more leadership is necessary Leadership activities are enhanced by healthy informal relationships and a healthy organizational culture.

Kotter, John - Leading Change: Why Transformation Efforts Fail (1995)

Not establishing sense of urgency Paralyzed senior management comes from having too many managers, not enough leaders Managers become paralyzed by potential negative outcomes of change Transformation will not occur until enough leaders are promoted or hired into senior-level roles Motivation is spurred by negative information Consultants are sometime best to deliver bad news Must make the status quo look more threatening than change Perhaps executives could consider manufacturing crisis "Urgency" can be defined as 75% or more of decision-makers agreeing status quo is unacceptable Not creating a powerful guiding coalition Lacking a vision A picture of the future that is relatively easy to communicate Helps to guide change effort Develop strategies to achieve the vision Undercommunicating the vision Employees must believe that useful change is possible Guiding coalition must lead by example Not removing obstacles to new vision People must be empowered to achieve vision Change systems or structures that undermine vision Encourage risk-taking and nontraditional ideas Not planning for and creating short-term victories Must demonstrate possibility for change early on or people will walk away Must remove opportunities for detractors to score points Declaring victory too soon Instead of declaring victory, use momentum from small victories to make other changes necessary for achieving vision Not anchoring changes in organizational culture Show how changes have improved performance Make sure next generation of execs personify vision Must institutionalize changes

Agranoff, Robert - Inside the Collaborative Networks: Ten Lessons for Public Managers (2006)

Not replacing bureaucracy (argument against Nye 2002) Networking is not the be all end all of collaboration, just type of collaboration Network governance not replacing organizational hierarchy- most managers only spend a small amount of time doing this (a few program managers dedicated to this function) Benefits of networking to managers that make it worth the investment Professional development opportunity Benefits to the organization (i.e. access to information, innovation etc) Collective group of skills defined over a period of time Results of networking - i.e. interagency strategy Different from formal organizations but there are some similarities (not hierarchal but require organization) Still have conflicts and power struggles (mini issues and mega issues) Creator of the network (champion) can yield a lot of power over network Influence of staff dedicated to running the network can influence agenda setting Networks don't set policy or form adjustments to programs (3 types informational, developmental, outreach) Can result in collaborative decision making and agreements but implementation authority still resides with the specific agency(s) Knowledge management - clear and understood activities that rely on information technology Costs and benefits of collaboration opportunity costs/time and energy expended weighed against lack of progress due to conflicts/group think/risk aversion lack of legislative support Context Emergence of Information Technology Related Articles Information Technology and Democratic Governance, Nye 2002

Dror - Policy Analysts: A New Professional Role in Government Services (1967)

PPBS stands for planning, programming budgeting system. Followed Performance based budgeting enacted by the Hoover Commission in 1949. PPBS was a new budgeting methodology developed by RAND and was developed to answer the question "Where do we want to go" PPBS is Systems Approach to Budgeting. It is budgeting process that required agency directors to identify program objectives, to develop methods of measuring program output, to calculate total program costs to prepared detailed multi-year program and financial plans, generate special cost-benefit analyses and zero based reviews of program actives and to analyze alternatives. Basis of PPBS was to provide a global understanding of expenditure purposes, consolidated spending into "programs" with a focus on effectiveness. Goal was to overcome fragmentation of line item and performance budgeting. It was believed that this type of budgeting would be a planning document for the future. First introduced in Department of Defense by highly skilled staff trained in policy analysis. In 1965 Johnson mandated the use of PPBS for all federal agencies due to its success in improving decision making in the Department of Defense. Summary: Dror was among the first to warn against the "possible boomerang effects" of strict adherence to systems analysis, followed by Wildavsky in 1969, He believed that PPBS relied too heavily on quantitative knowledge and neglected the human and political side of policy-making. Noting that public decision-making was largely based on economic theory, identified the need to change the study of political science and public administration, which he saw as having become "sterilized by an escape from political issues into behavioral 'value-free' research and theory". He described the main features of policy analysis compared to systems analysis: · Policy analysis focuses on political aspects of decision- and public policy-making; · Involves a broad conception of decision making and policy making instead of viewing all decision making as mainly an allocation of resources · Emphasis on creativity and innovative thinking; · Cooperative development with social scientists and other professionals of qualitative models and methods to be applied to complex issues; · Encouragement of "futuristic" and long-range thinking; and · Looser and less rigid approach striving for constant learning, new alternatives, clarification of issues, etc. (instead of clear-cut criterion and dominant solutions)

Shafritz, Jay M.; Rusell, E.W.; Borick, Christopher P. - Introducing Public Administration (2013)

Public Administration is what government does and it is its political context that makes it public thus being different from business or private administration. Public administration does things that affect the lives of citizens everyday whether by the Food and Drug Administration, police and fire services, building bridges and highways, plowing snow, mosquito abatement, or social services for those less fortunate to name a few. Dwight Waldo in 1955 was first to suggests that public administration be viewed in terms of the environment within it exists and not rely on the scientific or analytical terms with which had been the prior views of scholars and theorist like Woodrow Wilson, Frank Goodnow, Max Weber, and Frederick Taylor. Contextualize the Article: During the World Trade Center terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 Peggy Noonan, the former speechwriter for President Reagan and President George W. Bush (the elder) wrote that when the firefighters and rescue workers ran into the World Trade Center "You think to yourself: Do we pay them enough? You realize: We couldn't possibly pay them enough. And in any case, a career like that is not about the money" But if it is "not about the money," what is it about? The answer is it is about duty. Highlight the Main Ideas, Examples or Methodology: Public administration is law, regulation, representative government, direct and indirect, mickey mouse (red tape), implementing public interest, managerial, management, and some believe theft. In Lincoln's words public administration must "do for a community of people whatever they need to, but cannot do, at all, or cannot, so well do, for themselves—in their separate, and individual capacities" (Shafritz, 2013).

Brownlow, Louis; Gulick, Luther; Merriam, Charles - Report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management (1937)

Recommendations from the Brownlow Committee included: 1. Create aides to the President to deal with the administrative tasks assigned to the President. 2. Provide the President direct control over the administrative departments. 3. Create, as part of the Executive Office, the following managerial agencies: Civil Service Administration, Bureau of the Budget, and National Resources Board. 4. Submit the budgets of these managerial agencies, as part of the budget of the Executive Office, to Congress. Context On March 22, 1936, Roosevelt established the Committee on Administrative Management (commonly known as the Brownlow Committee). The report identified 3 functions of the presidency: 1. Leader of politics, Congress, and the people 2. Ceremonial figurehead, a symbol of American unity 3. Chief executive and administrator within the federal system The Committee recommended 5 steps necessary for modernizing executive branches' management: 1. Expand White House staff to assist with the increase of executive management duties 2. Strengthen and develop the managerial agencies dealing with budget, efficiency research, personnel and planning as the arms of the chief executive 3. Expand the merit system and reorganize the civil service system to attract the most talented 4. Reorganize the executive branch to reduce and replace the number of agencies under a few large departments 5. Revise the fiscal systems The purpose of the reorganization was to make democracy work more efficient and effective. Pillar: Efficiency and Effectiveness

Rohr, John - Ethics for Bureaucrats: An Essay on Law and Values (1979)

Rohr defines "regime values" as the "values of that political entity that was brought into being by the ratification of the Constitution that created the present American republic." Method of regime value rests on three considerations: 1. Ethical norms should be derived from the prominent values of the regime. 2. These values are normative for bureaucrats because they have taken an oath to uphold the regime. 3. These values can be discovered in the public law of the regime. Professional Education for Bureaucrats • Bureaucrats are expected to take an oath of office. The oath holds bureaucrats to support the constitution. • The term "professional" education suggests a narrower focus than education in general. Education for Bureaucrats The study of ethics for bureaucrats cannot be too real-world because of the multitude of different agencies within the government. Different agencies will have different values. Studying practical ethical problems could educate tomorrow's leaders with today's answers. Example, affirmative action. Values of Bureaucrats • "Values" are the beliefs and ideologies that have been believed for many generations by the majority of the American people. • Enables the bureaucrat to respond to the values of the American people. • The difficulty comes when the bureaucrat takes these values and tries to give them meaning tied to ethics. Values of the American People The values of freedom, property, and equality are entrenched with American people. These values may not be the "right" ones, but if taken away is when we realize the importance of the values . Balance of Values • There are many interpretations of values, so the bureaucrats have to decide which of many interpretations they will take seriously. • Bureaucrats are different from academicians because they will focus on what their company values most. Context: John Rohr focused his research on ethics in public management and normative theory. He joined Kaufman and Frederickson making the argument that public administrators should be concerned with social equity should think about the public they serve and the public interest they serve. As Dr. Becker pointed out in an earlier post, "this is a point that is almost completely opposite from the Wilson / Taylor view of the role of public administrators. Here, public administrators have to think about what they're doing and make policy the right way while they implement." Pillar Accountability

Stone, Deborah - Policy Paradox: The Art of Political Decision Making (2002)

Stone reminds us that politicians always have at least two goals - one policy-related and one political - and that politics is filled with paradoxes. She maintains that attempts to rationalize decision-making misses the point of politics and is an impossible dream. Proposes two policy making models in addition to the rational (model of reasoning) Model of society - based on the market view in which citizens maximize self-interests Acknowledges how people define preferences depends largely on how choices are presented to them and by whom (resulting in paradoxes) Society is seen as a political community Model of policy making - based on view of political communities and the struggle over ideas Ideas are the center of all political conflict Policy making is struggle over classification, boundaries, and ideals that guide behavior Relies on community values as standards to evaluate existing situations and policy proposals Context: Attempt to reconcile rational decision-making and politics following decline of New Public Management

Dror, Yehenzel - Policy Analysis: A New Professional Role in Government Service (1967)

The use of public decision-making by economics is both unavoidable, beneficial, and dangerous. To fully benefit from the economic approach it would have to improve public decision-making and policymaking while avoiding any of the pitfalls. Contextualize the Article: The reform movement of this time was focused on an economic approach to public decision-making. This was spurned by slower financial growth and greater costs of government programs. The push was to make decisions based on economics, through the Planning, Programming, Budgeting Systems (PPBS) system; however to focus only on this is too analytical, thus risking the loss of vital areas to consider in decision-making. These vital areas encompass such things as the worker's motivation, value-based decision-making, no ability to define a good decision-making process, high dependence on efficiency not effectiveness, lack of being able to deal with large systems and complex issues which is very much the center of public government, and the ignorance of creativity, judgement, and tactic knowledge which is very person-centered. Maybe a better approach is to look at policy analysis rather than system analysis. The main role of policy analysts in government as parts of PPBS in high-level staff units, separate independent advisory corporations, and other locations is to benefit public decision-making, a broad professional competence, based simultaneously on systems analysis and quantitative decision-making and on a new outlook in political science and public administration (Hyde, 2012). More so, Dror presents that maybe there should be a new interdiscipline called "policy science" in addition to public administration and political science to formulate the study and improvements of public policy-making so a sound theoretical and institutional foundation for policy analysis knowledge and policy analysis professionals (Hyde, 2012).

Karl, Barry - Public Administration and American History: A Century of Professionalism (1976)

This article demonstrates how public administration has evolved overtime, and some of the biggest problems we face today. Our political system was built based on fundamental errors in the early planning stages. The biggest error that the author pointed out is that our system is built on elitism. Government was built based on "leaders" tapping others on the shoulder who were thought to have the skill and expertise needed to do the job. Those that had the best chance were those with the finest education and coming from a well to do family. A perfect example is the legacy of the Kennedy's. All three brothers John, Robert and Ted all held prominent federal government positions, including the presidency. Karl states that, "Their view of themselves as, in their phrase, "the best men" often excluded, explicitly and at times brutally, those of other ethnic, cultural, and racial backgrounds." The other issue that Karl pointed out is that America's public administration system is built based on what we could learn from other countries, mostly those in Europe. As he states, "Historically speaking American public administration is an effort to bring together two quite different European traditions..." This has created a system that historians "ignore" in their praise of the American system and how it operates. Because of our reliance on England primarily in the development of this system, democracy does not exist. At least not in the way we think it does. Karl goes on to state that, "democracy is an illusion, at times a dangerous one, and that the sooner we come to understand that, the better off we will be." We live in a world now where we are basing our decisions on information that was created hundreds of years ago, "on grounds now unclear, reinterpreted by a judicial process no one understands precisely, and managed by executives who are puzzled about their actual responsibilities and sometimes even disrespectful of those which are clear to them." All of these issues are interwoven into the fact that in current politics politicians greatest asset are being able to act as an intellect and have a good style, as opposed to actually having the skills necessary to run a government. "We now know that Eisenhower went into office convinced that it was necessary for him to maintain a non-partisan image, to utilize the consensual aura of his personality to give the appearance of being above politics." During the time this piece was written a lot of resentment had settled into government. Women and minorities were still fighting to have their voices heard, and struggling for equal rights. This is also the time when technology started to evolve with the creation of the personal computer and video games. This also started what was known as the "Rise of the New Right," where political conservatism was on the rise. This went on to lead Regan into office in the early 1980s, and the start of Reaganomics.

Perry, James L. and Wise, Lois Recascino - The Motivational Bases of Public Service (1990)

This article examines the idea of Public Service Motivation (PSM), which the authors define as "an individual's predisposition to respond to motives grounded primarily or uniquely in public institutions and organizations". The theory of PSM asserts that individuals with a high level of PSM will be drawn to public service work to satisfy personal needs, despite potential "downsides" such as lower pay or benefits. The authors identify several factors that could contribute to an individual's level of PSM: a desire to participate in the process of policy formation, commitment to a public program because of personal experience/identification, a desire to advocate for a special or private interest, a desire to serve the public interest, loyalty to duty/government, social equity, genuine conviction as to a program's social importance, and patriotism of benevolence. The authors explore the downturn in government reputation at the time of writing, and put forth the idea that this downtorn in conjunction with a push to run government more like a business has resulted in a lack of Public Service Motivation amongst current and potential employees. Individuals who have a high degree of PSM will not necessarily be drawn to work that is not meaningful in some way, and government run as a business shifts the focus from social good to operational good. The authors assert that it is crucial to instill high levels of PSM in government employees and recruits, and identifies the portrayal of government as a "whipping boy" as a deterrent to this. These ideas are in line with the idea that "government is different" and that administration of government can not be handled in the same ways as private industry.

Jones, Bryan - Bounded Rationality (1999)

This is a critique of rational-actor decision making models relied upon by economists. The author demonstrates that decision-making in government systems is much more nuanced and subject to constraints that often force administrators to sacrifice utility or rationality in their processes. In fact he explicitly states that the rational-actor model is not supported by empirical observation, an argument that seems to undercut economists' supposition that their theories are scientific and have value in describing real world systems. While rationality in pursuit of utility in decision-making is a goal, people often cannot due to constraints that limit their adaptability Decision-making is circumscribed by environmental demands both internal and external Procedural limitations Substantive limitations Human decision-makers themselves are composed of limitations that affect results Emotions Technical understanding Politics Incentives (for or against) Bounded rationality better reflects the way real people make decisions, especially in government The goal in bounded rationality is to achieve 'satificing' or the result that will accommodate satisfaction of the highest percentage of needs Solutions do not always follow problems, sometimes solutions are developed and wait around for a problem to manifest People - and thus organizations - have limited attention spans Decision-making in government is often muddling through (refers to Lindbloom's theory of incremental decision-making) But there are still radical shifts that occur Ambiguity and uncertainty cloud decision-making Access to accurate information further complicates Information is expensive Information is noisy (full of conflicting or ambiguous data) Information can be corrupted by human agents' motives or limited understanding Context The author relies heavily on Simon, who developed a decision-making model (Administrative Behavior, 1947) to challenge purely economic models. He asserts that 'bounded rationality' is Simon's first contribution to the study of PA and Political Science. It was Simon's observation of a city council budgeting process that undermined his faith in a pure economics to solve problems: the elected officials' behavior did not reflect the pure pursuit of utility he'd expected, so he developed a

Thompson, Dennis - Possibility of Administrative Ethics (1985)

v Is it possible to apply a set of moral principles to the conduct of administrators (expectations on behaviors that impacts well-being of society and defined conditions that policy should be satisfy for overall society) v If morality is possible in personal life, why not in in government v Administrative ethics is possible - these two theories are not compelling enough to say that it's not, focus on why it's possible instead of why it's not possible Ethic of Neutrality v Administrators should be not exercise their independent moral judgment but instead should rely what the intent of officials over the organization, and or under suspended neutrality make recommendations to officials but execute the final decision even if it does not align with their recommendation; officials not administrators are held accountable v Remain neutral or resign may not be practical because of collective/incremental decision making, negotiation during decision making, and impracticality of resigning (loss of pension can still dissent in various forms while remaining in office) Ethics of Structure v Administrators can't be held morally responsible for actions decisions or policies of government - can only be held accountable for their specific duties v The problem of many hands - so many people in an organization contribute to decisions and policies difficult to determine who is morally responsible Context My Lai massacre Vietnam War 1968 Watergate 1972 The American Society for Public Administration Adopts Code of Ethics 1984 Iran Contra Scandal 1986

Osborne, Stephen - The New Public Governance? (2006)

New Public Management (NPM) is a transitory state between Classical PA (CPA) and New Public Governance (NPG). The author uses a new term - "Public Administration and Management" to encompass our bureaucratic system (rather than differentiating between PA and PM, which he sees as different academic approaches to questions of reform) A timeline for PA thought: Classical PA: Late 19th Century to Late 1970s, early 80s New Public Management: early 1980s to early 21st Century New Public Governance: current Classical PA Dominance of 'rule of law' Focus on administering set rules and guidelines Bureaucracy is central to policy-making and implementation Dichotomy Incremental budgeting Professional hegemony in civil service Exemplified by the UK welfare state post-1945 where the State was expected to take care of the citizen from cradle to grave Accepts politics as part of the process - integral for maintaining legitimacy Hierarchially-oriented governance: policy-making and implementation are vertical processes to insure accountability New Public Management Private sector management superior to public sector Rooted in rational choice theories of behavior Focus on entrepreneurial leadership by managers within organizations Emphasis on inputs and output control; audits and performance management Disaggregation of public services into their most basic units Focus on cost management Using market principles to drive competition amongst service providers Denies legitimacy as being important - a distraction from management and provision of services Implementation is separated from policy-making and carried out by a collection of independent service units These units exist in a horizontal market and compete for resources Economic Market-oriented governance New Public Governance Pluralist orientation Rooted in organizational sociology and network theory Focus on inter-organizational governance Emphasis on process and outcome Founded in trust and relationships Suggests the efficacy of both the: Plural state: interdependent actors deliver public services Pluralist state: multiple processes/actors inform policy-making Context NPG is a reaction to perceived failures of NPM, and is thus one more accretion on the history of PA. These reforms never fully eradicate preceding systems, but simply add on or make minor changes to them.