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anterior pituitary hormones

"FLAGTOP FSH, LH, TSH, STH, ACTH, and prolactin

Aldosterone

"salt-retaining hormone" which promotes the retention of Na+ by the kidneys. na+ retention promotes water retention, which promotes a higher blood volume and pressure

pH= -log (4 x 10^-4)=

(4-1) . (10-4) = 3.6

transduction

(genetics) the process of transfering genetic material from one cell to another by a plasmid or bacteriophage

FSH

(males)The hormone that stimulates the sperm producing cells, To reproduce more cells, or during inhibition to stop producing more sperm. (female) Stimulates the growth of follicles in the ovary.

hypertonic

(of a solution) having a higher osmotic pressure than a comparison solution

Rh factor

+=dominant allele present -= dominant allele absent less important with AB O antibody

Gs

- GPCR stimulates adenylate cyclase which increases levels of cAMP

Glycerol 3- Phosphate shuttel

- necessary because NADH/H+ produced in cytosol during glycolysis cannot cross mitochondrial membrane to enter ETS G3PDH (cytosol) converts to G3P 1.5 ATP from each NADH NADH doesn't cross membrane Net ATP Yield=3 ATP

Postranscriptional Processing

--5' cap protects against degradation 3'AAA protects against degradation -Longer tail=better protection -removal of introns

70S Prokayotic Ribosome

-50S and-70S

Directional selection

-Adaptive pressures that lead to dominance of phenotype Giraffes with short necks can't reach leaves long necks favored

Gel Filtration

-Brands .Sephadex .Sephacryl .Cellulose .Biogel -large molecules flow more rapidly though the column and emerge first because smaller volume is ccessible to them. -a mixture of small proteins in a small volume is applied to column filled with pourous label because large protiens cannot enter intergral volume of beads and emerge sooner

Heterochromatin (Condensed)

-Condensed during interphase -Transcriptionally silent -Dark under light microscopy

DNA Replication : Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes

-DNA unwinds at points called origins of replication generation of new DNA proceeds in both direction, creating replication forks on both sides of the orgin In bacteria the chromosome is a closed double stranded circular DNA molecule with a single origin of replication....therfore there are two replication formless that move away from each other Eukaryotic replication: as replication forks move toward each other and sister chromatids are created the chromatisds will remain connected at the centromere

Posttranslational Processing

-Folding (assisted by chaperon proteins) -Cleaving -Additon

Risk Factors of schizophrenia

-Genetic Predisposition and or Environmental, Social, and Psychological Factors -Neurodevelopmental abnormalities-----> Brain dysfunction, improper chemical balance -hypoxia

Convergent Evolution

-Independent development of similar traits -no common ancestry ex.fish and dolphins

Bipolar (Manic Depressive)

-Manai (apin onset and brief duration days -Depression (slow onset and long duration (weeks)

STOP COdon

-UAA -UGA -UAG

Euchromatin (uncondensed)

-Uncondensed during interphase -Genetically acitve -Light under light microscopy

Three things Antibodies can do to antigens

-agglutinate -opsonization -neutralizeation

Native Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE)

-analyze proteins in native states -limited to masstocharge masstosize ration because multiple proteins can experience same level of migration compare molecular size or charge of proteins known to be similar in size

postganglionic neuron

-autonomic cell body synapses with the

preganglionic neuron

-autonomic nervous system -CNS -axon travels to a ganglion in PNS

genetic drift

-changes in gene pool due to chance -more pronounced in small population

Centromes

-composed of heterochromatin

Oxidation of Odd-Numbered Carbon Chains

-converts to Succinyl-CoA-->Pyruvate -can be converted to glucose -Uses 5-carbon chain

Repressible Systems

-corepressor binds to repressor so that it can control to operator -aka negative control mechanism ex. Trp operon

Post translational modification

-covalent: -peptide bonds, terminus, terminus, residues -nonovalent modification -dditon of cofactor folding

positive symptoms of schizophrina

-delusion: false beliefs discordant with reality ex. TV characters as "friend" -hallucinastions Disorganized through- loosening of association -disorganized behavior: inability to carry out out activities of daily living (ex. hygiene)

Conjugated proteins

-derive funciton form covalently attached molecules called protheitic gropus ex. lip proteins direct protein to be dleivered (protehtic groups)

Native gel electrophoresis

-does not disrupt structure, but protein molecules are attracted to charged end of gel (usually positive) and are sorted based on how they move through gel if moves down it is more compact

Thalamus

-forebrain -sensory stain by acting as a relay station for all of our senses except cell sorts and transmits impules "Way Statin"

Postzygotic

-formation of zygote -hybrid incompatiblity -hybrid steritly -Hybrid breakdown when F2 generation is infertile

RNA polymerase I

-found in nucleolus -synthesizes most of rRNA

Regulation of Chromatin Structure

-histolone acetlyases add acetyl to hissing which allows histone to spread out to allow for transcription factors to come in -histone deactylases remove acetyl -dna maylases add methyl groups to nucleotides. Transcriptional machinary

Respect for persons

-honesty -informed consent -confidentiatly

Oxidation of Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids

-isomerize to aB double bond so it can compile 1 round of beta oxidation

transferases

-kinases -polymerase -inases -transferases

RNA polymerase III

-located in Neucleus -transfer rna

RNA polymerase II

-located in nucleus -Synthesiss hnRNA pre-mRNA_

Stabilizing selection

-maintain phenotypes at a tighter range (middle range) Short plants can't complete for sunlight, tall plants susceptible to wind damge

Nonsense

-makes codon a stop codon

Basic tools during protein purification

-method to quantify (assay) protein concentration -method to direct protein of interest in a mixture of proteins (activity assays for enzyme or mobility in a el)

Hydrolases

-pepsin -ase -nucleases -lipases -trypsin Reverse reaction -dehydration sysnthesis

Telomeres

-prevent essential DNA from being lost during replication -are simple repeating sequences -replaced by telomerase -form nots on chromoomes which prevents linear DNA from being degraded

Intiation

-prokaryothes -nMethoinione -eukaryotes -methiionies small ribosomal subunit is signaled by the 5'Cap (Eukaryotes) or the Shine-Dalgarno sequence (Prokaryotes -When the start codon is recognized the large subunit binds and the site P binds methane (precharged with amino acyl )

Protein Purification in protein chemistry

-properties of proteins are determined by conformation -must prevent loss of conformation (denaturation) and chemical degradation -must consider pH, contaminating enzymes (proteases) , temperature, reactivity of thiol groups

Ribosome

-protein & rRNA -3 tRNA binding sites -A site -P site -E site

Parallel evolution

-related species evolve similarly over long time period Ex.the leaves of plants

Inversion

-segment of DNA has been flipped

Histones

-small basic nucleoproteins -DNA wraps around histones to form chromatin -% histone protins in eukaryotic cells -H1 seals off the DNA as it enters and exits the nucleosome

Lyse cells from a homogenous suspension

-sonication -microfluidization

Inner ear

-starts at oval window, goes to auditory nerve vestible and semicircular canals-->cochlea-->fluid media

Insulin responce to high blood sugar

-store glycogen -build up fatty acids to store up energy

disruptive

-the two extreme phenotypes are accepted over the norm two extreme phenotypes are expressed over the norm

Source of the protein

-tissue -recombinant techniques

tRNA

-transfer RNA -has anti codon -will read along

Hydrolytic enzymes

-trypsin - arginine and lysine -chymotrysin -carboxy end of phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan

Nucleotide monomers

.5 carbon sugar .Heterocyclic nitrogenous base .Phosphate groups

Four non covalent interactions stablize the double helix of DNA describe them

.Hydrophic interactions(hydrophobic effect) . Electrostatic interaction between the phosphate group .Hydrogen boding between th bases .Base stacking Vander waslls

Buffers

.are soutions of a weak conjugate acid-base pair .they are particularly resistant to pH changes, even when strong acid is added

ways regulatory facts control RNA ply II

.co activator .mediator -mediator controls the ability of RNA polymerase II to progress to the elongation stage of transcription .recruiting proteins to the promoter region that affect nucleosome positions and compositions

NMR alkane carbon

0-3

What is the approximate molarity of sodium chloride in ocean water, if the density of ocean water is 1.028 kg/L?

0.48 Fresh water can be approximated as 1 kg/1 L. The MCAT will expect us to know that the density of pure water is roughly 1 g/1 mL or 1 kg/1 L. That leaves 0.028 kg/L to be salt, which converts to 28 g/L. To convert g/L into molarity, divide by the molar mass of NaCl: 58 g/mol. 28 g/L x (1 mol/58 g) = 28/58 Round those numbers off to make it easier to work with: 30 / 60 = 0.5, which is closest to 0.48

Mechanism of Beta oxidation

1 acetyl-CoA for every 2 carbons

Transition State Stabilization

1) Sn2 reaction which creates where transition state can be favorable because of stability

Breakdown of neurotransmitters

1) acetylcholinesterase (AChE) ex. ACh 2) Neurotransmitters can be brought back into presynaptic neuron using reuptake carriers. (ex. serotonin, NE,E) 3) diffuse out of synaptic cleft (ex. Nitric oxide)

Process of DNA replication

1) lay down an RNA primer (primes) -short primer in 5' to 3' direction 2)DNA polymerase III (prokaryotes) or DNA polymerase a and d will then begin sintering the daughter strand of DNA in the 5' to 3' manner 3)DNA polymerase I (prokaryotes) or RNase H (eukaryotes) removes RNA 4) DNA polymerase I or RNAse H adds DNA nucleotides where the RNA primer has been 5) DNA ligase seals the ends of the DNa molecules together creating one counties strand of DNA

Interquartile range

1) to calc Q1...set data in order...multiple n by 1/4 2) if whole number quartile is the mean of value at postion and the next highest positon 3) if decimal round up to next number and take that as quartile positon 4) to calc Q3 multipy by n by 3/4 IQR= Q3-Q1 ex. 20, 22,22,22,23,24,25,35 8 X 1/4 = 2 Q1= 22+22/2=22 8 X 3/4= 6 Q3=24+25/2=24.5 Q3-Q1-24.5-22=2.5 more than 1.5 IQR belwo Q1 or above Q3 tf above 24.5+1.5X2.5=28.25 or below 22-1.5 X2.5= 22-3.75 is outlier

name the traits 1) XY 2)X_a Y 3)XX 4)XaX 5)XaXa

1) unaffected male 2)affected male 3normal, unaffected female 4)carrier, unaffected female 5)affected female

Glycolysis in Erythrocytes

1,3BPG---bisphosphoglycerate mutase-->2,BPG allows for oxygen to unload increase in CO2, H+, Temperature, shift to the right exceriseis is the RIGHT thing to do

Biological control agents can prevent disease in one of two main ways

1. Non-pathogens are used to compete effectively against pathogens for nutrients or space • 2. Microorganism may produce toxins that inhibits other microorganisms or insects, but not the plant

Cialdini's 6 principles of persuasion

1.) friendship/liking, 2.) commitment/consistency, 3.) scarcity, 4.) reciprocity, 5.) social validation, 6.) authority

second order

1/Concentration Vs Time

In experimental assays aprrox 93% of the 145 pm decay product is produced in the first 100 mins. If a hopsital requires at lease 250 of 145 Nd ot complete a standard image, how long before it must replace 200g sample

100-93=7%-6% ^%=o.o625 1/2^n=0.5^4=0.0625 1 halflife=100 in/4=25 250/2000=1/8 (1/2)^n=1/8 n=3 25X3=75 mins

100 kPa= to

10^5 N/m2

average molecular weight of amino acid

110 Da

If H3 has a half life of 4500 day...What fraction of starting amount of H3 will be there in 13,500 days?

13,500/4500= 3 half lives passed (1/2) (3)= 1/8

How many carbons does acetyl coA bring into the CAC

2

sn1 reaction

2 steps, leaving group leaves then nucleophile attacks carbocation formed, makes racemic mixture, wants more substituted carbon

Maleate-Aspirate Shuttle

2.5 ATP generate form each NADHA Oaloacetqte cannot bass through matrix ox-->malate> inner membrane matrix-->oxalic Net ATP Yield= 5 ATP

trisomy

3 copies of a chromosome

enzyme-linked recpetors

3 domains membrane spaning ligand binding catlytic domain

Where does DNA polymerase (taq) start replication?

3' end of primer

After two rounds of semiconservative DNA replication, the ratio of 14N to l5N will be:

3:1 semiconservative replication would give two duplexes of DNA, each containing one strand with ,5N and one strand with l4N. After the second round of replication, each hybrid duplex would generate two duplexes. One duplex would still be a hybrid (14N-I5N), but the other duplex would contain DNA that is all I4N. In the second generation, note that there are four duplexes of DNA, for a total of eight strands of DNA. Out of these eight DNA strands we see that two are ,5N and six are 14N. This gives a ratio of l4N to 15N of 3:1.

If heterozygotes cross

3:1 dominant to recessive Ww x Ww= WW, 2Ww, ww

Rapid cycling bipolar disorder

4 or more episodes in 1 year

Hydrogen Bonding

4-10 kJ/mole 30-100 times weaker than covalent interactions Todal distance between two electronegative atoms is 0.27 to 0.30 In aqueous soluiton, water can H-bond to exposed functional groups on biological molecules

transcribed mRNA sequence 5' GGCAACUGACUA 3'

5' GGCAACUGACUA 3'a

mRNA sequence to DNA 5'- GCCATAGAGCGA-3'

5'UCGCUCUAUGGC-3'

pH=pKa

50:50 (protonated: deprotonated) middle point buffer zone

how many codons?

64

Characteristics of mRNA

7-methylguanosine cap

1 atm is equal to

760mmHg = 10^5 Pa

dG

=-lnKeq

Vmax at constant concentration

=kcat[E]

Southern blot

A DNA sample is electrophoresed on a gel and then transferred to a filter. The filter is then soaked in a denaturant and subsequently exposed to a labeled DNA probe that recognizes and anneals to its complementary strand. The resulting ds labeled piece of DNA is visualized when the filter is exposed to film. mutations must create or eliminate a restriction site

bottleneck effect

A change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population

doppler effect

A change in sound frequency caused by motion of the sound source, motion of the listener, or both. The intensity of the wave is affected by the surface area of the sector and distance from the source

genetic drift

A change in the allele frequency of a population as a result of chance events rather than natural selection.

degeneracy

A characteristic of the genetic code, in which more than one codon can specify a single amino aci

agonist

A chemical that mimics the action of a neurotransmitter.

acrocentric chromosomes

A chromosome with its centromere nearly at the end of the chromosome

ATP Synthase

A cluster of several membrane proteins found in the mitochondrial crista (and bacterial plasma membrane) that function in chemiosmosis with adjacent electron transport chains, using the energy of a hydrogen ion concentration gradient to make ATP. Provide a port through which hydrogen ions diffuse into the matrix of a mitrochondrion.

barr bodies

A condensed X chromosome found within the nucleus of females (or sex chromosome homozygous organisms) men do not have

diabetes mellitus

A condition in which the body is unable to produce enough insulin, the hormone required for the metabolism of sugar caused by prolonged elevated blood glucose. Sugar in the urine

diabetes mellitus

A condition in which the body is unable to produce enough insulin, the hormone required for the metabolism of sugar plenty glucose in urine (sweet smelling urine)

Discovery learning

A constructivist approach. A teaching strategy that allows students to learn by their own active exploration of a concep. Students begin learning with an activity designed to lead them to particular concepts or conclusions. Students acquire basic and advanced knowledge in random order. (Bruner's approach)

Depersonalization

A dissociative disorder whose essential feature is that the person suddenly feels changed or different in a strange way.

Sexual selection

A form of natural selection in which individuals with certain inherited characteristics are more likely than other individuals to obtain mates.

What percentage of females would be expected to exhibit red-green color blindness, if one genetic locus were involved? If the recessive trait were found in about 8% of male population.

A genetic locus refers to a given gene location on a chromosome. Males have one X chromosome (and one Y chromosome), while females have two X chromosomes. The frequency for color blindness in the male is given as 8% (0.08) in the passage. In order for females to be color-blind, they must be homozygous for the condition. The third paragraph of the passage says that red-green color blindness is sex-linked and recessive. What is the chance of a female being color-blind (i.e., homozygous for the allele)? It would just be a1, or (0.08) x (0.08), which is 0.0064 or 0.64%.

Prolactin

A hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary that tarets the mammary glands stimulating them to produce breastmilk.

What is the probability that the daughter of an unaffected father and a mother who is a carrier for the DMD gene is affected by the disease?

A is correct. The passage states that DMD is X-linked recessive, which means that a woman must have a mutated copy of the dystrophin gene on both of her X chromosomes in order to express the trait. Because the father is unaffected and will pass his X chromosome onto his daughter, there is a 0% chance that she will be affected. The father cannot have a copy of the DMD mutation, or he would be affected himself. X-linked recessive diseases are extremely rare in women.

The instance of nondisjunction for the X chromosome in females over the age of 30 is about one out of every 130 live births. If a woman over 30 gives birth to a viable baby, assuming the risk of nondisjunction from the father is negligible, what is the likelihood that it will have a normal phenotype?

A is correct. This question asks us to find the probability of a mother giving birth to have a phenotypically normal child. The chances of nondisjunction are 1/130 (0.008), or about 0.8%. If nondisjunction occurs, there is a 100% chance that she will pass on either no copies of her X chromosome and have a child with Turner syndrome (XO) or pass on two copies of the X chromosomes and have a baby with Trisomy X (XXX) or Klinefelter syndrome (see the Punnett square below). The only viable monosomy is the XO genotype. A YO genotype is not viable, meaning we cannot include it in our calculations, since the question asks us to assume a viable birth. Therefore, we simply take 1 - (probability of nondisjunction) = 1 - 0.008 = 0.992 = 99.2%. y axis (father): X vs Y x asis (mother): XX vs 0

amygdala

A limbic system structure involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.

cholesterol

A lipid that forms an essential component of animal cell membranes and acts as a precursor molecule for the synthesis of other biologically important steroids.

Synthase

A lyase that catalyzes addition of one substrate to a double bond of a second substrate

Inclusive fitness

A measure of reproductive success; depends on the number of offspring an individual has, how well they support their offspring, and how well their offspring can support others.

Game theory

A model that explains social interaction and decision-making as a game, including strategies, incentives, and punishments.

Nonsense mutation

A mutation that changes an amino acid codon to one of the three stop codons, resulting in a shorter and usually nonfunctional protein.

introns

A noncoding, intervening sequence within a eukaryotic gene.

lysogenic cycle

A phage replication cycle in which the viral genome becomes incorporated into the bacterial host chromosome as a prophage and does not kill the host.

Missense mutation

A point mutation in which a codon that specifies an amino acid is mutated into a codon that specifies a different amino acid.

Calcitonin

A polypeptide hormone especially from the thyroid gland that tends to lower the level of calcium in the blood plasma.

Social loafing

A reduction in effort by individuals when they work in groups as compared to when they work by themselves. in the presence of others, people tend to do less, partly because they believe others will do it

transcription factor

A regulatory protein that binds to DNA and affects transcription of specific genes. guides the RNA polymerase to the promoter

Fixed ratio schedule

A schedule in which the reinforcement is presented after a specific number of responses.

third order relationship

A second- or third-order relationship at low substrate concentration would show a primarily non-linear relationship between substrate concentration and reaction velocity.

Fixed-ratio reinforcement

A set amount of behavioral responses per reinforcer. Ex: Getting a nickel for every 10 weeds pulled.

estrogen

A sex hormone, secreted in greater amounts by females than by males. In nonhuman female mammals, estrogen levels peak during ovulation, promoting sexual receptivity.

Autosomal dominant

A single allele on an autosome can cause the disorder to be seen in 50% of offspring both M and F are affected; M may transmit to M; each generation has at least one affected parent; and one mutant allele may produce the disease.

Elongation

A site-incoming tRNA complex Piste-Hold peptide holding amino acid chain. p and a bind a peptide bond forms peptidyl transfer and CTP -left as inactive molecule at E site

promoter

A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing RNA.

promoter

A specific nucleotide sequence in DNA that binds RNA polymerase and indicates where to start transcribing mRNA.

epimers

A subtype of diastereomers that differ in absolute configuration at exactly one chiral carbon

working memory

A system for temporarily storing and managing the information required to carry out complex cognitive tasks such as learning, reasoning, and comprehension.

conjugation

A temporary union of two organisms for the purpose of DNA transfer.

confirmation bias

A tendency to search for information that confirms one's preconceptions

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

A theory claiming that language influences perception. Example: people who are into decorating can distinguish color by descriptive adjectives i.e. pearl white.

Drive reduction theory

A theory that states that people are motivated to take action in order to lessen the state of arousal caused by a physiological need.

modeling

A therapeutic technique in which the client learns appropriate behavior through imitation of someone else.

glycerol

A three-carbon alcohol to which fatty acids are covalently bonded to make fats and oils.

apoptosis

A type of cell death in which the cell uses specialized cellular machinery to kill itself endogenous

Phagocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which a cell engulfs large particles or whole cells

pinocytosis

A type of endocytosis in which the cell ingests extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes. A type of endocytosis in which the cell "gulps" droplets of fluid into tiny vesicles.

Cohort study

A type of epidemiologic study where a group of exposed individuals (individuals who have been exposed to the potential risk factor) and a group of non-exposed individuals are followed over time to determine the incidence of disease

Operant conditioning

A type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher.

Classical conditioning

A type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events

chylomicron and synthesis

A type of lipoprotein; the form in which absorbed fats from the intestines are transported to the circulatory system. has a polar surface composed of proteins (apoproteins) and phospholipid head groups which make it water soluble synthesized in the intestinal mucosa and hydrolyzed by lipase to chylomicron remnants which are taken up by the liver

procedural memory

A type of long-term memory of how to perform different actions and skills. Essentially, it is the memory of how to do certain things.

cross-sectional study

A type of research design that compares individuals of different ages to determine how they differ on an important dimension

operon

A unit of genetic function common in bacteria and phages, consisting of coordinately regulated clusters of genes with related functions.

Instinct theory

A view that explains human behavior as motivated by automatic, involuntary, and unlearned responses.

Fat-soluble vitamins

A, D, E, and K dissolve directly into chylomicrons to enter the body

posterior pituitary

ADH , oxytocin

posterior pituitary hormones

ADH and oxytocin

Complex V

ATP Synthase

Start

AUG

occupational mobility

Ability to change one's job position with regard to status and economic reward

aneuploidy

Abnormal number of chromosomes.

tropoblast

Accomplishes implantation by embedding into endometrium (outer layer)

Palmitate Synthesis

Acetyl-CoA-->Malonyl-CoA-->Palminate -Insulin stimulates palmitate Synthesis

Glycine

Achiral

thin filament

Actin

Induced Fit

Active site is complementary only after binding intuits continual changes in conformation may occur during binding catalysis and release Experimental evidnce: Competative Inhbition and X-ray crystallography

Na K ATPase

Active transport pump that contributes to assymetric of charges in the plasma membrane Na has large electrochemical gradient and K has small electrochemical gradient. ATP hydrolysis is used to transport Na and K against their electro gradient. Na K ATPase pumps 3 NA out and 2 K in. this maintains Na concentration in cytosol at 10-30 times lower than outside

dna polymerase d

Adds DNA nucleotides where the RNA primer wa

Conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

conformity

Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Cross Nigrescence Model

African-Americans progress through stages of cultural awareness view caucausion as being more desirable

Alanine

Ala, A

alanine

Ala, A non-polar

recombinant plasmid

Allows blue/white colony screening for positive clones (i.e. plasmids that contain a DNA fragment of interest

Van der Waals Interactions

Also occurs in a distance of 0.2-0.3 nm but is transient (short-lived) and therefore weaker Weak transient range forces between .Permanent dipoles of two uncharged molecules .Permeant dipole and an induced dipole .Can be attractive or dispersive

Gabriel synthesis

Amino acids can be synthesized de novo via this reaction. through heterocyclic aromatic compound..

Enhancers

Amplify gene expression -DNA biding Domanin docs and hold on to activation domain

Bronsted-Lowry

An acid is a proton donor -must have a removale acidic proton A base is a proton acceptor -must have a pair of noboding electrons

Arrhenius

An acid is a substance that when dissolved in water , increase sthe concentration of hydrogen ions A base is substance that when dissolved in water, increases the concentration of hydroxide ions

generalized anxiety disorder

An anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal.

panic disorder

An anxiety disorder that consists of sudden, overwhelming attacks of terror

renin

An enzyme secreted by the juxtaglomerular cells when blood pressure decreases. Renin onverts angiotensinogen to angiotensin I.

Phosphatase

An enzyme that catalyzes the removal of a phosphate functional group from a protein.

kinase (two definitions)

An enzyme that phosphorylates something else. Kinases are frequently used in regulatory pathways, phosphorylating other enzymes. an enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group from ATP to a specified molecule.

passive immunity

An individual does not produce his or her own antibodies, but rather receives them directly from another source, such as mother to infant through breast milk

social capital

An individual's social networks and connections that may confer economic and/or personal benefits.

Lysosome

An organelle containing digestive enzymes

transgenic

An organism that has integrated recombinant DNA into its genome

habituation

An organism's decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it

cognitive dissonance

An uncomfortable inconsistency among one's actions, beliefs, attitudes, or feelings. People attempt to reduce it by making their actions, beliefs, attitudes or feelings more consistent with one another.

bottom up processing

Analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brains integration of sensory information

Gene knockout

Animal or organism that has a gene that has been specifically inactivated

derived from ectoderm

Anterior Pituitary medulla of adrenal glands Neural Crest EPITHELIAL nervous tissue

type I diabetes

Antibody against insulin and islet cell Insulin-dependent

stereotype threat

Anxiety and resulting impaired performance that a person may experience when confronted with a negative stereotype about a group to which they belong.

Arginine

Arg,R

Starling Forces

Arteriole end hydrostatic > osmotic net efflux of H20 Venue end Osmotic > Hydrostatic int influx of H20

From heart to veins to heart pathway

Artery-->Arterioles-->Capillaries-->Venues-->Vein-->heart

Asparagine

Asn, N

acidic amino acids

Aspartic Acid, Glutamic Acid

Hydrophobic Interactions

Association of a non-polar molecule or group with other non-polar molecules Depends upon the increased entropy (+deltaS) which occurs when water molecules surrounding a non-polar molecule are freed to interact with each other in solution the cumulative effects of many hydrophobic interactions can have a significant effect on the stability of a macromolecule

Equalization of Fluid Distribution

At the capillaries, fluid leaves the blood stream and goes into the tissues. The quantity of lid that leaves the tissues at the arterial end of the capillary bed depends on Straling forces. Oncontic pressure of blood draws water back into vessel at venue end, once hydrostatic pressure has decreased. Because net pressure drawing fluid in at the venue end is slight less than the net pressure pushing fluid out at the arterial end, a small amount of fluid remains in the tissues.

nasal retinas

At the optic chiasm, you wold not ice a pecular event known as partial decussation, wher eonly the axons of retinal ganglion cells who have their cell bodies in the __ wold cross the midline. If you were to lesion through the midline of the optic chiasm, this would sever all these aoxs, and the animal would likely los eth ebaility to percieve stimuli presented to its peripheral visual field.

What happens during the beginning of deprivation in the cells?

At the very beginning of a period of deprivation, starting just a couple of hours after a meal, the liver will use all stores of glycogen and begin gluconeogenesis in order to maintain normal blood glcose levels After 10 to 18 hours the liver will use gluconeogeesis exculsively to keep glucose in the blood for the brain to use. Since gluconeogenesis uses amino acids to make glucose there must be a rapid breakdown of muscle protein to provide the necessary amino acids The brian really needs glucose during starvation and although there will be increased ketone formation it is not a direct result of the brain's exlusive need of glucose

paramagnetic

Atom or substance containing unpaired electrons and is consequently attracted by a magnet.

dipole dipole

Attractions between oppositely charged regions of polar molecules

Salt bridges

Attractions between oppositely-charged functional groups in proetines

Water soluble vitamins

B and C absorbed into endothelial cells of the small instestinge passing directly into the plasma

germinal cneters

B-cells profligate and mature in lymph nodes

posterior

Back of the body Located behind; in the back

Three Fundamental domain

Bacteria Eukarya Archea

prokaryote examples

Bacteria and Archaea

gram-negative bacteria

Bacteria that have a thin peptidoglycan cell wall covered by an outer plasma membrane. They stain very lightly (pink) in Gram stain. Gram-negative bacteria are typically more resistant to antibiotics than Gram-positive bacteria.

exconjugants

Bacterial cell bearing a donor allele

Nucleosomes

Bead-like structures formed by histones and DNA form spirals and supercoils

Altruism

Behaviors that benefit other people and for which there is no discernable extrinsic reward, recognition, or appreciation.

ventral

Belly side

law of independent assortment

Best demonstrated by the dihybrid cross. A cross that is carried out between two individuals hybrid for two or more traits that are not one the same chromosome- resulting in phenotype ratio 9:3:3:1

Distal convoluted tubule

Between the loop of Henle and the collecting duct; Selective reabsorption and secretion occur here, most notably to regulate reabsorption of water and sodium

antagonist molecule

Binds to a receptor but blocks the neurotransmitters functioning.

repressor

Binds to the operator of an operon and prevents RNA polymerase from binding to the promoter, thus blocking transcription

osteoclasts

Bone-dissolving cells. they break down bone and release its minerals to the blood. monocytes

Turner's Syndrome

Born with a single X chromosome. (short, webbed neck, different physical sexual development.) Sterile Felmale

Alzheimer's Disease Pathology

Brain atrophy Changes to amygdala, forebrain, hippocampus, and cortex Amyloid beta-peptide accumulation Neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

capacitance

C = Q/V

In a population of Amish people, the frequency of the recessive autosomal allele for polydactyly is 1.2%. What percent of the population are carriers for this gene?

C is correct. We can use the Hardy-Weinberg equation to solve this question. Remember that the total number of alleles in the population has to add up to 1: A + a = 1 And the total number of genotypes in the population must also add up to 1: AA + 2Aa + aa = 1 We're told that a = 0.012. By the first equation above, A = 0.988. The carriers are the heterozygotes with the genotype Aa. Their frequency is: 2Aa = 2 x 0.988 x 0.012 = 0.988 x 0.024 At this point we've got what looks like a tough calculation to do, so we should probably back up and start estimating. Our calculation is telling us to take 98.8% of 0.024, so our answer is going to be really close to 0.024 (since 100% of any number is just that number itself [e.g. 100% of 56.7 is 56.7]). If we look at the answer choices, the only one that's remotely close is 0.0237, or 2.37%.

conflict theory

COMPETITING groups that act according to their own self interest

Amphiprotic

Can be an acid or a base .HCo3- .HSO4- H20

Knockouts

Can be used to delete a gene

Veins

Cary deoxygenated except for pulmonary and umbilical cord thin and inelastic on-way valves Skeletal muscle assists

Interphase

Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases

adherens

Cell junction that helps hold together epithelial cells in a sheet of epithelium; actin filaments inside the cell attach to its cytoplasmic face.

Metaphase

Centromeres of duplicated chromosomes are aligned at plate. Fully formed spindle attach to the sister chromatids from opposite poles

Adaptation

Chang in threshold due to environmental change when you get into a hot tub at first

founder effect

Change in allele frequencies as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of a population

monosomy

Chromosomal abnormality consisting of the absence of one chromosome from the normal diploid number

Agglutinating

Clumping together the antigen and antibody into large insoluble protein complexes that can be pahgocytized and digested by macrophages

Complex III

CoQH2-cytochrome c oxidoreductase CoQ transfers electrons to cytochrome c cytocoes : proteins with heme grooms reached to Fe2+ deoxidized to Fe3+ coQH2 diffuses through bilayer to binding site 1st e- reduced cytochrome c 2nd e-transfereed to another coQ Step 1 releases 2H to protein space A second CoQH2 attaches to biding site 1st e' transfered to CoQ from step 1 step 2 releases 2H+ to inter membrane space Input of 2H+ creates CoQH2 which diffuses out ubiquinol is being oxidized cytochrome c is being reduced ubiquinone: cytochrome c oxidoreductase; transfers electrons from QH2 to cytochrome c; protons are transferred from the matrix to the IMS

Structural

Codes for protein of interest

Regulator

Codes for repressor

Gene knockout collection

Collection of strains that represent all of the genes inactivated

Antisense Strand

Complement strand to mRNA strand

Forebrain

Complex perceptual, cognitive and behavioral processes

heterochromatin

Condensed, transcriptionally inactive ("H eteroC hromatin = H ighly C ondensed.") but has high rate of post transcriptional activity

approach-approach conflict

Conflict that results from having to choose between two attractive alternatives

Parasympatheic Division

Conserve Energy Stimulates flow of saliva contracts bladder stimulates bile release

Suprachiasmatic nucleus

Considered the 'master clock' for most of our circadian rhythms

nonstandard amino acids

Consist of amino acid residues that have been chemically modified AFTER incorporation into a polypeptide or amino acid post-translational modification

integumentary system

Consists of the skin, mucous membranes, hair, and nail, largest organ of the human body

rough ER

Covered in ribosomes and is responsible for the synthesis and transport of proteins and glycoproteins.

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP)

Critical to triaclyglyceraol synthesis in hepatic and adipose tissue Isomerize to glycerol 3- P---->glycerol

dihybrid cross

Cross or mating, between organisms involving two pairs of contrasting traits

Extinction

Cs presented without the UCS enough times Organism becomes habituated to CS

Manic Episodes

DIG FAST Distracted, Insomnia, Grandiosity, Flight of ideas, Agitation, Pressured Speech, Thoughtlessness and risky behavior

REAL definition of southern blotting

DNA from a particular chromosome is cut into fragments using a RE and then separated using size by electrophoresis. DNA in gel is treated with a base and then denature to yield single stranded NDA nitrollose paper binds the single stranded dan and the a buffer flow is used to transfer the DNA from gel to paper. A probe containing a radiantly labeled DNA is used for hybridization to DNA on the paper. The position of the DNA fragment that anneal to probes are revealed by auto radiography

Proofreading

DNA molecules pass through part of DNA polymerase enzyme when complementary strands have incorrectly paired bases, the hydrogen bonds between the strands can be unstable lack of stability is detected as the DNA passes through the polymerase methylaton as plays a role higher mutation in leading strand

exonuclease

DNA pol III is able to correct mistakes in replication due to what function Hydrolyze phosphodiester bonds to get rid of mistakes at the end of chain

DNA polymerase II

DNA repair 3-->5

unidirectional replication

DNA replication proceeds in only 1 direction

molecular markers

DNA sequences that do not encode genes can also be mapped relative to one another, such sequences are known need to be polymorphic - show variation between at least some individuals in a population • similar to different alleles of a gene • Alleles of a gene • Restriction fragment length polymorphism • Minisatellite • Microsatellite • Single nucleotide polymorphism • Sequence-tagged site

Sense strand

DNA strand from which mRNA is synthesized during transcription

The sequences coding for ___ are the most similar for different species.

DNA synthesis

palindromes

DNA that can be read forwards and backwards where restriction enzymes cut 4-6 bp

transcription

DNA to RNA (or mRNA)

probe DNA

DNA with known sequence

Hypoxia

Deficiency of oxygen in tissues. hypoventilation

construct validity

Degree to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure accurately obtains the information that it is meant to obtain

blood flow path

Deoxygenated blood enters R atrium from superior vena cava-->inferior vena cava and coronary sinus-->blood pushed into R ventricle-->R vent. sends blood to pulmonary trunk (splits to R and L) to the lungs where it is oxygenated (pulmonary circultion)-->oxygenated blood flows from lungs to pulmonary veins to L atrium-->L vent. sends blood to body through aorta (systemic circulation)

DSM-5

Description of Symptoms but does not ave how to treat

type 2 diabetes

Diabetes of a form that develops especially in adults and most often obese individuals and that is characterized by high blood glucose resulting from impaired insulin utilization coupled with the body's inability to compensate with increased insulin production.

Why is nitrogen gas used to prevent unwanted side reactions?

Diatomic nitrogen gas is relatively inert and can be used as the atmosphere in laboratory conditions to prevent unwanted side reactions.

Pineal Gland

Diencelpahlon Biological rhythms and melatonin (regulates sleep cycle)

Posterior Pituitary

Diencephalon releases ADH and Oxytocin

Signal detection theory

Differences in perception of a stimulus based on internal and external factors ex.. ppppppppppppbpppppppp where is the b?

human somatic cell

Diploid cells that have 2 sets of 23 chromosomes, each form one of the parents.

Patterns of Evolution

Diverent Parallel Convergent

• Silent mutations

Do not alter the the amindo acid sequencey ß Degeneracy fo the genetic code ˙ Ex • UUC to UUG

Mixed Inhibition

Do not bind to active sites, only at allosteric sites. They alter the Km depending on the preference of the inhibitor. If it binds to the enzyme, Km increases, if it binds to the complex, it lowers the Km value. Vmax is decreased in all cases.

Hypomania

Does not sigignificalty impair function

semiconservative

During replication parental strands will serve as templates for the generation of new daughter strands on parental strand is retained in each of the two resulting identical double stranded DNA molecules

Glutamic acid

E

Which of the following do NOT have proteins with a nuclear localization signal? I. E. coli II. Homo sapiens III. Fungi IV. Archaea

E. coli, a bacteria, and archaea do not have nuclei, and thus do not have a need for nuclear localization signal on their proteins. Homo sapiens and fungi are eukaryotes with nuclei.

E=

E=hf

Energy equations

E=hf Energy= power x time E=hv and E=hc/wavelength and E=mc

Elastin

ECM connective tissue Strech and recoil

Inner membrane

ETC proteins located here

Eicosanoids

Eicosanoids are a large group of molecules derived from polyunsaturated fatty acids. The principal groups of hormones of this class are prostaglandins, prostacyclins, leukotrienes and thromboxanes. Arachadonic acid is the most abundant precursor for these hormones. Stores of arachadonic acid are present in membrane lipids and released through the action of various lipases. The specific eicosanoids synthesized by a cell are dictated by the battery of processing enzymes expressed in that cell.

Secondary Structure

Either an alpha helix or beta pleated sheet.

Major types of non-covalent forces

Electrostatic Hydrogen bonds Van der Waals forces

Electrostatic interactions

Electrostatic interactions between two charged particles can extend over greater distances than other forces charge repulsion occurs between similarly charged groups Weakened by water

Biological perspective

Emphasizes genetics, the roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells.

lac Z

Encodes for Beta-galactosidase- an enzyme whose role is to convert the disaccharide lactose to the monosaccharide glucose and galactose

epiphysis

End of a long bone

conduction

Energy is passed from atom to atom through direct contact

active transport

Energy-requiring process that moves material across a cell membrane against a concentration difference

Irreversible Inhibition

Enzyme is permanently disabled

endonuclease

Enzyme that breaks covalent bonds in the DNA backbone in recombination and repair.

peptidases

Enzymes that digest proteins (include trypsin and chymotrypsin) work mainly in the stomach because it wants to decrease high levels of H+ concentration

isoforms

Enzymes that exist in multiple forms with different enzymatic properties, and are the products of separate genes. produced by splicing of exons Tissues may express one specific isoform or may generate a mixture of isoforms.

anomers

Epimers formed by ring closure

Depressive Disorders

Episodic and severe engouh to interfere with daily functions Symptoms: Sleep disturbances, loses of interesest in activities, excessive guild, decreased, energy, difficulty concentrating, appetite disturbances, psychomotor symptoms, sucidal thoughs(SIG E CAPS)

DNA polymerase IV

Error Prone, Last resort polymerase

Hematopoiesis

Erythoropoeitn-->Bone Maroow<--Thrompbocytes

Ovulation

Estrogen concentrations spike and result in positive feedback surge in LH is important; it induces ovulation

dna polymerase e

Eukaryotic DNA polymerase that replicates the leading strand during DNA synthesis

prokaryotic vs eukaryotic

Eukaryotic is made up of cells and Prokaryotic is any cellular organism that has no nuclear membrane and no organelles in the cytoplasm except ribosomes.

Enzyme and Temperature

Every 10C increase doubles rate of reaction

convergent evolution

Evolution toward similar characteristics in unrelated species

subjective bias

Experimenter biases

extrons

Expressed sequence of DNA; codes for a protein.

Pierre Flourens

Extirpation: parts of the brain are surgically removed and behavior consequences observed (ablations... conclusion was brain had specific parts for specific functions

Two red beetles are crossed and produce 31 red and 9 brown offspring (F1 generation) If two red F1 battles are crossed, what is the probability that both red and brown beetles will appear in the F2 generation

F1= 3:1 both heterozygous F2: 25% red (homozygous dominate), 50% red (heterozygous), and 25% brown (homozygous recessive) If two red F1 battles are crossed and both red and browns beetles appear in the F2 generation, the F1 red beetles that were crossed must both be heterozygotes. the prpabiltiy that of the red F1 battles, both were heterozygous is 2/3 X 2/3 , or 4/9 (only red beetles were heterozygous)

If the current flowing through the conducture, the magnitude of the foce acts on the conductor is

F=BiL

Anterior Pituitary

FLAT HEAD FSH LH ACTH TSH prolactin endorphins GH

Which hormones primary act on the ovaries?

FSH, LH, and hCG

Differential reproductuion

Favorable mutation is more likely to pass on to next generateion

Anxiety Disorders

Fear severity Longer Direction Trigger Disruption of Function

Ff is equal to

Fg or µ X Fn

How would our respiratory systems adjust if we moved to higher altitudes where less oxygen is available?

First, we would breathe more rapidly to try to avoid hypoxia Second the biding dynamics of hemoglobin to oxygen would be altered to facilitate the unloading of oxygen at the tissues.

Describe how you could produce many copies of the β-globin cDNA from the rat using RT-PCR.

First, you would isolate mRNA from rat red blood cells. The mRNA would be mixed with reverse transcriptase and nucleotides to create a complementary strand of DNA. Reverse transcriptase also needs a primer. This could be a primer that is known to be complementary to the β-globin mRNA. Alternatively, mature mRNAs have a polyA tail, so one could add a primer that consists of many T's, called a poly-dT primer. After the complementary DNA strand has been made, the sample would then be mixed with primers, Taq polymerase, and nucleotides and subjected to the standard PCR protocol. Note: the PCR reaction would have two kinds of primers. One primer would be complementary to the 5ʹ end of the mRNA and would be unique to the β-globin sequence. The other primer would be complementary to the 3ʹ end. This second primer could be a poly-dT primer or it could be a unique primer that would bind slightly upstream from the polyA-tail region

classes of immunoglobin

Five classes of immunoglobins have been identified in humans and other higher vertebrates: IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, and IgD

Leakage

Flow of genes between species

FRAP

Fluorescence Recovery After Photobleaching; showed that the cell membrane is fluid; rate of diffusion of lipids can be measured as well as the movement of specific fluorescently labelled molecules

Chemiosmotic Coupling

Fo is in the membrane F1 spins and takes protons form inter membrane space and pumps through in an exergonic reaction which creates ATP which is an endergonic reaction

Newton's Third Law

For every action there is an equal and opposite reaction

Keratin

Found in epithelial cells mechanical integrity of cell Function as regulatory protein Hair and nails

anterior

Front

Aldolase

Fructose 1,6 bis P---> DHA and GAH

Which species have nuclear localization signal?

Fungi and Homo sapiens because Ecoli and Archea do not have a nuclei

cell cycle

G1, S, G2, and M

interphase

G1, S, and G2 longest part of the cell cycle

Mismatch repair

G2 pause of cell cycle enzymes endowed by genes MSH2 and MLH1 - detect and remove errors missed during S phase

Net ATP Yield

G3P--> 3 ATP Malate aspartate shuttle---> 5 ATP Glycolysis= 5-7 ATP 2 Pyruvate--> 25 ATP Aerobic respiration= 3-=31 ATP

muscarinic Ach

GPCR that act through 2nd messenger Acetylcholine receptor type found postganglionic synapses of the parasympathetic nervous system

Hill Coefficient

Gamma, which represents the steepness of the curve for the concentration/dose vs effect curve. This is included in the sigmoidal Emax model greater than 1= cooperatively lower or equal to 1= no cooperativity

gluconeogensis

Generation of glucose from non-carbohydrate carbon substrates such as pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, and glucogenic amino acids. occurs when store carbs are low

Depressive Disorders Risk Factors

Genetics Life style Highly active amygdala Atrophied Hippocampus Catecholamine Hypothesis High cortisol Decrease in serotonin, norepinephrine, and dopamine

Law of Closure

Gestalt Principle. When a space is enclosed by a contour, it tends to be perceived as a complete figure.

Glutamine

Gln, Q carrier of nitrogen byproducts from most tissues in the body

non polar amino acids

Glycine, Alanine, Proline, Valine, Leucine, Isoleucine

Cardiac output

HR * Stroke volume (SV)

hypotonic

Having a lower concentration of solute than another solution

Denaturing dna

Heat alkaline pH formaldehyde

Glucokinase

High Km (acts when glucose is abundant Present in hepatocytes and pancreatic B-islets cells (Acts as glucose sensor with GLUT 2) Induced by insulin in hepatocytes trap glucose in cell

YACs and BACs are commonly the first step in creating a rough physical map of the genome

Higher resolution achieved by cloning smaller pieces • Smaller pieces are cloned into other vectors such as cosmids

Limbic System

Hipocampus

nucleosome

Histone core (H2A, H2B, H3, and H4) with DNA wrapped around

Prophase of meiosis I

Homologous pair chromosomes share information; crossover spindle apparatus formation genetic recombination

John Dewey

How mental process help individuals adapt to their environments functinalism

Functionalism

How mental processes help individuals adapt to their environments

William James

How the mind adapts to the environment functionalism

Salinity

Hydrogen and ionic bonds may be disrupted which can change the con. of enzyme

gonadotrophin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Hypothalamus--> increase in GnRH---> pituitary--> increase in FSH--> Ovary--> follicle begins to mature-->Estrogen--> Uterus-->Vascularization of the uterine wall

Isoleucine

I, Ile

Difference between DNA and RNA

If 2' is OH it is RNA

Which of the following would be the appropriate antisense mRNA sequence to block the function of a gene that has the DNA sequence: 5' - GAAGGCCGT - 3' on the strand that is directly read?

If the original DNA template is: 5' - GAAGGCCGT - 3' Then the sense mRNA transcribed from that DNA would be: 5' - GAAGGCCGT - 3' - DNA 3' - CUUCCGGCA - 5' - sense RNA To then create an antisense mRNA which would bind to the sense mRNA we would need: 5' - GAAGGCCGT - 3' - DNA 3' - CUUCCGGCA - 5' - sense RNA 5' - GAAGGCCGU - 3' - antisense RNA This matches choice A. Note that choice A is written 3' to 5' so to match our work to choice A, we have to read choice A backwards. 3' - UGCCGGAAG - 5'

Double approach-avoidant conflicts example of jurors in the study likely experiencing if they are unsure of the defendant's guilt

If they ruled the defendant guilty, then they could be punishing a criminal(approach) or maybe punishing an innocent(avoidant). If they ruled the defendant innocent, then they would be letting a criminal walk away unpunished(avoidant) or freeing an innocent (approach).

ionization trend

In a Period: Values from left to right generally increase, the nuclear charge increases and the electrons are more strongly attracted

conjugation

In bacteria, the direct transfer of DNA between two cells that are temporarily joined.

If hemoglobin is 65,000 amu and Iron is 55.8 amu....What is the percentage of Iron?

In order to find the percentage of iron in hemoglobin, we must first find the mass of iron in hemoglobin and then divide that value by the mass of hemoglobin itself. Information needed to do this is given in the passage. The quotient is multiplied by 100% to give the desired answer. Since each globin protein has one iron atom, and each iron atom has a molecular weight of 55.8 amu, we multiply 4 iron atoms by 55.8 amu to get an overall iron mass of about 223 amu. We next divide this value by the molecular weight of hemoglobin, which is about 65,000 amu. This gives a value of 0.0034. Multiplying this value by 100% gives an overall percentage of iron in hemoglobin of 0.34%

lariat

In self-splicing introns, the intron forms a this structure

If 6% of all males who are color blind have a deutan defect ( green blindness recessive) gene and 8 % of the male population is color blind, 0.4 % of incidence of color blindness in women, and incidence in men for red color blind (proton color blindness) is 2%. What percentage of female would be heterozygous carries of proton color blindness?

In the passage we learn that about 6% of all males who are color-blind have the deutan defect while 2% of all males who are color-blind have the protan defect. In a heterozygote, the dominant allele is /; and the recessive allele is q. We see that q = 2% = 0.02 and that /; = 98% = 0.98. From the Hardy-Weinberg equation, we find that !pq = 2(0.98)(0.02) = 0.0392 x 100% = 3.92% or about 4%. Note that the percentage of heterozygote women who are carriers of deutan color blindness is 2(0.94)(0.06) = 0.1128 x 100% = 11.28% or about 11%. If we add 11% + 4%, then we get 15%, which is roughly the percentage of women who carry the color blindness defect.

Modern Synthesis Model

Includes genetic inheritance and gene pool changes

hyperaldosteronism

Increased aldosterone cause Na retention and K and H excretion so: hypernatremia, hypokalemia, metabolic alkalosis, HT

Insulin in blood stream causes

Increased glycogen synthesis B. Increased lipid synthesis C. Increased esterification of fatty acids D. Decreased gluconeogenesis Insulin is secreted in response to high blood sugar. If the body detects that there's plenty of blood sugar, then it would want to stop making more sugar (eliminate choice D), it would want to store that sugar as glycogen (eliminate choice A), and it would want to build up fatty acids into fats for storing up energy (eliminate choice C). The thing the body is LEAST likely to do is to stop storing up energy (choice B). In general, think of the function of insulin as causing the body to build up large molecules to store up energy (glycogen, lipids) and to stop the body from breaking down large molecules to provide energy.

Increased density of inhibitory serotonin auto receptor 5-HT1A on the presynaptic membrane results in which of the following?

Increasing the density of an inhibitory receptor on the pre=synaptic membrane means that it is more likely that the function of the pre-synaptic embrane will be disabled. The function, of course, of the pre-synaptic membrane in cell signaling is to release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. If this function is not being perforemed then the availabilty of that neurotransmitter will decrease.

Divergent

Independent develop of dissimalr traits from common ancestor ex.seals and cats

Sherrington

Inferred the existence of synapses

Mixed inhibition

Inhibitor can bind to enzyme substrate complex preventing the soubrette from binding initially or will released if binds to enzyme it will increase Km if bind to enzyme substrate it will decrease km

derived from endoderm

Inner surface of stomach branchial pouches bladder lining Prostate

endometrium

Inner, mucous membrane lining of the uterus

Yeast artificial chromosomes (YACs)

Inserts can be several hundred thousand to 2 million bp long

P1 artificial chromosomes (PACs)

Inserts can be up to 300,000 bp long

Beta cells

Insulin is produced by cells of the pancreatic islets called also secrete amylin

If you want to prevent cellular replication at what stage of mitosis should you halt?

Interphase

phagosome

Intracellular vesicle containing material taken up by phagocytosis.

transgenes

Introducing recombinant DNA that contains and expresses specific genes or alleles

Tertiary Structure

Irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.

tertiary structure

Irregular contortions of a protein molecule due to interactions of side chains involved in hydrophobic interactions, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds, and disulfide bridges.

What does 'post-genomic era' means?

It simply refers to the fact that we now live in a time where it's a simple matter to decode and access entire genomes - that is, the complete and total genetic makeup of an organism.

desmosome

Join two cells at a single point, attach directly to the cytoskeleton of each cell. Found in tissues that normally experience a lot of stress due to sliding.

Ka relationship to Keq

Ka= Keq

dG > 0

Keq <1

dG < 0

Keq > 1

Michaelis-Menten relationship

Km=k2+k3/ k1

Luteal Phase

LH causes the ruptured follicle to form the corpus letum, which secretes prgesterone progesterone levels begin to rise, while estrogen levels remain high high levels of progesterone cause negative feedback on GnRH, FSH, and LH preventing ovulation of multiple eggs

Ischemia

Lack of blood supply

A-band

Length of Thick filament

Leucine

Leu, L

triglycerides

Lipids containing a glycerol molecule attached to three fatty acid chains; chemical form in which most fats exist in food and in the body, used as longterm storage of energy.

lipid raft

Lipids move freely in the plane of the membrane and can assemble help localize signal transduction

Promotor

Location where RNA polymerase binds

microfilament

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell

Microfilaments

Long, thin fibers that function in the movement and support of the cell ex.actin

Blood Pressure Regulation

Low BP--> Baroreceptors-->Brain (aldosterone Release)--> increase in blood volume -->increase in BP High Osmolarity-->Chemoreceptors-->Brian (ADH please)--> increase in Blood Volume and blood pressurem= decrease in osmolarity or Hi hg BP-->Baroreceptors-->Brainn--> (decrease in sympathetic impulses--> secretion of ANP (a weak diuretic)---> decrease in BP

Lysine

Lys K basic

basic amino acids

Lysine, arginine, histidine

Monocytes in an organ

Macrophages

Bacterial (Extracellular Pathogen Infections)

Macrophages engulf bacteria and release inflammatory mediators cytokines attract inflammorty cells mast cells are activated CD4+T cells are activated

reducing disaccharide

Maltose and Lactose α-D-fructose, β-D-glucose, α-D-glucose contains hemi acetal group

Alternative Splicing

Many proteins can be made form a limited number of genes

Opsonization

Marking the pathogen for destruction by other white blood cells imeediately

Includsive fitness

Measure of organism's success by # of offspring, ability to support offspring -adults scarifies self to have young survigve

Telophase (mitosis)

Membrane reforms

eposodic memory

Memory of personal experiences (most common impairment)

mRNA

Messenger RNA (mRNA) is a large family of RNA molecules that convey genetic information from DNA to the ribosome, where they specify the amino acid sequence of the protein products of gene expression.

Homologous recombination

Middle of molecule recombined • Ends of molecule lost • Neomycin resistant, gangcyclovir resistant

TCA cycle location

Mitochondria Matrix

Protons in ETC in human are ejected where?

Mitochondrial inter membrane space

Prostaglandins

Modified fatty acids that are produced by a wide range of cells. derived from arachidonic acid eicosanoids uterine contranctions, pbronchodilation, pain reducer

Proximal convoluted tubule

Most of the glomerular filtrate is reabsorbed in the

recessive mutations

Most radiation-induced genetic mutations . Inactivating mutations:

Asparagine

N

complex I

NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase NADH transfers electrons to Co enzyme Q FMN will cary NADH+ will then trnasfeter to Fe-S to reduce and 2H+ transferred to Coezyme ubiquinone and causes reduction of that

Complex I

NADH-CoQ oxidoreductase, transfers e- from NADH to Q → QH2; uses Fe-S and flavoprotein, 4H are pumped out

autosomal dominant

Name the pattern of genetic transmission characterized thus: both M and F are affected; M may transmit to M; each generation has at least one affected parent; and one mutant allele may produce the disease.

autosomal recessive

Name the pattern of genetic transmission: both M and F are affected; M-to-M transmission may be present; both parents must be carriers; the trait skips generations; two mutant alleles are needed for disease; and affected children may be born of unaffected adults?

When antibodies bind to their targets one of three can happen

Neutralizing the antigen, making the pathogen or toxin unable to exert its effect on the body Marking the pathogen for destruction by other white blood cells immediately Clumping together the antigen and the antibody into large insoluble protein complexes that can be pahgocytized and digest by macrophages

organic base

Nitrogenous coompound in nucleic acid: adenine, thymine, uracil, cytosine, guanine are examples.

adiabatic

No heat exchange

catecholamines

Nonrephinhrine and epinephrine= synthesized by the chromatin cells of the adrenal medulla dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine

Operator

Nontranscribable region that binds repressor

Northern blot

Northern blotting involves the use of electrophoresis to separate RNA samples by size and detection with a hybridization probe complementary to part of or the entire target sequence. The term 'northern blot' actually refers specifically to the capillary transfer of RNA from the electrophoresis gel to the blotting membrane

Prophase (mitosis)

Nuclear membrane disintegrates

How are nucleic acids separated in gel electrophoresis?

Nucleic acid phosphate groups give each nucleotide a uniform negative charge, all strands of nucleic acid would migrate the same distance in electric field if they encountered no resistance. during electrophoresis, however, the strands must migrate through a porous agarose gel, which impedes the progress of larger segments and separates strands by size Since DNA has a negative charge (overall) the negatively charged DNA fragments would move towards the anode.

At the end of ETC (before ATP production)

O2 is reduced to form H20

Osmotic Pressure of 0.2 M CaCl2

OMP= (0.2) (3 ions)(R)(T)

type 1 diabetes

Occurs most often in children & young adults: Pancreas produces little or no insulin; Onset is rapid, increase in thirst & urination, constant hunger, weight loss, blurred vision, and extreme fatigue. Treated with daily insulin therapy, healthy eating, & exercise

Humanist theory

One of the three personality perspectives. Focuses on healthy personality development. Humans are seen as inherently good and as having free will, rather than having their behavior determined by their early relationships. Developed by Carl Rogers. place emphasis on positive human potential and seeing the world through the persons eyes and viewpoints example a patient

Fluid intelligence

One's ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

If a 65-kg man undergoes a turning acceleration of 5 m/s2 during a running turn, what is the magnitude of force experienced by the foot due to the ground?

Only the magnitude matters, so we need not worry about sign or angle direction. Now, what's needed is the hypotenuse of a triangle with legs of Fg = (65)(10) = 650 N and F = (65)(5) = 325 N. The combined vector will be bigger than either component alone, so eliminate choices A and B. This calculation can be approximated as √(3002 + 7002) = √(90000+490000) = √(580000) = √(58 x 104) = √(58) x 102. This falls between 700 and 800, meaning that choice C must be correct (the actual value is 761).

type II diabetes

Onset related to obesity and heredity. Failure of the signal transduction system to elicit a response to insulin or inadequate insulin production.

epidermis

Outer layer of skin

pentose phosphate pathway

Oxidative phase In this phase, two molecules of NADP+ are reduced to NADPH, utilizing the energy from the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate into ribulose 5-phosphate. Non-oxidative phase NADPH is used to make ribose of nucleotides

Probability of Two independent events co-occuring

P(A and B) P(A) X P(B)

probability of at least one of tow events occurring

P(A) + P(B)- P(A and B)

Power equation

P=W/t P=Fv P=intensity X area

SA node

Pacemaker of the heart

Palmitate oxidation

Palmitate--->activation--->fatty acyl-carnite-->mitocondrial matrix--->fatty acyl CoA-->Acetyl CoA

amygdala

Part of the limbic system, responsible for the emotional reactions of fear and anger.

self-serving bias

People's tendency to ascribe their positive behaviors to their own internal traits, but their failures and shortcomings to external, situational factors.

Phenylalanine

Phe, F

What are two elements that we can use to discriminate between nucleic acids and proteins (respectively)?

Phosphorus and Sulfur

Describe how protons are distinguished in NMR spectroscopy

Photos are distinguished when they absorb magnetic energy at different field strengths . Delocalized electrons generate magnetic fields that can either shield or deshield nearby protons

eukaryote examples

Plants, animals, fungi, protists

PTH

Plasma ca+2 decreases---> increase in PTH-->Vitamin D---> GI Ca absorption---> GI phosphate absorption--> plasma phosphate increases which decrease plasma Ca

half equivalence point

Point here exactly one half of the acid has been neutralized by the base in weak acid/strong base titration: [HA] = [A⁻]. Represented by part of graph that is a (quasi) horizontal line. "Buffer" region.

gap junctions

Points that provide cytoplasmic channels from one cell to another with special membrane proteins. Also called communicating junctions. found in heart and smooth muscle

Eustress

Positive stress A positive stress that energizes a person and helps a person reach a goal

cortical collecting duct

Primary site of sodium ion reabsorption at the distal end of a nephron The main region of aldosterone action is the

Semispecific approach

Primers recognize a repetitive DNA sequence found at several sites within the genome - Many different DNA fragments will be amplified

Gestalt principles

Principles that describe the top-down processing that organizes sensory information into distinct forms (nearness, similarity, common region, closure, continuity, figure & ground).

Confidence

Probability of correctly failing to reject a true null hypothesis

translation

Process by which mRNA is decoded and a protein is produced

transformation

Process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria

transformation

Process in which one strain of bacteria is changed by a gene or genes from another strain of bacteria The incorporation of new genes into a cell from DNA that the cell takes up from the surrounding environment.

DNA polymerase I

Prokaryotic only. Degrades RNA primer and fills in the gap w/ DNA. (excises RNA primer w/ 5'--<3' exonuclease) <img src="70a - DNA replication.JPG" />

Secondary Structure and proline

Proline will introduce kind in petite chain when found in a-helix more found in a-HHelices across membrane proline is often found between turns of B-shee and reside of a helix

Lock and Key Model

Proposes the active site is complementary to the substrate Any enzymatic change for action must occur after binding substrate Weekended by competitive inhibition , promiscuous reactive (some enzymes catalyze multiple reactions with dif sub), Reverse catalysis

native gel electrophoresis

Protein molecules are attracted to a charged end of a gel (usually the positively charged end) and are sorted into distinct bands based on how well they can move through the gel (based on either size or charge) Stronger/more charged or smaller proteins move fastest through the gel

How are proteins separated in gel electrophoresis?

Proteins are large enough that they cannot be separated using pores and are unique in that they can be separated by isoelectric point

Bronsted Lowry base

Proton acceptor

glutamine

Q

Arginine

R

Erythrocytes

RBC Ox carrier no nucleus or mitochondria hematopoietic stem cells all energy from glycolysis

Initiation

RNA polymerase II locates promotor reginon-->TATA box -Transcription factors help wi/locating and binding -No RNA primer required to initiate transcription

translation

RNA-->Protein

colors of visible light, in order of creasing energy and frequency

ROYGBIV red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo , violet

Types of ray in increasing order

Radio>Microwave>Infrared>Visible>UV>X-ray>Gamma Rays

urea cycle

Rate limiting enzyme = carbamoyl phosphate synthetase 1- found in the mitochondria CO2 + NH3 -> Carbomoyl phosphate + Ornithine -> Citrulline + Aspartate -> Argininosuccinate -> Arginine + Fumarate -> Ornithine + Urea occurs in liver

primacy effect

Recall is strongest for items at the beginning of a list.

recency effect

Recall is strongest for items at the end of a list.

reducing conditons

Reducing conditions in this context means using beta-mercaptoethanol (2-ME) or dithiothreitol (DTT) to reduce disulphide bridges in proteins so that they can adopt random coil conformation and better separate by size in SDS-PAGE gels. This is a frequently used approach in protein electrophoresis for their detection by Western blotting.

Fixed interval schedule

Reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed.

Physical mapping

Relies on DNA cloning techniques Genes are mapped relative to each other Distances computed in number of base pairs Clone pieces of DNA from a chromosome into a vector • Characterize the clones for size • Match the cloned DNA to other cloned DNA fragments (usually by Southern blotting or DNA sequencing) • Repeating the process until all DNA of interest can be found on clones that overlap (a contig - contiguous region of DNA) • Physical mapping is a massive effort, requiring large consortia of scientists The ultimate goal of physical mapping is to obtain a complete contig for each chromosome in a genome • Geneticists can then correlate cloned DNA in a contig with genetic markers obtained from linkage or cytological methods

Linkage mapping

Relies on genetic crosses Genes are mapped relative to each other Distances computed in map units (or centiMorgans)

.Cytogenetic mapping

Relies on microscopy Genes are mapped relative to band locations

Why is irreversible inhibition more permanent than "reversible noncompetitive inhibitor"

Removing non competative inhbitors reverse their inhibition, but removing irreversible inhibitors does not

dna polymerase g

Replicates mitochondrial DNA

An E value

Represents the number of times that a match or a better one would be expected to occur simply by random chance. • The lower the E value the more significant the match

germ cells

Reproductive cells that give rise to sperm and ovum haploid

flip flop lipid

Requires the polar head group of a lipid to traverse the hydrophobic core of the membrane

G0

Resting phase post mitosis - no cell division occurs

Quaternary Structure

Results from two or more polypeptide subunits.

quaternary structure

Results from two or more polypeptide subunits.

Variable-ratio reinforcement

Rewards according to a random number of behaviors. Results in very high performance.

Variable-interval reinforcement

Rewards according to random times. Results in moderately high and stable performance.

Blood flow pathway

Right Atrium--> Tricuspid value--> right ventricle-->pulmonary artery-->lungs--> ox--> pulmonary veins -->left atrium-->bicuspid-->left ventricle-->aorta (systemic--> does.--> superior vena / inferior-->right atrium

SDS gel electrophoresis

SDS denatures proteins and coats them with negative charges. beta mercaptoethanol breaks S-S bonds. migration in the gel becomes a function of the molecular weight of the protein monomers.

the Stroop effect

Selective attention to properties ex. reading color name but cannot read color word

Stem cells have two common characteristics

Self-renewal - capacity to divide. • When a stem cell divides, one daughter cell may remain undifferentiated • Other can differentiate into a specialized cell type • Population of stem cells remains constant

Recombinant DNA introduced into embryonic cell line

Self-renewing • Can grow in lab and be introduced into developing embryo • Has potential to develop into any kind of cell

Z disc

Separates the sarcomeres from each other

Serine

Ser, S

Anterior Hypothalamus

Sexual

group polarization

Shifts or exaggeration in group members' attitudes or behavior as a result of group discussion.

conserved sequence

Similar or Identical Sequences

agonist molecule

Similiar enough to a neurotransmitter to bind to its receptor and mimic its effects

During DNA replication, the base sequence 5'- pApTpApGpApC-3' would give rise to which of these complementary base sequences?

Since DNA is antiparallel, the complementary strand must be 5'-pGpTpCpTpApT-3*.

Social constructionism

Social constructionism asserts that people develop understandings and knowledge of the world through interactions with other people, and that the mediating force in this interaction is primarily language. Thus, under social constructionism ideas about gender are not inherent in the nature of reality itself, but are socially constructed and transmitted every day through countless language-based interactions between members of society. Choice D offers a good example of social constructionism in which a woman's behavior is shaped by her socially constructed sense of what it means to "be a good girl. hinges on social interaction. Thus a single person living in total isolation would not generate the same sorts of knowledge, understanding, or behavior as someone in a society.

symbolic interactionsim

Social interactions that take place using shared symbols such as words,gestures, or rituals.

Fractionation of protein by column chromatography

Solid phases re generally built from polysaccharides

Broca

Specific function impairments could be linked with specific brain

Non-covalent forces

Stabilization of proteins and nucleic acid Recognition of one biopolymer by another binding of reactants to enzymes

Generalization

Stimuli similar to the CS become able to produce CR... becomes frightened with sound

cardiac muscle

Striated muscle fibers (cells) that form the wall of the heart; stimulated by the intrinsic conduction system and autonomic motor neurons

ferromagnetic

Substances that can become magnetized; iron, nickel & cobalt. Their atoms will form magnetic domains.

Complex II

Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase Succinate transfers electrons to coenzyme Q Aka succinate dehydrogenase Direct link to citric acid cycle Succinate + FAD----> Fumerate + FADH2 FADH2 + Fe-S ox ---> FAD + Fe-S reduced Fe-Sreduced + CoQ +2H+ ---> Fe-S oxidized + Co QH2 so basically 2H+ transferred to co enzyme Q (ubiquinone) Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase; receives e- from succinate NO PROTON PUMPING OCCURS

Elongation

Synthesis is always 5' to 3' Primary transcript-->hnRNA

adrenal cortex

Synthesizes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids and secretes small amounts of sex hormones.

blood pressure equation

Systolic pressure over distolic pressure BP = cardiac output x total peripheral resistance

torque

T=Fd

thyroid hormone regulation

TRH (hypothalamus)-->TSH (pituitary)-->stimulation of follicular cells of thyroid

Cerebral Cortex

Telencephalon Frontal

Basal Ganglia

Telencephalon Middle of brain coordinate muscle relays to CNS Malfunction= Parkinson's disease (uncontrolible movement) Obsessive compuslive disorder/Skitz

Termination

Termination factors hydrolize chain

Prophase of meiosis II

Tetrad formation occurs during this phase of Meiosis

Law of Common Fate

The Gestalt principle that we tend to group similar objects together that share a common motion or destination

multiple cloning site (MCS)

The MCS is located within the LacZ gene. Insertion of a DNA fragment into the MCS will disrupt (mutate) the LacZ gene, blocking its function.

antibody structure

The Y-shaped molecule is composed of two light chains and two heavy chains linked by disulfide bridges (S—S). Most of the molecule is made up of constant regions (C), which are the same for all antibodies of the same class. The amino acid sequences of the variable regions (V), which form the two antigen-binding sites, differ from molecule to molecule

Binocular vision

The ability to merge visual images from both eyes, thereby providing depth perception and a three dimensional view of the world.

social mobilty

The ability to move up in social class

glycoside

The acetyl or ketal of a sugar

variable regions

The antigen binding fragment of an immunoglobulin molecule, consisting of a combination of heavy and light chains whose molecular conformation is specific for the antigen

electromagnetic

The arrangement of waves of radiant energy in order of wavelength and frequency.

B-oxidation

The breakdown of triglycerides into smaller subunits called free fatty acids (FFAs) to convert FFAs into acyl-CoA molecules, which then are available to enter the Krebs cycle and ultimately lead to the production of additional ATP.

Which extraction procedure will completely separate an amide from the by product of the reaction between an amine and excess carboxylic acid anhydride?

The by product of the reaction will be an acidic carboxylic acid and the excess unrelated starting material will be an acidic carboxylic acid and the excess unreacted starting material will also be acidic. Extraction with aqueous base will hydrolyze and extract both of these into the aqueous layer, leaving the neutral amide in the ether layer.

Bipolar II

The client has one or more hypomanic episodes alternating with major depressive episodes

Endomembrane

The collection of membranes inside and around a eukaryotic cell, related either through direct physical contact or by the transfer of membranous vesicles.

Tropomysin

The contraction controlled by blocking the actin binding sites of the sarcomere by Troponin Rod shaped protein; during relaxation they block the myosin binding sites so myosin heads can't bind to actin

external validity

The degree to which a study's findings have generality to other subjects, settings, and/or behaviors.

Vital capacity

The difference between minim and maximum volume of air in the lungs (TLC-RV)

A dominant autosomal allele C is required for proper development of the cones in the retina. The recessive allele c in the homozygous form results in complete color blindness. A woman who has a deutan defect is homozygous for the autosomal C allele. She marries a man who is completely color blind but carries the dominant deutan allele. What types of visual problems will their children have?

The easiest way to follow the alleles is to draw a pedigree as shown below. The symbol D represents the dominant form of the allele for the deutan trait, while the allele d represents the recessive form. In order for the trait to be expressed, the genotype must be dd in the female or d- in the male. The symbol C represents the dominant autosomal allele required for proper development of the cones. If the genotype cc is present, the individual will have complete color blindness. By examining the pedigree, we see that both children will have color vision. However, only the son will show red- green color blindness by expressing the deutan trait. The correct choice is C.

gram positive bacteria

The envelope can absorb crystal violet stain, and it will appear deep purple. The cell walls contain a thick later of peptidoglycan, a substance made from amino acids and sugars. It aids a pathogen by providing protection from a host organism's immune system. It also contains lipoteichoic acid.

triglycerides

The fatty acids in most foods and in the body occur in the form of

Primary Structure

The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.

primary structure

The first level of protein structure; the specific sequence of amino acids making up a polypeptide chain.

Prophase II

The first phase of meiosis II. Prophase II is identical to mitotic prophase, except that the number of chromosomes was reduced by half during meiosis I.

A child is rolling his toy car (with mass = m) car down a ramp. The coefficient of static friction between the car and the ramp is 0.25. When the car is halfway down the ramp, the child pushes down on the car, halting it. What is the minimum force the child must apply to keep the car from starting to roll down the ramp

The gravitational force pulling the car down the ramp is mg sin θ. To stop the car from sliding down the ramp, we must have a frictional force equal to it: Ff = mg sin θ Ff = μFN Ff = 0.25 x FN = mg sin θ The car itself has a mass m and thus generates a FN = mg cos θ The child pushing the car against the ramp surface with Fa will add to the force created by the mass of the car itself to get a total FN = mg cos θ + Fa Substituting, we get: Ff = 0.25 x (mg cos θ + Fa) = mg sin θ mg cos θ + Fa = (mg sin θ) / 0.25 Thus, the force with which the child must push down on the car is Fa = [(mg sin θ) / 0.25] - mg cos θ

Differential centrifugation

The homogenate (cell lysate) may be fractionated by differential centrifugation

euchromatin

The less condensed form of eukaryotic chromatin that is available for transcription. less post transcription

secondary structure

The localized, repetitive coiling or folding of the backbone of a protein due to hydrogen bond formation between amino acids. patterns ex. partial double bond character

Deindividuation

The loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

IgG

The most abundant class of antibodies in serum transported actively against placenta

Glutamate

The most common neurotransmitter in the brain. Excitatory. Glu, E

horizontal mobility

The movement of an individual from one social position to another of the same rank.

facilitated transport

The movement of molecules across the cell membrane without the use of ATP, but with the help of a protein.

phagocytosis

The non-specific uptake of solid material by a cell accomplished by englufing the particle with plasma membrane and drawing it into the cell. ex. macrophages

anomeric carbon

The only carbon attached to two oxygens and its hydroxyl group can point down or up, giving the α (axial) or β (equatorial) anomer

Ultraviolet absorption photographs (at 260 nm) of DNA in a CsCl density-gradient solution indicate a particular DNA banding pattern. The distribution of 14N and 15N in a CsCl density gradient after two rounds of semiconservative DNA replication is represented by which of the following DNA banding patterns? (draw it)

The passage mentions that the CsCl solution is less dense near the top of the test tube and denser near the bottom of the test tube. If we were to centrifuge the DNA that was labeled exclusively with l5N, we would find that its band would appear at a lower position in the test tube compared to DNA that was exclusively labeled with 14N. This is what is represented by the control test tube (see below). If we analyze the DNA after one generation following the incorporation of 14N into the growth medium, then that DNA would be neither exclusively all heavy (15N) nor exclusively all light (l4N). Instead, the DNA would represent a hybrid of 14N and l5N DNA. The banding pattern (after analysis with ultraviolet absorption) would be intermediate between the two bands shown in the control. Note that we do not see this pattern in any of the answer choices. After two rounds of DNA replication, we find duplexes that contain the hybrid DNA (14N and l5N) and duplexes thatcontainexclusivelylightDNA(l4N).Wewouldexpecttofindtwobands:Oneintermediatebetweentheall-l4N band and the all-l5N band (characteristic of the hybrid DNA), and one that is the same as the all-I4N band on the control. There is only one answer choice that gives this pattern.

equivalence point

The point during a titration when the number of H+ ions and OH- ions are equal. This is at the middle of the steepest part of the titration curve.

axial skeleton

The portion of the skeleton that supports and protects the head, neck, and trunk

deindividuation

The process by which individuals lose their self-awareness and distinctive personality in the context of a group, which may lead them to engage in antinormative behavior.

Metaphase (mitosis)

The pulling in between the kinetochore tubules results in the chromosomes and lining up at the metaphase plate

What does evolutionary theory state when something is lost and replaced by something else?

The replacement must confer some sort of fitness to the organism

cultural capital

The set of non-monetary social factors that contribute to social mobility. symbolic and interactional resources that people use to their advantage in various situations

constant regions

The stem of the antibody monomer and lower parts of the arms of the Y. Same for a particular class of immunoglobin. These account for the 5 major classes of Immunoglobin. do not change

placenta

The structure that provides an exchange of nutrients and wastes between the fetus and mother and secretes the hormones necessary to maintain the pregnancy is HCG, estrogen and progesterone

social facilitation

The tendency to perform better when a person knows he is being watched.

disulfide bond

The three types of cross-links that form the bonds between the polypeptide chains are hydrogen bonds, salt bonds covalent interation

convection

The transfer of heat by the movement of a fluid

passive transport

The transportation of materials across a plasma membrane without using energy.

Tidal volume

The volume air inhaled or exhaled in normal breath

Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

The volume of additional air that can be forcibly inhaled after a normal inhalation

social cognitive theory

Theory that holds that portions of an individual's knowledge acquisition can be directly related to observing others within the context of social interactions, experiences, and outside media influences (Bandura).

The genetic code is composed of 3 nucleotides coding for each amino acid. How many possible codons exists in nature that code for the 20 amino acids found in polypeptides?

There are 4 different nucleotides (A,C,G,T) that exists in nature. Because each codon is composed of 3 nucleotides then there must exist 64 (4 to the 3rd power) possible coins for the 20 amino acids

lyase

This enzyme removes groups of atoms without hydrolysis

Fluorescence Spectroscopy

This technique can be used to quantify the amount of ethidium bromide binding to an external factor measures signal emitted from the analyte as it relaxes from an excited electronic energy level to ground state

Uncompetitive

This type of inhibitor DECREASES Km and DECREASES Vmax Binds to E-S complex (allosterically), increasing affinity (Km down), lowering Vmax (Lineweaver-Burke plot lines parallel) will work better when substrate is high

Threonine

Thr, T

derivatives of tyrosine

Thyroid homones (T3, T4) and the catecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine).

telomeres

To lengthen the time that cells can replicate synths DNA before necessary genes are damaged can be slightly degraded between replication cycles without LoF

Microsatelites

Ton of our genome is made up of these § Short, simple sequences § Genetic mapping using microsatellites ú (CA)n • found ofter in 10,000 bases o amplify CA's using PCR o Number of CA specific to individual and parents • Used for forencics • Use electrophosis for paternal test

dorsal

Toward the back Being or located near, on, or toward the back or posterior part of the human body

Transcription Factors

Transcription factor binds to response elements

transduction

Transduction is the process by which DNA is transferred from one bacterium to another by a virus—in the case of the experiment performed in the passage, by the bacteriophage.

Reduction of Activation Energy Mechanism

Transition State Stabilization Microenvironment Adjustments Adjusting Substrate Proximity Transient Covalent Bonding Reactant Destablzation

viable trisomy

Trisomy 21 (Down syndrome ) trisomy 13 (Patau Syndrome) and trisomy 18 (Edwards Syndrome)

viable autosomal trisomies

Trisomy 21, 18, 13

Kleinfelter's syndrome

Trisonomy 23 male with more than one X chromosome (XXY) results in a male with male genitalia but underdeveloped testes that can not produce sperm, and some female development occurs like enlargement of breasts. T

Tryptophan

Trp, W Precursor for Serotonin and NAD

tryptophan

Trp, W non-polar

viable monosomy

Turner Syndrome (45,X) is the only _

Regulation of Oxidative Phophorylation

Two Key Regulators: 1) Limited ADP or Low O2 OP decreases and CAC is inhabited until O2 is back up 2) Abundant ADP , adequate O2 show ton ATP, CAC is activated so more NADH and FADH2 and OP increases

Watson-Crick model

Two stands of DNA are antiparallel: stands are oriented in opposite directions Sugar-phsopahte backbone is on the outside of the helix with nitrogenous bases on the inside complementary base pairing total purines= total pyrimidines

Schwann cells

Type of glia in the PNS, Supporting cells of the peripheral nervous system responsible for the formation of myelin.

Oligodendrocytes

Type of glial cell in the CNS that wrap axons in a myelin sheath.

monocistronic transcript

Type of transcription that happens in eukaryotes. Produces mRNA that carries the genetic information for the translation of a single polypeptide

Tyrosine

Tyr, Y precurssor of catecholamines

Stop Codons

UAA UAG UGA

Synthetase

Uses energy input to make a new covalent bond

centripical velocity

V= 2pir/ T

Valine

Val, V

Valine

Val, V Non polar

Best way to deliver a steroid drug to the blood stream and why?

Via injection or nasal spray. If the steroid goes down orally it may get degraded by stomach enzymes

Vitamin D mechanism

VitD synthesized as D3 in skin from UV light, or as D2 from diet. Charged as 25OH-VitD in liver. Activated by 1a-hydroxylase (regulated) in kidney to 1,25-OH-VitD. Functions are to increase Ca/PO4 to assist in bone mineralization. Does this in intestine (increases absorption of both), kidney (increases reabsorption of both), and bone (resportion of 'old' bone to mineralize the new).

kcat

Vmax/ [E] total Turnover number used to describe the rate-limintng step of catalysis under saturating conditions

Cluster A

Weird -Paranoid -Schizotypal: odd and magical -Schizoid: few interpersonal relations

glycoproteins

What does the plasma membrane of a phagocyte attach to on a microorganisms Membrane carbohydrates that are covalently bonded to proteins.

radial nerve

What nerve is associated with the following functions? • Supinate the wrist, extend the wrist and digits, extend the shoulder and elbow

complementary DNA (cDNA).

When DNA is made from RNA as the starting material, the DNA

Cholesterol and fluidity of plasma membrane

When temperatures are low, cholesterol increases fluidity by preventing the phospholipids from clumping together

paralogs

When two homologous genes are found in a single organism, these genes are termed

orthologs

When two homologous genes are found in different species, these genes are termed

operator sequence

Where a repressor can bind and block RNA Polymerase action.

Cluster B

Wild -Antisocial -Borderline: instability in mood, identify, relationships -Histrionic: needs to be center of attention -Narcissistic:needs to be loved and admired by others

metaphase of meiosis II

You are looking through a microscope at a cell in a phase of cell division. You see a double row of chromosomes lined up at the equator of the cell. -pairs of homologous chromosomes arrange themselves randomly on the equator of the spindle

% dissociation

[F-]/[HF]

sn2 reaction

a bimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction (Primary and secondary alkyl halides undergo SN2 reactions. Although there is competition for secondary alkyl halides between SN1 and SN2. If it is a good nucleophile then in undergoes SN2, if it is an okay nucleophile such as H2O then it undergoes SN1)

Phosphodiester bond

a bond that is responsible for the polymerization of nucleic acids by linking sugars and phosphates of adjacent nucleotides not involved in stabilization of tertiary structure

acrosome

a cap that covers the sperm head

Cancer occurs when

a cell exhibits unregulated growth.

Vertical mobility

a change upward or downward in occupational status or social class

Operon

a cluster of genes transcribed as a single mRNA -regulates gene expression leels

DNA library

a collection of different cloned fragments of DNA

ternary complex

a complex of 3 molecules (ex: 1 enzyme and 2 substrate)

confounding variable

a factor other than the independent variable that might produce an effect in an experiment

spurious relationship

a false association between two variables that is actually due to the effect of some third variable

Electric Field

a field of force surrounding a charged particle E=F/q

DNA microarray

a glass slide of silicon chip where spots of single stranded DNA have been attached glass slide carrying thousands of different kinds of single-stranded DNA fragments arranged in a grid; used to detect and measure the expression of thousands of genes at one time

What does a test cross use?

a homozygous recessive individual with an unknown genotype

in order to determine the resistance of the human body

a known voltage can be applied and the current measures R=VI

In order to determine the resistance of the human body

a known voltage cn be applied and the current can be measured

spatial

a pattern that organizes a speech by the physical or directional relationship between objects or places

approach avoidance conflict

a person is both attracted to and repelled by the same goal object

Traits perspective

a personality is made up of essential stable traits that influences an individual to behave a certain way

Social facilitation

a phenomenon in which we perform simple or well-learned tasks better when in the presence of others

lateral geniculate nucleus

a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve

Ion paring

a salt bridge buried in the hydrophobic interior of a protein is stronger than one on the surface (no water nearby)

palmitic acid

a saturated fatty acid

symbolic ehtnicity

a specific connection to one's ethnicity in which ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic symbols and identity remain important, even when ethnic identity does not play a significant role in everyday life

bivalent

a structure in which two pairs of homologous sister chromatids have synapsed with each other

feminist theory

a theoretical approach that looks at gender inequities in society and the way that gender structures the social world

osteoblasts

a type of cell that is responsible for bone formation high intracellular Ca

lytic cycle

a viral reproductive cycle in which copies of a virus are made within a host cell, which then bursts open, releasing new viruses

attribution theory

a way of explaining others' behavior by either one's disposition or one's situation

Secondary

a-Helicies -stabilized by H bonds side chains point away ex. Keratin B-pleated -Hbonds parallel or antibrallel ex.Fibroin

Where is ovum released upon ovulation?

abdominal cavity

spatial discrimination

ability to identify the site or pattern of stimulation

slum

abject poverty with low quality

viable

able to live

Toll-like receptors or pattern recognition receptors

able to recognize category of invader which allows for production of appropriate cytokines

If 6% of all males who are color blind have a deutan defect ( green blindness recessive) gene and 8 % of the male population is color blind, 0.4 % of incidence of color blindness in women, and incidence in men for red color blind (proton color blindness) is 2%. What percentage of female would be deutan color blind?

about 6% of all males who are color-blind have a deutan defect, which results in abnormal synthesis of the green-sensitive pigment. The percentage of females that would be deutan color-blind is (0.06) x (0.06) = 0.0036 = 0.36%. Note that the percentage of females who are protan (red-sensitive pigment defect) color-blind is (0.02) x (0.02) = 0.0004 = 0.04%. If we add 0.36% and 0.04%, we get 0.40%, the incidence of red-green color blindness among females in the United States.

Hepatic Portal System

absorb carbs and AAs

Thoracic Ductouct

absorbs Fats

ketoacidosis

accumulation of ketones (acids formed from the breakdown of free fatty acids in the absence of insulin) in the blood, associated with uncontrolled diabetes and resulting in metabolic acidosis

The Role of Acetyl-CoA

acetyl CoA is converted to Citrate to go to cytoplasm

CNS and PNS

acetylcholine

achieved status

acquired via direct, individual efforts obtained through hard work or merit

sympathetic

activated by stress secretion of adrenaline dialates pupils relaxes bronchi accelerates heartbeat sweating inhbits salivation inhibits digestion stimulates glucose production inhibits bladder contraction

Phosphofructokinase -2

activated when insulin levels are high inactivated when glucose levels ae high when activated produces Fructose 2,6 bis p This activates PFK-1 and allows override of ATP inhibition

Gq

activates phosphlipase C which cleaves a phospholipid form the membrane to form PIP2. PIP is cleaved to DAG and IP3 IP3 can open Ca channels in ER

Dopamine

activates reward circuit addiction

Controlled Processing

actively work to acquire info

homotetramer SDS-PAGE

actual wight is 4 times less

relative reactivity of COOH

acyl halides>anhydrides>Esters>Amides

T-cells

adaptive immune cells mature in thymus agents of cell-mediated immunity coordinate IS and directly kill infected cells

How are alpha and beta linkages in polysaccharides hydrolyzed

add water to break glycoside linkage

Positive punishment

adding a stimulus and have a consequence that decreases a behavior

positive reinforcement

adding a stimulus to increase a behavior

Hydroxylation

addition of hydroxyl groups to organic acceptor molecules

histone acetylase

adds acetyl group onto lysine to remove charge to loosen DNA packaging

somatic symptom

affected individual experiences pain, injury, or illness that cannot explained by medical condition ex. illness anxiety disorder -somatic symptom disorder (back pain form stress) Conversion disorder (motor or sentry symptom , linked to stress (blinds form tragic event)

Binding Proteins

affinty cure for molecule of interest

semiconservative model

after DNA replication predicted a parental DNA helix would produce two hybrid daughter DNA helices (generation 1), which would each produce a hybrid daughter DNA helix and a "new" daughter DNA helix (generation 2)

healthcare and medicine

aimed at maintain or improving the health status of the individual, family, community, and society as a whole

Immunoglobins

aka antibodies (Ig) produced by B-cells

Inducible Systems

aka positive control mechanism similar to competitive inhibition

Soma

aka. cell body location of nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, and ribosomes

diamagnetic

all electrons are paired repelled by an external magnetic field

normal distribution

all of the measures of central tendency are the same

hypomorph

allele that has a reduced function

hypermorph

allele that has increased function variant causing increase in normal gene function

Eosinophils

allergic reactions and invasive parasitic infection upon activation release histamine results in vasodilation and increases leakiness of blood vessels

basophills

allergic responses least populousins leukocytes

glutamine

amide nitrogens do not gain or lose proofs with changes in pH

aspargine

amide nitrogens do not gain or lose protons with changes in pH

peptide hormones

amino acid polymers, chain of amino acids, they are water soluble need transport proteins to move through memembrane

pKa2

amino group~9,10

continous variables

amount of weight lost percent improvement in cardiac output

Type 1 Diabetes

an autoimmune insulin deficiency disorder caused by the destruction of pancreatic islet beta cells can't produce insluin

enzyme activity depends on

an enzyme's intrinsic catalytic efficiency, its concentration, the initial substrate concentration, the presence of inhibitors or allosteric activators, temperature, and pH.

Double approach-avoidant

an individual has two choices, both of which have good and bad points most difficult

cecum

an out pocketing that accepts fluid exiting the small intestine through the ileocecal valve and is the site of the appendix

asters

anchor the controls to cell membrane

membrane spanning domain

anchors the receptor in the cell membrane

Neuropsychological Studies

animal studes-->ablation or electrode stimulus electrode stimulus-->stimulate with electrical activity EEG--->electrodes to detect electrical activity rCBF-->detect blood flow to parts of the brain

Hypophyseal portal system

anterio pituitary is no connected physically to the hypothalthal has tow portal cystems

IgD

antibodies found on B cells and serum

Moral immunity

antibodies that dissolve and act in blood (rather than within cells)

mood disorder vs. Anxiety disorders

anxiety disorders differ from mood disorders in the fact that the underlying issue is not the individual baseline emotional state, but an irrational fear or worry which may snowball out of control

intramolecular

any force that holds together the atoms making up a molecule or compound ionic polarcovalent covalent metallic

Lewis acid

any substance that can accept a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond

Lewis base

any substance that can donate a pair of electrons to form a covalent bond

Kinetochores

appear at the centromere protein structures located on centromeres taht serve as attahment points for specific fibers of spindle apparatus (kineotochore fibers)

DNA polymerase d and e

are assisted by the PCNA protein which assembles into a trimer to form the sliding clamp The clamp helps to strengthen the interaction between these DNA polymerases and the template strand

dysfunctions

are harmful consequences of people's actions as they undermine a social system's equilibrium

DNA polymes B and e

are though to participate mostly in DNA repair

Hypothalamus

aries from diencephalon Reguation of homeotatsi emotional experience (feeding, flight, ****ing, fightingng endocrine fucintion

hydrophobic interactions

as a polypeptide folds into its functional shape, amino acids with hydrophobic (nonpolar) side chains usually end up in clusters at the core of the protein away from water

Hydrostatic pressure for liquids is linear because

as depth changes, the density of the liquid remains contant

strength

as more viability in the outcome variable is explained by variability in the study variable the relationship is more likely to be causeual

Kinesins

ass. microtubles two heads...one attached to tublin key role in aligning chromosomes during metaphor Depolymerizing microtubles durinng anaphase of mitosis bring vesicles toward the positive end of the microtuble bring vesicles of neurotransmitters to the positive end of the axonal microtubules (toward the synaptic terminal)

operationalization

assigning a precise method for measuring a term being examined for use in study

Looking-glass self

assumes that people imagine the perception others hold of them, and this perceiving of the self through the eyes of others creates the sense of self

polysynaptic reflex arc

at least one interneuron between the sensory and motor neurons ex withdrawal relax

Cross-sectional studies

attempt to categorize patients into different groups at a single point in time

Prejudice

attitude not behavior

anion-exchange

attracts negatively charged proteins (to positive beads)

temporal

auditory cortex, emotional, and language , some membory processing

Auditory pathway

auditory input-->audiotry nerve-->superior olive-->inferior colliculus-->medial genifculate nucleus--temporal cortex

diploid (2n)

autosomal copies of each chromosome

presynaptic component of the synapse

axons form synapses with dendrites of postsynaptic cell

rod shaped bacteria

baccilus

Retro-grade memory loss

back, old memory function is normal but no recollection of past events

Hindbrain

balance motor coordination, breating and digestion

Gestat principles

based on visual cues causing specific types of conceptual or visual recognition

Ion-Exchange Chromatography

beads are coated with charge substances...opoosite charge will bind to beads after all compounds have moved through...a slat gradient is used to elute the charged molecuels

Size Exclusion Chromatograpy

beads contain pores of varying sizes (tiny) smaller compounds are slowed down

proto-oncogenes

before genes are mutated

Antero-grade

before, new incapable of forming any new long-term memories.

Structural genomics

begins with the mapping of the genome and progresses ultimately to its complete sequencing

Personality Disorders

behavior that is inflexible and maladaptive ego-syntonic

Franz Gall

behvaior intellect, and personality like to brain anatormy phrenology, if a person was well developed bump would form on more developed area

Follicular phase

beings when menstrual flow begins GnRH secretion b/c decreased estrogen and progesterone hihgh GnRH increases FSH and LH FSH and LH work to develop several ovarian follicues follicules begin to produce estrogen and GnRH, LH, and FSH levels decreases

Incentive theoritsts

believe that individuals are motivated to behave in a certain way based on external forces people are drawn towards positive outcomes and pushed away from negative outcomes

Trait perspctive

believes that individual personality can be broken into countless stable traits that are ubiquitous across all humans and cultures

phenylalanine

benzyl side chain smallest aromatic

microaerophilic

best growth at low to moderate levels of 02, can grow in o2 poor niches

Advanageous

better for survival

liposome

bilayer ring of phospholipids, can contain water on the inside, slightly more stable

Affinity Chromatography

bind protein of interest once protein is retained it can be eluted by washing with a free receptor or antibody drawback is recovered substance can be bound to the elutanet

constant region of the light chain

bind tight to the constant region of the heavy chain

cyclins

bind to CDKs, creating an activated CDK-cyclin complex

Major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

bind to a pathogenic peptide (antigen) carries it to cell surface where it can recognized by cells of adaptive immune system release cytokines

Seclectins

bind to carbohydrate molecules that project form other cell surfaces weakest formed by CAMs expressed on white blood cells and endothelial cells play role in host defense....inflammation and white blood cell migration

How do steroid hormones exert their effects?

bind to receptors on the nuclear membrane (because can freely pass through plasma membrane) and bind to membranes on nucleus that deal with gene expression

Single-stranded DNA-binding protiens

bind to unraveled strand after helices pulls apart which prevents the reallocation of DNA strands and degredation of DNa by nucleases

Ligand-gated channels

binding of specific substance or ligand to open or close

clonal selection

binding with high affinity for survival providing a mechanism for generating specifity

Day 4 of fertilization

blastocysts begin to form

Diastole

blood from atria fills ventricles Semilunar valves closed causes dub in lub dub

As partial pressure of CO2 increases

blood pH decreases and respiratory rate will increases so that more carbon dioxide is exhaled, and carbon dioxide levels in blood will fall

alkalemia

blood pH is too basic respiratory rate is slowed to retain more CO2 shifting buffer equation to the right to produce more H+ ions

Systole

blood pumped out of ventricles . AV valves closed causes lub in lub dub

If plasmid self-ligates, LacZ gene is functional

blue

glycoside bond

bond between 2 monomers linked together = ossacharide

phosphodiester bond

bond used to bring two nucleotides togetehr

ligaments

bone to bone

Autosomal recessive

both M and F are affected; M-to-M transmission may be present; both parents must be carriers; the trait skips generations; two mutant alleles are needed for disease; affected children may be born of unaffected adults.

Orbitofrontal cortex

brain region associated with planning and decision making

reticular formation

brainstem regulating arousal and sleep-wake transitions

osteoclast

breakdown of bone results in release of Ca

glycogenolysis

breakdown of glycogen breakdown of glycogen to glucose

pancreatic amylase

breaks down late polysaccharides into small disaccharides and responsible of carb digestion

Anaphase II

brought by penetration of the secondary oocyte by a sperm

osteoblast

build bone

Morbidity

burden or degree of illness associated with given disease

Reaction Detablization

by creating torsional strain or hydrophobic hydrophilic reactions

Calcium Homeostasis

calcium is controlled by the thyroid and paratthyrioids parathyroids produce parathyroid hormone (PTH) negative Feedbak loop -increaes absorption form bones and GI, reduces kinky excretions of Calcium Antagonistic to calcitonin, produced by the thyroid gland -decreaes calcium absorption form GI, reabsorption in nephron. Increases bone formation

Prevalence

calculated as the number of cases of a disease per population is given period of time

1,3 bisphosphoglycerate

can be able to build ATP during substrate level phosphorylation not O2 dependent

genome

can be read in variable ways to produce different products composed of DNA or RNA in multi cellular organism different types of cells read the genome differently .

Biomedical Approach

can be treated with medication

Standard deviation

can be used to determine whether data point is outlier if falls more than three stnadard deviation form mena it is outlier

Discrimination

can differentiate between

unipotent cells

can only differentiate into one cell type

total internal reflection

can only result when a ray of light starts in a more dense medium, and then strikes a boundary going into a less dense medium (e.g. starting in water and moving out towards air). Here the light ray started in air (less dense) and moved into water (more dense) making total internal reflection impossible.

A carrier

cannot express the phenotype has a recessive allele

Mutually exclusive outcomes

cannot occur at the same time

Cytotoxic T-cells (CD8

capable of directly killing virally infected cells by injecting chemicals that promote apotheosis in infected cell MHC1 (8X1)= 8

Gas Exchange

capillaries bring deoxygenated blood from the pulmonary arteries...alveoli facilitates diffusion of CO2 from the blood into the lungs and oxygen into the blood. The oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart via pulmonary veins.

pKa

carboxyl group~ 2

Glycogen phosphorylase

catalyzes rate-limiting step in glycogen breakdown

tyrosine derived hormones

catecholamines cortisol

Bar charts

categorial data ex. ...age

Pie charts

categorial: state, ethnicites

diabetes insipidus

caused by insufficient production of the antidiuretic hormone or by the inability of the kidneys to respond appropriately to this hormone Hyposecretion of ADH causing polyuria, polydipsia, hypernatremia, weight loss, and dehydration, shock

LH (male)

causes interstitial cells to produce testosterone

Negative selection

causing apoptosis in cells that are self-reactive

G1/S checkpoint

cell determines if the DNA is in good enough condition for synthesis If there has been damage to the DNa, the cell cycle goes into arrest until the DNA has been repaired

G2/M

cell is mainly concerned with ensuring that the cell has achieved adequate size and the organelles have been properly replicated to support tow daughter cells

What do RBCs lack?

cell organelle and the ability to divide

G2 stage

cell passes through another quality control checkpoint DNA has already been duplicated, and the cell checks to ensure that there are enough organelles and cytoplasm to divide between two daughter cells The cell checks to make sure that DNA replication proceeded correctly to avoid passing on an error to daughter cells that may further replicate the error in their progeny

G0 phase

cell will enter if it does not need to divide

multipotent

cells can differentiate into several cell types

G1 stage

cells create organells for energy and protein production (mit, ribosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum, while also increasing size. governed by restriction point certain criteria, such as containg the proper complement of DNA, must be met for the cell to pass the restriction point and enter the sysntesis stage

Interferons

cells infected with viruses produce these to prevent viral replication and dispersion up regulate MHC I and II resulting in increased APC

somatic cells

cells that are not involved in sexual reproduction

G0

cells that do not divide spend of all of their time in an offshoot of G1 cell is imply living and serving its function, without any preparation for division

Golgi apparatus

cellular distribution center Golgi= UPS (a"pp" package) An organelle found in eukaryotic cells responsible for the final stages of processing proteins for release by the cell.

Metaphase

centriole pairs are now at opposite ends of the cells Kinetochore fibers interact with the fibers of the spindle apparatus to align the chromosomes at the equatorial plate each chromosome is lined up on the metaphsase plate by two spindle fibers (one form each pole)

Anaphase

centromeses split so that each chromatic has the own distinct centromoere, thus allowing the sister chromatids to separate. Sister chromatids are pulled toward the oppositie poles of cell by shrtening of kinetochore fibers

Broca's area

cerebral cortex responsible for speech production, facial control, and language processing

gases densitives

change according to the forces are applied to them. they are compressible

territorial social mobiltiy

change in locality, territory, or resistance when an individual moved from one place to antoher. common in urban than rural

Punctuated equilibrium

change occurs in rapid burst -fossils

intra-generational socialmobility

change or changes in the social status of an individual or group within the same generation. ex. 3 out of 5 brothers go to college the other 2 dropped out of high school

epigenetic alterations

change the way the genome is read by cellular machinery but do not change the genome itself

demographic shigt

changes in population makeup over time

Exponential curves

characterize populations in new environments and rebounding populations

intergenerational mobility

characterized by the change from one generation to the next

reducing agent

chemical being oxidized

oxidizing agent

chemical being reduced

fertility rate

children pe women per lifetime

birthrate

children per 1000 people per year

Prophase

chromatin condenses and becomes visible spindle apparatus appears Chromosomes become visable, nuclear envelop dissolves, spindle forms

Phropahse I

chromatin condenses into chromosome spindle apparatus forms nucleoli and nuclear membrane disappear spindile apparatus forms, and nucleoli and nucl homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine in a process called synapsis Crossing over occurs

Prophase (mitosis)

chromosome condenses, spindle forms Kinotochores appear at the centromere

Anaphase (mitosis)

chromosomes divide, 1/2 of chromosome moves to opposite side

Metaphase II

chromosomes line up on metaphase plate

lacteals

chylomicrons enter the lymphatic circulation through lacteals, which are small vessels that form the beginning of the lymphatic system

Okazaki fragments

clears additional space DNA polymerase must fill in

Type III RE

cleave at short distance from recognition site require ATP

Type I RE

cleave at sites remote from the recognition site Reggie ATP and S-adeosyl Lmethonine

Lyases

cleave portions from molecules without addition of water ex. Aldolase

Type II RE

cleave within or at short specific distances require Mg

pepsin

cleaves peptide bonds near aromatic amino

Belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

Piaget's stages

cognitive development

Stereotyping

cognitive not behavior

Observational studies

cohort studies cross-sectional studies case-control studies

Structural proteins

collagen elastin keratin actin tubulin

Sematosensory

collected by peripheral and processes

cones

color

Column Chromatography

column is filled with silica compounds move down the column size and polarity determine how fast compound moves the less polar the faster it can elute (short retention time) Used in biochem because it can collect other macromolecules such as DNA

heterochromatin

compacted chromatin during interphase appears dark under light microscopy transcriptionlaly silent

anticode

complementary to codon

Bile

composed of bile salts , pigments, and cholesterol

Recombinant DNA

composed of nucleotides form two different sources

dissociation constant Kd

concentration of hormone at which half receptors of minded (Kd): concentration of hormone at which 1/2 of the receptors are occupie

Goffman's theory of dramaturgy

concerns an individual's sense of self and self-presentation that changes depending on the situation

Asch's line experiment study of conformit

conducted an experiment to investigate the extent to which social pressure from a majority group could affect a person to conform. Asch measured the number of times each participant conformed to the majority view. On average, about one third (32%) of the participants who were placed in this situation went along and conformed to the clearly incorrect majority. In Asch's study, the research confederates participants chose a line without providing any explanation to the group.

UV Vis

conjugated pi system, increase conjugation = increase wavelength

corpus callosum

connects left and right hemispheres

cytoskeleton

connets to the connexons

social capital

considered the investments people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards ex. social networkds

Double approach-avoidant conflicts

consist of two options with both appealing and negative characteristics

White matter

consists of axons encased in myelin sheaths

M stage (mitosis)

consists of mitosis itself with cytokinesis

grey matter

consists of unmyelinated cell bodies and dendrites

pyloric glands

contain G cells that secrete gastrin a peptide hormone

heterochromatic regions of chromosomes

contain heterochromatin and are generally not transcribed in eukaryotes

Genoic libraries

contain large fragment of DNA including both coding and noncoding regions of genomre Cannot be used to make recombinant protein or for gene therapy

funds and body

contain mostly gastric glands

antrum and pylourus

contain mostly pyloric glands

Pyrimidines

contain only one ring cytosine thymine uracil

cDNA

contain smaller fragments of DNA only include eons genes expressed by sample tissue used to make recombinant proteins or for gene therapy

Purines

contain two rings adenine and guanine

seminal vesicles

contribute fructose to nourish sperm

topoisomerases

control the degree and type of DNA supercoiling partially unwind supercoiled DNA to relieve torsional stresses that could result from "overwinding"

hypothalamus

controls are secretions that come out of the pituitary referred to as the releasing and inhabiting hormones

lagging strand

copied in a opposite direction of replication fork

Gene duplication

copying gene or genes in the DNA that are already there. If gene duplication occurs, then replication of those genes into new duplexes of DNA will give same DNA sequences, similar tRNA, mRNA, and AAs.

Mentstration

corpus letum loses simulation form LH prgesterone levels decline uterine linein is sloughed off loss high levels of estrogen and progesterine removes block on GnRH so that next cycle can begin

adrenal gland hormones

cortisol aldosterone epinephrine norepinephrine

• Drosophila knockouts

created using transposons

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

creates lipids or fat

Homogenization

crushing, grinding, or blending tissue of interest into an evenly mixed solution

proline

cyclic amino acid amino nitrogen beomes part of side chain five membered ring limited whenre it can appear on a protein because of constraints on flexibility

Complex IV

cytochrome c oxidase cytochrome c oxidase; uses cytochromes and Cu^2+ to transfer electrons in the form of hydride ions (H^-) from cytochrome c to oxygen, forming water. Two protons are translocated by complex IV 4 ox cytochrome c molecules

dGº=

dGº=-RTlnK_eq

Necrosis

death of tissue; usually as individual cells, groups of cells, or in small, localized areas exogenous

Mortality rate

deaths per 1000 people per year

Sympathetic action on the digestive system

decrease blood flow, water reabsorption, and inhbit peristalsis

glucagon

decrease in blood sugar--> please in glucagon--> glygenolysis--> increase in blood sugar

uncompetitive inhibitor

decreases Km decreases Vm

atomic radius trend

decreases to the right since there are more attraction for electrons, which means valence shell is sucked in tighter, so radius is smaller

hypokalemia

deficient level of potassium in the blood

bile salts

derived form cholesterol important role in the mechanical digestions of fats and facilitate the chemical digestion have hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions emulsify fats and cholesterol nto micelles which increase surface area of facts which increase rate at which lipase can act

galactose

derived from lactose six carbon aldose

catecholamines

derived from tyrosine hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that affect the sympathetic nervous system in stress response norepipherine epinephrine

ascribed status

derives from clearly identifiable characteristics, such as age, gender, and skin color. voluntary

Hill's criteria

describe the components of an observed relationship that increase the likelihood of causality in the relationship it is a correlation (relative) -temporality -strength -dose-response relationship -consistency plausibility consideration of alternate explanations experiment specificity coherence

depersonalization

detached from reality and people

Parvocellular cells

detect shape

Confidence intervals

determine range of values form sample mean and standard deviation begin with desired confidnece level (95% is standard) and use a table to find corresponding z or t score multipy z or t score by standard deviation and then add and stubtract from mean to creat value o=3 x=30 CI=95% z=1.96 3X1.96= 6 30-6=24 30+6=36 95% confident that ture mena afge is between 24 and 36

kinetic control

determines how fast thermodynamically favorable rxns occur; enzymes affect this happens at lower temperature. Takes the fastest route because it has less energy. (1,2 addition) Deny base access to the more sterically hindered alpha carbon:

smooth ER

detoxifies the cell and synthesizes steroid hormones Synthesis of lipids, phospholipids and steroid sex hormones-help detoxify drugs and poisons (liver cells).

testonesterone

develops and maintains the male reproductive system results in development of secondry sexual characteristics

Inhalation

diaphagram expands intrathoracic volume increases intrathoracic pressure decreases

exhalation

diaphragm relaxes intrathoracic volume decreases intrathoracic pressure increases

contralateral

different side

seprmatogonia

diploid stem cells

zwitter ions

dipolar ions

signal sequence domain

directed toward secretory pathway

Intensity of electromagnetic radiation

directionally proportional to the amount of photons emitted

euchromatin

dispersed chromatin appears light under light microsopy contains genetically active DNA

Motor proteins

display enzymatic activity acting as ATPases that power con. change Myosin Kinesins Dyeins

MHC class II

displayed by APC exogenous pathway because antigens originated outside the cell

Protein Purification in organic chemistry

distillation, sublimation, mixed solvent recrystilization

bimodal

distribution containing two peaks with a valley in between

Negative symptom sof schiophrenia

disturbance of affect- expression of emotion (may laugh when sad story) Abolition-decreaesd engament in goal-directed actions

Stabilization of tertiary structure

disulfide bonds h- bonds salt bridge

Mass defect

dm= nuclear mass- (mass of protons+mass of neutrons)

Prezygotic (Reproduction isolation)

do not allow formation of zygotic -breeding at different times -Living in different niches -Lack of attraction -Incompatibility of reproductive anatomy -Fertilization cannot occur

red blood cells

do not have mitochondria must produce energy anaerobically unaffected by drugs that disrupt the electron transport chain

Complex II

does not contribute to the proton gradient Succinate-CoQ oxidoreductase; uses an iron-sulfur cluster to transfer electrons from succinate to FAD, and then to CoQ, forming CoQH2. No proton pumping occurs in Complex II

alternative pathway

does not require antibodies

Bronsted Lowry acid

donates protons

Central nervous system neurotans

dopamine serotonin gaba endorphins

humoral immunity

driven by B-cells and antibodies

small intestine

duodenum , the jejunum, and ileum

tetrad

each synaptic pair contains four chromatids

Amacrine cells and Horizontal cells

edge section and contracts recieve finfo from multiple retinal cells

isoelectric point

eery molecule is now electrically neutral= to pH

Missense Mutation

effected by mutation

Hormones that are arrived from fatty acids

eicosnaoids

electrical synapses vs chemical synapses

electrical synapses use gap junction connecting two neurons and allowing ions and small molecules to pass directly between the cells. Bidirectional. Transmission is achieved by diffusion of ions across channels which is why they are faster. less regulated because they are physically connected and and this means the changes are similar in both the cells. chemical synapses us transmembrane receptors. Signals are Regenerated

which uses th?e left hand rule

electron flow

law of proximity

elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

Law of Good Form

elements tend to be grouped together if they are part of a pattern which is a good gestalt

Parathyroid hormone

elevator of calcium and depressor of phosphorous responsible for elevated blood calcium

eclosion

emerging of insect from pupa

Schachter Singer theory

emotion has 3 distinct steps 1: arousal 2:interpret 3: experience emotion

Attachment

emotional bond that develops between child and caregiver

bile salts

emulsify fats

Primary

encodes folding for higher structual levels linear arrangement of AA

MHC class I

endogenous pathway binds antigens from inside the cell

macrophages

engulf and digest pathogens and signal to the rest of the immune system that there is an invader granulocyte derive from blood-borne monocytes

Claisen condensation

enolate ion of one ester acts as nucleophile attacking another ester

negative control

ensre no change in the dependent variable when no chang is expected

Positive controls

ensure a change in dependent variable when it is expected

Biopychosocial approach

environmental and lifestyle e, such as tree and socioeconomic factors interventions= medicine and/or modification to life

Enter peptidase

enzyme critical for activation of trypsinogen (pancreatic processes) activates procarbboxypeptidases A and B

Helicase

enzyme responsible for unwinding DNA generating two single stranded strands ahead of polymerase

Kinase

enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of phosphate groups from high-energy, phosphate-donating molecules to specific substrates.

PNS NT

epinephrine norepinephrine

Confounding

error during analysis

Telophase

essentially the reverse of prophase Spindle apparatus dissapears nuclear membrane reforms chromosomes uncoil Each of two new nuclei has recieved a complete copy of the genome identical to the orignal genome and to each other

FSH leads to

estrogen spermatogenesis

sweating in dry climate

evaporation of liquid pulls out heat lowers body's temperature in dry climate the low humid allows water to evaporate more and increase sweating

analogous structures

evolved independently to carry out the same function

cross-sectional designs

exams group of individuals at one time

Frontal lobe

executive function, long term planning

Oxygen Dissociation Curve

exercise is the RIGHT thing to do...aka ox offload to muscles

Crossing over

exhange equivalent pieces of DNA

self-fulfilling prophecy

expectation upon an individual rather than a group

mediating variable

explains relationship between two other variables ex. insurance coverage connects patient race and prescriptions

Suppressor or regulatory T cells

express CD4 and Foxp3 help tone down immune response once infection has been contained turn off self-reactive lymphocytes

trisomy

extra chromosome

social institutions

family education religion government and economy

Sn2

favored by aprotic solvents

Sn1

favored by protic solvents

epinephrine

fight or flight response

midpiece

filled with mitochondria generate the energy to be used as the sperm swims through the female reproductive tract to reach the ovum in the fallopian tubes

Dna polymerase d

fills in gaps left behind when RNA primers are removed

Dna polymerase b

fills in the gap in base excision repair

Nucleotide excison repair

fixes helix-deforming lesion of DNA (such as thymine dimers) via a cut and patch process that requires an excision endonuclease

Bae excision rpair

fixes non deforming lesion of the DNA helix ( such as cytosine deamination) by removing the base , leaving an apurinic/apyrimidic (AP) site and Ap endonuclease removes damaged sequence which can be filled with the correct bases

game theory

focus on the rational behavior of interacting people People are rational being who act according to their self interest

Strain theory

focuses on how anomic conditions can lead to deviance

social constructionism

focuses on how individuals put together their social reality. arise form humans communicating and working together to agree on the significance of a concept or principle. can be applied untangle concepts ; how a society defines honor and justice is dependent on the interactions and decisions of the individuals within that society subject to change as social norms and opinions over time.

Cristae

folds increase surface area located in inner membrane

longitudinal cohort design

follow group and ass at multiple intervals over a period of time

pyloric sphincter

food leave the stomach through tis

Type 2 Diabetes

form of diabetes mellitus that is gradual in onset and results from the body's deficiency in producing enough insulin or resistance to the action of insulin by the body's cells

power

form of influence over the people

london dispersion

formation of a spontaneous dipole moment that weakly attracts molecules toward each other

Glycogenesis

formation of glycogen from glucose

seprmatogeneis

formation of haploid sperm through meiosis occur in seminiferous tubles spermatogonia---> after replication of genetic material--->primary spermatocytses--->first meiotic divison--->secondary seprmatocytes--->meiois II--->spermatids--->maturation---->spermatognium

Quaternary structure

formed from multiple tertiary structures coming together and is held together through things like hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bridges, etc. It is not typically held together by an extensive network of hydrogen bonding, which characterizes secondary structure.

antrum

formed when the primary follicle develops toward the end of the follicular phase the granulose begin to secrete progesterone into antrum pressure builds up and places stress on sigma and it ruptures causing secondary oocyte and progesterone to be released into the peritoneal cavity (space outside ovary)

IgA

found in breast milk, tears, saliva, and mucous

Centromers

found in center of chromosomes composed of heterochromatin high CG During cell division two sister chromatids can therefore remain connected at the centromere until microtubules separate the chromatids during anaphase

Peroxisome

found in eukaryotes; breakdown of fatty acids, detoxification of alcohol

Cell Adhesion Molecules (CAMs)

found on the surface of most cells that aid in the binding of the cell to the ECM or other cells integral membrane proteinds -cadherins -integrins -selectins

degereneracy or redundancy

four different codons coding for the same acid it allows for mistakes

peptide synthesis proceeds in what order of terminals?

from C to N

motor neurons

from brain and spinal cord to muscles (efferent)

where does action potential travel

from dendrites and the cell body to the axon

Sensory Neurons

from receptor s to spiral for and brain (afferent)

antioncogenes

function to stop tumor progression

Vertical gene transfer

gene is based on via reproduction

Classical conditioning results

generalization discrimination extinction

hemizygous

genes on the X chromosome have only one copy

As the cell undergo mitosis, the telomeres

get progressively shorter eventually the DNA loses its telomeres and is unable to reproduce. the cell then undergoes apoptosis

Differentiation of Ectoderm

gives rise to epidermis, lens of eye, inner ear, adrenal medulla, and the nervous system (stimuli)

starvation and ketone bodies

gluconeogenis depletes the supply of oxaloacetate which is essential for the entry of acetyl-CoA in the Krebs cycle

sucrose

glucose + fructose

lactose

glucose + galactose

maltose

glucose + glucose 1--> 4 glycoside bond C1 is the anomeric carbon and is reducing

glycogen is formed by glycosidic bonds between

glucose molecule through a(1-4) linkage linearly and a(1-6) linkage at branch point

derivative of histamine

glutamic acid

Nonpolar, Non-aromatic side chains

glycine alaline, valine, leucine, isoleucin methoine proline

during periods of starvation human can generate glucose from

glycogen and glycerol portion of triagcylglyerol, and amino acids

components of cell membrane (lipid)

glycolipids steroids prostaglandin sphingolipids

Cadherins

glycoprotiens mediate calciu-dependent cell adhesion hold simple cells together sub as epithelial cells

Electric field direction

go from positive to negative

follicle cells

granulosa +thecal

prostaglandins

group of physiologically active lipid compounds having diverse hormone-like effects in animals. subclass of eicosanoids regulate cell growth and inflammation

faculatively aneaerobic

growth in o2 rich and o2 poor rch condition

Pregnancy

hCG levels high in first trimester and keep uterine lining in place 2nd trimester, hCG levels decline because placenta has grown to secret its slef

degranulation

happens when when antigen binds to antibodies on surface of mast cell

Neustress

happens when you are exposed to something stressful, but it doesn't actively or directly affect you. For example, news about a natural disaster on the other side of the world may be very stressful, but your body doesn't perceive that stress as good or bad for you so you aren't affected.

Holoenzyme

has all cofactor and coenzymes

cysteine

has an R absolute configuration because S has higher priority thiol gropu prone to oxidation

Histidine

has imidazole functional group at 2.4 one N atom is protaonated and the other isnt more acidic condition the othe rN can be protonated

Capillaries Pressure

have a slower velocity than arterial because the cross sectional area is larger because thousands of capillaries

sphigolipids

have different head groups including : phosphocoline phosphoethanolamine monosaccharide an oligosaccharide

Amphipathic molecules

have hydrophobic chains and ionic or polar ends .Surfactants are examples

Homologous structures

have similar ev. history arising from same source even though they have different functions

bivalent antibodies

have two areas each capable to binding to an antigenic determinant beneficial because antibodies can cross link antigen molecules into a large lattice as long as each antigen molecule has 3 or more determinants

medial geniculate nucleus

hearing

rod-shaped and filamentous plant viruses have a symmetry of

helical

spindle fibers

help pull apart the cell during replication and are made up of micrtubules

sperical bacteria

heterotrophic and aerobic

hypernatremia

high blood levels of sodium increased temp, weakness, disorientation, dilusions, hypotension, tachycardia. give hypotonic solution.

What frequency would you have at the oval and apex?

high frequency and low frequency respective

HDL

high-density lipoprotein; high blood levels are associated with lower incidence of coronary artery disease can only be increased by exercise or medication

glutamic acid derivative

histamine

Synapsis

homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids,

major difference between meiosis and mitosis

homologous chromosomes come together and intertwine in a process called synapsis

Anaphase I

homologous pair separate and are pulled to opposite poles of the cell

Metaphase I

homologous pairs (tetrads) align at the metaphase plate , and each pair attaches to a separate sindle fiber by its kinetochore homologous chromosomes are lined up acrosss form each other at the metaphase plate and are held by one spindle fiber

Disjunction

homologus paris spearte and are pulled to opposite poles of cell each chromosome of paternal orgion separates form homologue of material orgin, and either chromosome can end up in either daughter cell Distribution of homologous chromosome t the two intermediate daughter cells is random accountts for Mendel's first law

enterogastrone

hormone that slow motility through the digestive tract slowing of motility allows increased time for digestive enzymes to act on chyme

Catecholamines

hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla that affect the sympathetic nervous system in stress response

relative mobility

how likely children are to move from their parents' place in the social hierarchy

construct validity

how the terms are defined. Degree to which a test actually measures what it claims to measure

Central nervous system

how we want to respond to sensory stimuli brain and spinal cor

hydrophilic interactions

hydrophilic molecules: (water loving) normally polar, charged molecules that are soluble in water

Michaelis-Menten kinetics

hyperbolic dependence

Graves Disease

hyperthyroidism with toxic goiter

Respiratory system when blood pH is low (academia)

hyperventilation Shift in equilibrium to generate more CO2 more CO2 blown off to drop ph to normal

Bipolar II disorder

hypomania with s least one major depressive episode

most viruses have a structure of

icosahedral

Alturism

idea of doing a good dad for someone else without any self-motive

Palindromic

identical when read backword. 5'GACGACGACGACGACGACGA3' 5'CTGGTGCTGCTGCTGCTGCT3'

B anomer

if OH on anomeric carbon is cis to OH on C6

a anomer

if OH on anomeric carbon is trans to OH on C6

Gamma decay

if a nucleus is unstable because it has excess energy, it will release that energy in the form of a photon, the photon is so energetic that it is a gamma ray

consideration of alternate explanation

if all other plausible explanations have been eliminated,t he remaining explanation is more likely

manifest function

if an action is intended to help some part of a system

experiment

if an experiment can be performed, a causal relationship can be determined conclusively

Bipolarcells

if you have a punch of different cones and rods on one you have less distingion direct input from rods/gones Synapse with ganglion cells

hyperpolarization

ihibotory input lowering MP from resting

Migration rate

immigration rate minus emigration rate

active immunity

immune system is simulated to produce antibodies

Day 7 of fertilization

implantation of blastula in uterine wall

amygdala

important for emotion and memory damage= decrease to act aggresively

Hippocampus

important for memory and learning

Cofactors

in organic Metals attatch ... metallo proteins

bidirectional replication

in some bacteria like E.coli, DNA replication involves two replication forks; these forks both start at a spot called the Origin of replication; they finish and meet eachother at the termination site At division each daughter cell receives a chromosome that is half replicated and there is a total of six replication forks

Egocentrism

inability to take the perspective o another person

Detrimental

inablilty to form functioning proteins

Zymogens

inactive enzymes... ex.trypsinogen

relative poverty

income above poverty line and below average for country

type II error

incorrectly final to reject the null hypothesis sybolised by B

competitive inhibitor

increase Km Max unchanged

Ways to increase power of an experiment

increase alpha conduct a one-tailed test increase effect size decrease random error increase sample size

What is the metabolic ATP outcome for patient experience hypoxia?

increase in glycolytic ATP production glycolysis is anaerobic and does not require oxygen to function. There will therefore be an increase int eh the rate of glycolytic to meet tissue ATP demand. Because no oxygen is avaialbe for ETC , fermentation will increase

Adjusting Substrate proximity

increase the frequency of favorable collisons

hypoventilation

increased CO2 decreased ph increased H+

After consistent aerobic exercise muscle cells increase their number of

increased number of mitochondria to supplement the amount of ATP a large amount of ATP is needed

glucagon secretion

increases amount of products in plasma increases release of free fatty acid

increased intensity of stimulus

increases frequency of firing

Aldosterone

increases salt and increases urine volume

electron affinity trend

increases to the right and up

asymptomatic period

incubation period lasts months to years, production of antibodies by the body that are detectable by blood tests.

Anomic conditons

individualism social inequality isolation erode social solidarity

social facilitation

individuals are more likely to perform better on simple task when in presence of others

Ethnocentrism

individuals compare their own cultural practices with others

functionalism

individuals fulfilling roles that meet particular social needs

Social loafing

individuals who work in a group achieve a tad exert less effort than if working alone

Granuolocytes

inflammatory reactions and allergy

automatic Processing

info gained without effort (passive)

top-down processing

information processing guided by pre-existing knowledge or expectations to construct perceptions

Competitive Inhibition

inhbitior competes with the substrate to over come saturate with substrate vMax does not change because when the concentration of substrate is higher than the inhibitor it can always compete Km changes though

Non competitive inhibition

inhbitor binds to allosteric site to change conf. so substrate can't bind inhibitor can bind when substrate is present Increasing con on noncompetitive inhibitor decreases vmax bc decreases substrate available Km does not change

Gi

inhbits adenylate cyclase which decreases levels of cAMP in cell

extranuclear pattern of inheritance

inheritance of genes located in organelles such as mitochondria. mitochondria are mostly inherited from mother

Mendel's second law( of independent assortment)

inheritance of one allele has no effect on the likelihood of inheriting certain allels for other genes.

Complex IV

inhibited by cyanide, sodium azide, carbon monoxide, and hydrogen sulfate cytochrome c oxidase; uses cytochromes and Cu^2+ to transfer electrons in the form of hydride ions (H^-) from cytochrome c to oxygen, forming water. Two protons are translocated by complex IV

sympathies division in digestion

inhibition of digestion and peristalsis

Noncompetitive Inhibition

inhibitor binds with enzyme at a site other than active site Km stays same V Max= decreases

Uncompetitive inhibition

inhibitor will only bind to enzyme substrate complex....inhibitor binds to enzyme after substrate enters so that substrate cannot release increasing inhibitor decreases vmax and Km

somatosin

inhibits production of insulin and glucagon

Somatostatin

inhibits release of insulin and glucagon

embryoblast

inner cell mass of blastocys

Intermediate filament

inside cytoskeleton. help keep shape

institutional discrimination

institutional practices that have the effect of putting a disadvantaged group at further disadvantage and remains unchanged because it does not harm powerful groups

insulator

insulator is so named because it protects, or insulates, a gene from the regulatory effects of a neighboring gene

axon hillock

integrates incoming sinals sums excitoary and inhibiroty signals

non-reducing conditions

interactions between proteins are preserved detect proteins in reduced form

Myosin

interacts with actin thick filament in myofibril responsible for power stroke involved in cellular transport

Inducer

intercepts receptor proteins to stop it from binding to operator

Viral (intracellular Pathogen) Infections

interferons are produced reduce rate of transcription and translation (reduce multiplication) fever present intracellular surface on MHCI CD8+T will recognize MHCI

hemidesmosome

intermediate filaments of the cytoskeleton that are attached to the ECM through integrin proteins

gluconeogenesis

interplays in both the cytosol and mitochondrial matrix Rate-limiting enzyme: Fructose bisphosphatase-2

internal sphinpher

involuntary control (autonomic)

Somatoform disorders

involve circumstances were the physical symptoms an individual is experiencing cannot be fully explained by a general medical condtion

variable regions of heavy and light chains

involved in antigen binding

constant region of the heavy chain

involved in cellular recognition

Dyneins

involved in sliding movement of cilia and flagella bring vesicles of waste or recycled neurotransmitters back toward he negative end of the microtubule (toward the soma) through retrograde transport bring vesicles toward the negative end of microtubule

bonds between antigen and antibody

ionic H-bond Hydrophobic

Phophofructokinase -1

irreversible

Hexokinase

irreversible enzymes in most tissues low Km (when glucose is scarce Inhibited by G6P attach phosphate to substrate (glucose) trap glucose in cell

suicide inhbition

irrevesible inhbittion

Km

is [S] such that v= 1/2 vmax

polycistronic transcript

is commonly found in bacterial operons one that contains the information to produce several different proteins

Lorentz force

is the sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body

Ligases

join biological molecules usually of the same type

AV node

junction of atrial travels thought the bundle of his sand to the punkinjje fibers

Catalytic efficiency

kcat/Km K2/Kcat , apparent second-order rate constant. it measures how the enzyme performs, the upper limit is 10^8-10^9

brain stabilizer

keeps neruons from out of control stabilizers

photons

lack electric charge

anomie

lack of social norms or breakdown of social bonds between an individual society

tryptophan

largest aromatic double ring contains N

Fertilization

leads to the formation of a zygote. zygote undergoes division to increase number of cells but not cytoplasmic mass. 3 days after fertilization the dividing zygote has about 16 blastomeres. At this stage the cell mass is referred to as a morula and it begins to enter the uterus. four days after fertilization a fluid, filled cavity called the blastocyst cavity or blastocoel begins to form in the central potation of th morula.As this cavity forms the cells within the morula arrange them selves into two parts outer layer= tropoblast innerlayer=embryoblast trophoblast give rise to the placenta while the embryo blast give rise to the embryo around the sixth day after fertilization the blastocyst attach to the uterine

Reception learning

learning that comes from instruction This form of learning requires the ability to receive and process structured information as received by the teacher. In order for this to effective, teacher presentations should be organized from general to specific and should use a variety of organizational tools.

Lateriality

left brain dominant analytica langeuate logic math left-side hearing right side emotion creativy inturition

Visual Pathways

left visual field will go to right side of the brain and vice versa temporal fibers ...opitkc chaism--->LGN-->superior colliculus_-->visual cortex (occiptal lobe)

Z-DNA

left-handed helix that has a turn every 4.6nm and contains 12 bases within each form

Menospase

less sensitive to FSH LH, resulting in ovarian atrophy

Persistent Depressive Disorder

less severe and longer duration

pupil

lets light in ..constricts in light. ...dilates in dark

Neutrophils

leukocyte phagocytic granulocyte follows bacteria using chemotaxis can detect bacteria once they have been opsonized

corona radiata

lies outside the zone pellucida and is a layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation

nicotinic Ach

ligand gated ion channels nAchR are located at the neuromuscular junction on the postsynaptic side Activated by Ach on the synapse The diffusion of Na+ and K+ across the receptor causes depolarization, the end-plate potential, that opens voltage-gated sodium channels, which allows for firing of the action potential and potentially muscular contraction. Fast excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)--b/c directly gate inotropic receptors--> net flow of (+) ions--> fast depolarization [ms]

p-value

likelihood statistic was obtained by random change compared to significance level (a)= 0.005 if p-vlue is greater than a the we fial to reject the null hypothesis, which means that there is not a statistically significant diference between the tow population If p-value is less than a then we reject the null hypothesis and state that there is a staticially significant difference btween groups

type I error

likelihood we report a diffence between two poputlation when one does not actually eist

Ependymal cells

line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid

sp

linear 180º

regression analysis

linear, parabolic, exponential

peritoneal sac

lines the abdominal cavity

Interneurons

linked to reflexive behavior

prostaglandins

lipids that can act as hormones and hormones are secreted into the circulatory system

microvilli

live the small intestine

Glycogen is stored in the

liver

first order

ln[A] = -Kt + ln[A] A process that depends on the concentration at any one time , most drugs have first order elimination kinetics . If an enzyme system responsible for drug metabolism becomes saturated than the elimination kinetics change to zero order . The rate if elimination proceeds at the sane rate and is unaffected by an increased concentration of drug eg alcohol, phenytoin . . For an enzyme-catalyzed reaction with a very low initial substrate concentration, and where Km >> [S], the Michaelis-Menten equation may be approximated as V = Vmax [S] / Km, where Vmax / Km is a constant of the reaction. Under these conditions, the reaction is approximately first order with respect to S.

thoracic duct

located at the base of the neck enter the venous circulation

acing cells

located in pancreas produces pancreatic juices bicarbonate rich alkaline

delta cells

located in periphery of islets, secretes somatostatin

B-cells

located in spleen turn into plasma cells to produce antibodies as part of adaptive immunity considered naive when they leave the bone marrow and mature when exposed to antibodies

metaphysis

longitudinal the flared portion of a long bone, between the diaphysis (shaft) and the epiphyseal plate

diabetes insipidus

low ADH causes you to have FVD, dilute urine and concentrated blood. You're worried about shock. excessive urination but no sugar

generalizabilty (external validity)

low= narrow conditions for sample section do not reflect target population= diagnosed with the last year high= representative of target population= distribution of tie since diagnosis that is similar to the population of all psoriatic patients

non-competitive inhibitor

lower Vmax Km unchanged

vacuum distillation

lowers the boiling points of the substances to be distilled

Lacteals

lymphatic vessels located in small instestinge Fats, package into chylomicrons by intestinal cells, enter the acetal for transport

Agranulocytes

lymphocytes monocytes macrophages

Immunity

lympnoes are a place for APC and lymphogties to interact

immune function of lungs

lysozyme internal airways are lined with mucous, which traps particulate matter and larger invaders macrophages mast cells

Transcription

mRNA binds to tRNA to go to 3' to 5' direction...will keep going until it finds a start codon (peptide tRNA) large subunit (initiator) will carry on methionine and will bind Psite to start codon aminoasyl tRNA will bind to the A site GTP is released Elongation: pepitide bond goes between two initiator tuna and the former protein is released (E-site)and the ribosome will shift down What was in the A site shifts over to the P-site ..only initiator tuna can bind directly to P....goes until stop codon release factors tell ribosome to let go

protein levels are most directly related to

mRNA levels

osteoclasts

macrophage in bone

Langerhans cells

macrophage in skin

microglia

macrophage in the CNS

Chromatin

made form histones

Glucagon

made in Alpha cells

Insulin

made in B cells increase in sugar--> release insulin--> increase in PFK 2---> glucose uptake by tissues (converted to glycogen and used for fatty acids or proteins)---> decrease in blood sugar

Somatostain

made in Delta cells

p53

main protein in control of cell damage repair

ribosome

main site needed to run through translation

microtubles

maintaining cell shape

Tubulin

make up microtubules polarity negative side= adjacent to nucleus positive side= periphery of cell

Strecker synthesis

makes an aldehyde + NH4 + Cl- + KCN into amino acid

Actin

makes up microfilaments and thin filaments in myofibrils most abundant protein in eukaryotic cells positive side and negative side polarity= allows motor protein to travel unidirectionally along actin filament

positive selection

maturing only cells that respond to the presentation of antigen of MHC

Total lung capacity (TLC)

maximum volume of air in lungs when one inhales completly

positively skewed distribuion

mean higher than median

negatively skewed distribion

mean lower than median

standard distribution

mean of zero STD of 1..newly generated curve

Helmholtz

measured speed of a nerve impusle

non-disjunction

meiosis in which there is a failure of paired homologous chromosomes to separate

tryptophan derived hormones

melatonin, serotonin

tight junctions

membranes of neighboring cells are actually fused forming continuous belts around cell to prevent leakage of extracellular fluid

explicit

memories that require conscious recall

Implicit memory

memory a person is not aware of possessing

implicit memory

memory a person is not aware of possessing

procedural memory

memory for skills, including perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills required to complete tasks ex: riding a bike

semantic memory

memory of ideas, rules, words, and general concepts about the world

Semantic memory

memory related to facts

spreading activation

memory storage

X-ray crystallography

mesaure electron density used for Nucleic acids and proteins

Fn is equal to

mgcos + ma(if something pushing)

Normal Force

mgcos or mgcos+ma

Centrioles

microtubule organizing centers

phagosome fusion with lysosome

microtubules

MJ

million joules

monosomy

missing a chromosome

dissociative amnesia

missing memories of past due to traum

Allosteric Enzymes

molecule binding is an inhbitor

homotropic regulation

molecule serves as a substrate for its target enzyme as well as a regulatory molecule of the enzyme's activity ex. O2 is a homotropic allosteric modulator of hemoglobin

Activity analysis

monitoring known reaction with given concentration of substrate and comparing to standard

serotonin

mood, sleep, eating and reaming

Kohlberg's stages

moral reasoning addressing how people reason

thermodynamic control

more stable high temp

spiral bacteria

motile bacteria having a helical or spiral shape, elongated ex lyme disease

magnocellular cells

motion

Parkinson's Disease

movement disorders decreased dopamine production Managed with L-DOPA

veritcal mobility

moving up or down the social ladder within a person's last time ex. Lauren starts off at an entry-level postion at an accounting firma nd moves up to senior VP level within 20 years

skeletal muscle cells

multinucleate Voluntary muscle cells; you control when they move. They are specialised cells.

temporal summation

multiple signals are integrated ruing a relatively short time a number of small excitory siganls firing at nearly the same moment could bring a postsynaptic cell tothershold, enabling an action potential

tendons

muscle to muslce

carbohydrate digestion

must be broken down into monosaccharides for absorption

Oncogenes

mutated genes that cause cancer encode cell cycle-related proteins

Frameshift mutation

mutation that shifts the "reading" frame of the genetic message by inserting or deleting a nucleotide

three ways that ATP-dependent chromatin remodeling complexes may change chromatin structure

mutations can occur during chromatin remodeling - can cause a long stretch of DNA - remodelers may evict histones from DNA and cause gaps where nucleosomes are not present - changes in compositions of nucleosomes by removing standard histones and replacing them with histone variants

strength of magnetic field

mv/qr

Thick filaments

myosin A band

Breathing pathway

narse (nose)--> pharynx--> larynx-->trachea-->bronchi--->bronchioles-->alveoli

lysozyme

nasal cavity contains this enzyme that is able to attack walls of gram positive bacteria

Coenzymes

necessary for protein function BC are water soluble when bound super tightly called a prosthetic group

hydrogen bonding interactions

needs a hydrogen and FOH

Distress

negative type of stress that builds over time and is bad for your body. It happens when you perceive a situation to be threatening to you some way (physically or emotionally) and your body becomes primed to respond to the threat.

Neustress

neutral stress; the arousal it causes doesn't help or harm the body

granulocytes

neutrophils,eosinophils,and basophils

nuleotides

nitrogenous base, five carbon sugar, at least one phosphate group ex...GTP

nucleoside

nitrogenous base, five-carbon sugar

X-linked recessive

no M-to-M transmission, and mother is usually an unaffected carrier

absolute refractory period

no amount of stimulation can cause another action potential to occur

Silent Mutation

no change

reverse transcriptase enzyme

no exonuclease activity therefore it is more prone to making mistakes This leads to high rate of mutation when HIV replicates replicates RNA genome

strictly aerobic

no growth in 02 poor condition

strictly anaerobic

no growth in 02 rich condition

non-ionizing radiation

no known genetic damages, modalities (US, MRI)

Cultural capital

non-financial social asset that helps improve an individual's position/status in society

Hydrophobic

non-spontanoeus

smooth muscle

non-striated and under involuntary control uni-nucleated

symbolic culture

nonmaterial culture ex. mottos, songs, catch phrases

Natural killer cells (NK)

nonspecific lymphocyte detect down regulation of MHC and induce apoptosis in virally infected cells

medullary collecting duct

not collecting anymore, filtrate reabs, more water before being urine, vasopressin (ATH) acts here which then changes osmolarity highest concentration

activator

not increase [substrate] required to reach Vmax

confounding variable

not of interest to researcher but is extraneous variable which is related to both dependent and independent variables

chromatin

not visible with light microscopy during interphase

Astrocytes

nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier

Bacterial artificial chromosomes (BACs)

nserts can be up to 300,000 bp long

Prophase II

nuclear envelope dissolves, nuclei disappear the centrioles migrate to opposite poles, and the spindle apparatus begins to form

Telophase I

nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus chromosome still consists of two sister chromatids joined at centromere cells are haploid; n chromosomes found in eahc daugheter cell

Telophase II

nuclear membrane forms around each new nucleus cytokinesis follows, and two daughter cells are formed up to four haploid duaghters cells are produced per gametocyte

Dna polymerase a

nuclear, DNA replication, no proofreadin

Polynucleotides

nucleic acid biopolymers are composed on nucleotide monomers

Frameshift

nucleotide is completely removed, genetic sequence will be shifted -a one base pair deletion/inserstion

highly conserved

nucleotide sequences which have not changed significantly over long stretches of evolutionary time. if there is a mutation it will adversely affect the organism

incidence

number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in given period of time...ex. new cases per 100 at reisk

Nonsense mutations

o Change a normal codon to a STOP codon Mutations may also involve the addition or deletion of one of more bases of DNA

• Missense mutations

o Do alter the amino acid sequence ß Gluc 6 Val of beta-globin in Sikle-cell anemia ˙ Single base pari change from glutatmic acid to a valine ß Nutral mutation is conscrved ˙ New amino acid has no detectable • Don't change much to the protein structure

nonmalefience

obligation to avoid treatment or tintervention in which the potential harm outweighs the potential for benefit

cross-linking of cysteine residues in polypeptides

occurs inside the cell due to reducing environments of the cytoplasm

cooperativity

occurs when enzyme's binding of one substrate increases or decreases the affinity of the enzyme for another substrate. Thus cooperatively requires multiple binding sites on enzyme

Melting point graph

occurs when fraction is 50%

Minority influence

occurs when opinion minorities persuade others of their views influence of new ideas

sp3d2

octahedral 90º

Opsonization

once bound to specific antigen, antibodies may attract other leukocytes to phagocytize the antigens immediately

haploid

one copy of each chromosome

Relative poverty

one i poor in comparison to a larger population

moderator variable

one that includes the strength of a relationship between two other variables ex. social status vs self-exam mv= age

mediating variable

one which explains the relationship between two other variables.

confounding variable

one which is not typically of interest to the researcher but is an extraneous variable which is related to BOTH the dependent and independent variables.

Single-blind experiment

only the patient or assure is blinded

I band

only thin filaments

glottis

opening of the larynx covered by the epiglottis during swallowing

anus

opening through which waste are eliminated and consists of tow sphincters: the internal and external anal sphincters

Digestion pathway

oral cavity-->pharynx-->esophagus-->stomach-->small intestine-->large intestine --->anus

Arteries

oxygenated except pulmonary and umbilical muscular and elastic recoil elastic recoil drives high pressure

Golgi apparatus

packages and deliver cellular material for transport

endophrins

pain keillers

Glucagon is released by the

pancreas

Alpha cells

pancreas produce glucagon?

Stereotype threat

paradoxical effect where if one group is aware of a negative stereotype of negative stereotype they are more likely to conform to that sterotype

Facilitated diffusion

passive transprot diffusion of molecules down a concentration gradient through a pore in the membrane created by this trasmembrane protein used for molecules that are impermeable to membrane

Urbanization

pattern of movement from rural areas to cities. In this scenario, the rural town of Ohen does not have enough resources to support this population, so the people are moving to Benin City, a classic example of urbanization.

X-linked dominant

pedigree where affected offspring have affected parent, affected males pass trait to all their daughters but none of their sons, affected females pass trait to 50% of their sons and daughters

absolutie powerty

people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities, such as shelter, food, clothing, and water

oxytocin is what type of hormone?

peptide hormone

oxytocin

peptide hormone A hormone released by the posterior pituitary that stimulates uterine contractions during childbirth and milk ejection during breastfeeding.

Insulin

peptide hormone contains alpha helices

Secretin

peptide hormone that causes pancreatic enzymes to be released into the duodenum regulates pH of digestive tract by reducing Hcl secretion from parietal cells increases bicarbonate secretion from pancreas an enterogastrone

Lateral Genictualte Nucleus

perceives light coming in part of thalamus (relay station that diret it to where it needs to go

Law of Figure/Ground

perception needed to distinguish object from background (lamp vs 2 people's faces)

General anxiety disorder

persistent worry about many things ex. mortgage payments

Behaviorist perspective

personality is a result of learned behavior patterns based on a person's environment

Proton-Motive Force

ph decrease and voltage difference increases The proton concentration gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane that is created in the electron transport chain and used in oxidative phosphorylation.

enzymes can alter

ph, substrate shape

microglia

phagocytic cells that ingest and break down waste products and pathogenst

hyperchromism

phenomenon that happens in DNA when the both strand are separated (melted) increase in absorbance

maternal effect

phenotype of the offspring is determined by the nuclear DNA of the mother. Genes are inherited from both parents but the child doesnt show dad's phenotype. Happens in cytoplasm of the egg when mother deoposits gene products into the cytoplasm of the egg in early development

phenotypic results of individual with XXX

phentypic disorders will be mild since the extra X chromosome will be inactivated

Covalently modified enzymes

phosphate group activates/deactivates enzymes

phosphatides

phospholipid

components of emotion

physiological arousal expressive displays subjective experiences (how you feel and interpret emotions)

cross sectional area

pi X r^2

bilrubin

pigment in bile if liver is unable to process or excrete bilirubin, jaundice or yellowing of the skin may occur

Thrombocytes

platelets cell fragments released from the bone marrow Assist in closing the blood

glial cells (neuroglia)

play structural and supportive roles

Chiasma

point of synapsis

serine

polar

threonine

polar

tyrosine

polar aromatic

Nucleic Acids

polymers with nucleotides being repeated

just notable difference

porportional take change and divideit by the intial stimulus ex. 5, 4 4 is initial .....1/4= 25% and 10, 9 9 is inital tf 1/9 1/9 < 1/4 and 1/4 is the threshold therfore 1/9 is below the threshold

Sigmoidal Curves

positive cooperativity can be recognized it Allosteric activation v. Allosteric inhibition

arginine

positively charged

lysine

positively charged

Hawthorne effect, observation bias

posits that the behavior of the study participants is later simply because they recognize that they are being studied

Cerebellum

posture, balance, body movements inhbited by alcohol

azide

powerful nucleophile

Oogenesis

prdouction of female gametes primary oocytes (2n)---> menarche---->secondary oocyte +polar body

mast cells

preformed antibodies on surface when substance attaches to antibody, inflammatory chemicals are released release histamine

natural immunity

present in the individual at birth, prior to exposure to a pathogen or antigen, and that includes intact skin, salivary enzymes, neutrophils, natural killer cells, and complement.

Telomere

prevents losing sequences and information during replication by adding a repeating unit at the end of DNA

IgM

primary immune response

Striate cortex

primary visual cortex

Goffman back stage

private areas of our lives where we do not have to act but be our true selves

power

probability of correctly rejecting a false null hypothesis =1-b

autoradiography

process used to detect the amount and location of bound can be used during S phase

granulosa cells

produce estrogen immediately surround the oocyte

bulbouretheral (Cowper's) glands

produced a clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remants of urine and lubricates the uretra duruing arosal

Myelin is produced where in CNS and PNS?

produced by oligodendrocytes in central nervous system produced by Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system

Epinephrine

produced by the adrenal medulla stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system promotes glycogeneolysis and fatty acid release from adipose tissue

Thyroxine

produced by the thyroid gland Stimulated by TSH Promotes glycogenolysis and sugar absorption by intestines

Telophase II

produces a zygote and a second polar body

Thyroid gland

produces calcitonin in para cells calcitonin decreases blood calcium levels by inducing osteoblasts

Adrenal Cortex

produces cortiosl and sex hormones

Pituitary gland

produces: FSH and LH

LH leads to

progesterone testosterone, essential for meals development

Which hormones primarily act on the endometrium?

progesterone and estradiol

proactive

promote social change

Penetrance

promotion of individuals in population with a genotype who actually express phenotype ex.3 affected 2 normal....3/5= 60%

derivatives of arachidonic acid

prostaglandins, leukotrienes, thromboxanes

zona pellucida

protect the oocyte and necessary for sperm cell binding

Troponin

protein present in skeletal and cardiac myocytes that bind Ca in order to expose biding sites on actin filament for myosin to bind to, initiating contraction

Histones

proteins contain basic functional groups that give them a net positive charge at body pH which encourages interaction with negatively charged phosphate groups on DNA

complement sytem

proteins in blood that act as nonspecific defense against bacteria by punch holes in bacteria making them unstable

nucloproteins

proteins that associate with DNA most are acid-soluble and tend to stimulate transcription

Ion channels

proteins that create specific pathways for charged molecules

Polyacrylamide gel

proteins travel through based on size and charge small move faster highly charged move faster large electric field move faster slower -bigger -more convluted -electrically neutral

schizophrenia

prototypic l psychotic disorder positie symptoms: behavior thoughts or feeling added to normal behavior negative sysmptorms: absence of normal or desired behavior Medication are for positive

glycolipids

provide energy and serve as markers for cellular recognition

boiling chips

provide nucleation sites that give the liquid a place to start forming bubbles to prevent super-heating

lymph nodes

provide place for immune cells to communicant B-cells can be activated here

cell-mediated immunity

provided by T-cels

Network support

providing a sense of belonging to a person

moderating variable

qualify a causal relationship as dependent on another variable; impact of anxiety on memory depends on level of fatigue

what structure is a dipeptide

quaternary because has two or more polypeptide chains to form

Magnetic Force

qv x Bsin

Ionizing radiation

radiation w/enough energy to free electrons from atoms forming ions, may cause cancer (ex. gamma, X-rays, UV).

depolarization

raising membrane potential from resting

Brownian motion

random movement of molecules in a fluid or gas power background thermal energy

absolute mobility

rapid economic growth, every bodies standard of living increases

isocitrate dehydrgenase

ratelimintng step 1st NADH produced form acetyl-CoA

Zero order

reactant concentration independent, Rate = k see a linear decrease in the plasma concentration of a substance The reaction would display zero-order kinetics only if increasing substrate concentrations did not lead to an increase in the reaction velocity. This is generally true under saturating conditions, when substrate concentration is high relative to Km and when V = Vmax.

Draw Lactate reacting with NAD+

reagent is lactate dehydrogenate NADH has a strong absorbance at 350 NAD+ does not

annealing

reassociation of separated strands

inferior colliculus

receives auditor sensory information

superior colliculus

receives visual sensory input

ADH

reduces plasma osmaolarity

function

refer to beneficial consequence of people's actions

second sickness

refers to an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice

mortality

refers to deaths caused by a given disease

Goffman first stages

refers to interactions with society in which an individual knows behavior will be judged

appraisal

refers to stress stimulus

External validity

refers to the generalizability of the research to settings beyond this study. an experimental setup that closely resembles real-life situations so that results can safely be generalized to such situations

H zone

region containing thick filaments only

Secondary structure

regularly-occurring structure in proteins and is primarily formed through hydrogen bonds between backbone atoms.

ventilation

regulated by medulla oblongata

Voltage-gated channels

regulated by membrane potential change near channel

medulla oblongata

regulates breathing heartbeat, and blood pressure

Variable interval schedule

reinforced after an unknown or unpredictable amount of time has elapsed

variable ratio schedule

reinforced after an unknown or unpredictable number of responses ex. gambling for reinforcement

Continuous reinforcement

reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs

Feature detection

related exclusively to vision, not smell

Reconstructive bias

related to memory such that it is not as accurate as we think

intermolecular

relatively weak interactions that occur between molecules Dipole dipole hbond london dispersion

Pons

relays information and regulates sleep ...sleeps pon the bed

Cortisol

released by the adrenal cortex glucocoridcoid Stimulated by ACTH from the anterior pituitary enhances gluconeogenesis and antagonizes insulin

LH

released by the anterior pituitary and causes ovulation. Simulated by an increase in estrogen

brush-border enzymes

released when chyme is in the duodenum ie. disaccharides and peptidases present on luminal surface lining and break down dimers and trimers of biomolecules into absorblale monomorers

Adrenal Medulla

releases epinephrine and norephrin

DNA gyrase (DNA topiosomeras II)

releives supercoiling by introducing negative sup coils works ahead of helloes, nicely both strands passing the DNA strands through the nick, and then resealing both strands

negative punishment

removing a stimulus to decrease a behavior

negative reinforcement

removing a stimulus to increase a behavior

Weak bonds permit

repeated interactions

telomerase

replases lost sequence at the end of each round of replication high GC content

DNA polymerase y

replicates mitochondrial DNA

DNA polymerase III

replication proof reading and editing 3--5'

log-log graph

represent fold change

Cycindependent Kinases (CDK)

require the presence of the right cyclins during the cell cycle, concentrations of various cyclins increase and decrease during stages

primers in PCR

requires 2 primers that are complementary to the 3' ends of the sense and anti-sense strands

classical pathway

requires the finding of an antibody to a pathogen

reactive

resist change

• Homologous recombinants are identified

resistance to certain drug

hyperventilation

respiratory alkalosis increased pH decreased H+

gastric glands

respond to signals from the vagus nerve of the parasympathetic nervous system

justice

responsibilty to treat similar patients with similar care and to distribute health care resources fairly ex. transplant given to young child instead of elderly adult large population will generally have more good than small population ethncity, sexual orientation, financial status are not morally relevant differences religion may or may not be a valid moral criterion

estrogen

responsible for initial thickening of endometrium

thymosin

responsible for maturation of T-cells

DNA polymerases

responsible for reading the DNA template and synthesizing the new daughter strand read template in 3' to 5' direction while syntesizing complememntary strand in 5' to 3' direction

centrosome

responsible for the correct division of DNA

VLDL

responsible for the transport of fatty acids synthesized de novo in the liver primary vehicle for carrying liver-synthesized triglyceride lips must first reach liver for synthesis to occur

autonomy

responsible to respect patients decision and chosces about own health ccare

repolariztion

restoration of the negative membrane potential

Detection bias

results from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconstant way for diabetes study a doctor might screen for more overweight patients than healthy

Meiosis I (reductional division)

results in homologous chromosome s being spirited generationg hapolid daughers

Meiosis II (equational division

results in separation of sister chromatids

Mitosis

results in two diploaid daughers

pluripotent cells

s (such as embryonic stem cells) can differentiate into almost every cell, but can't give rise to an entire, intact individual

dose-response relationship

s the study or independent variable increases, there is a proportional increase in the response. The more consistent this relationship, the more likely it is to be causal

mRNA

same as complement but with a u

Ipsitaleral

same side

ventromedial hypothalmus

satiety center you are full now

which nutrient has the greatest heat of combustion?

saturated fats because more highly reduced

H1

seals off DNA as it enters and leaves the nucleosome adding stability to the structure

Seasonal Affective disorder

seasonal consent Symptoms-> present in winter months, abnormal melatonin metabolic, bright light

Meiosis I (females)

secondary oocyte (gamete) and polar body

parietal cells

secrete H+ once cleaved pepsinogen to pepsin secrete intrinsic factor

Helper T-cells (CD4+ Tcells)

secrete lymphokines recite other immune cells loss of these occur in HIV CD XMHC=8 repson to MHC II (3 X2=8)

Gamma cells

secrete pancreatic polypeptide which reduces appetite

chief cells

secrete pepsinogen

interstitial cells of Leydig

secrete testosterone and other androgens

Gastrin

secreted by G cells induces partial cells to secrete more Hal and signals the stomach to contract, mixing its contents

progesterone

secreted by corpus luteum in response to LH involved in develoopment and maintenc of endometrium

intrinsic factor

secreted by parietal cells involved in absorption of vitamin B12.

enteropeptidase

secreted by the duodenum

progesterone

secreted by the ovary and corpus lute and maintains the prelacy by inhibiting the loss of the endometrial lining

cholecystokinin (CCK)

secreted in response to the entry of chymeinto the duodenum

endocrine system is composed of

secretes hormones directly into the bloodstream and is composed of the following glands: hypothalamus of the brain anterior and postiuitary pituitary gland thyroid and parathyroid medulla and cortex of adrenal islets of lagerhands in the pancreas pineal gland ovaries and testes

duodenum

secrets enteropetidase CCK into bloodstream and secretin

Duplication

section of DNA is duplicated

cocci bacteria

seen forming chains in this urine sample

Insertion

segment of dan is moved to a different chromosome

Translocation

segments of DNA are exchanged

IgE

sensitizes cells to allergens

Vestibule

sensitve to linear acceleration ...up and down affects balance and orientation in space

Midbrain

sensorimotor reflexes

Semicular canals

senstitive to rotational accelation

DNA helicase

separate double-stranded DNA into single strands allowing each strand to be copied

Electrophoresis

separated by charge and size negatively charged compounds will migrate towards positively charged anode positvely chareged compounds will migrate toward negatively charged cathod

SDS-PAGE

separates based on mass SDS disrupts noncovalent interaction by neutralizing protiens original charge and denaturing the protein

Bicuspid

separates left atrium (lab)

tricuspid

separates right atrium (rat)

Isoelectirc Focusing

separating by pI positively charged migrate toward cathode negatively charge toward anode as protien reaches the portion of gel where pH is equal to the protein's pI, the protein takes on neutral charge and will stop moving

cytokinesis

separation of cytoplasm and organelles

Meiosis I

seperates homologous chromoses to create haploid daughter cells two haploaid daugher cells each with 23 chromosomes consisting of 2 sister chromatids per chromosonmes (for females)

Meiosis II

seperates sister chromatids to create two haploid cells

polar amino acids

serine, threonine, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine

derivatives of tryptophan

serotonin and melatonine

kinetochore fibers

serve as attachment points for specific fibers of the spindle apparatus

gametes

sex cells

sex pili

sexual-like structure that can join 2 bacteria to exchange DNA

diaphysis

shaft of a long bone

Fetal Hemobglobin

shift left to yank ox from mom

Fetal Hemoglobin

shift to left (HbF) 2,3 BPG does not bind well to HbF decrease in Cow, H+, Temp, and 2,3 BPG

interkiniesis

short rest period after telophase I chromosome partially uncoil

Reannealing

signle starnded DNA to doublestranded DNA if denaturing condition is slowly removed

single-crossover vs double cross over

sing: affect only the ends of chromosome arms double: effect segments in middle of chromosome arms only occur during meiosis

Capillaries

single cell layer thick Allow diffusion of O2 and Co2, glucose, ammonia, urea

monosynaptic reflex arc

single synapse between sensory motor neuron ex. knee jerk relex

Meiosis II (males)

sister chromatids are split into 4 gametes

nucleoulus

site of cellular rRNA transcription and processing of ribosome assembly

implicit

skils and conditinoned response

Histones

small basic proteins that make up a chromosome

Smell

smell goes straight to processing does not go through thalamus

Tangible support

social support focused on practical or material needs

meritocracy

society in which advancement up social ladder is based on intellectual talent andachievment

peripheral

somatic and autonomic

Characteristics of Enzymes

some change shape after binding created catalytic effect than lab catalyst break bonds in substrate and make the bonds in product

sound waves and molecular collisions

sound is a mechanical wave, and so it lies on molecular collisions for propagation. For this reason, sound travels fastest in solids where molecules are closer together

ATP Synthase

spans inner membrane, protrudes into the matrix

Parietal

spatical processing..where we are

lacteals

specialized lymph vessels in the small intestine that absorb fat into the bloodstream

demographic transiton

specific example of demographic shift referring to changes in birth and death rates in a country as it develops from a preindustrial to industrial system stage 1) preindustrial= birth and death rates high stage 2) improvements in sanitation and health cause death to drop Stage 3) improv. in contraception and right cause decrease in both rates Stage 4) industrialized society; birth and death rates are both low

ghettoes

specific racial ethnic minorities are concentrated, usually due to social or economic inequities`

mediating variable

specifies a given cause that works indirectly through a more direct cause to a final effect adds variance a variable that "comes between" two other variables in a causal chain. variable helps to explain part or all of the relationship between two other variables (A+B+C)

laminar flow speed

speed will be greatest in the middle and approach zero at the walls fo the tube

Seminiferous tubules

sperm is produced here

Hypdrphilic

spontaneous

case-control studies

start by identifying the number of subjects with or without a particular outcome and then look backwards to assess who many subjects in each group had exposure to a particular risk factor e.x 100 patients with lung caner and 100 patients without lung cancer are assessed for their smoking history

B-cell activation

starts off as naive B-cell--> particular antigen--> proliferation-->primary response-->if same microbe is encountered again--->secondary response

BLAST

starts with a genetic sequence and then locates homologous sequences in a large database • BLAST will search the entire database selected and determine which sequences are the closest matches

categorial variables

state status

gas liquid chromatography

stationary phase is a liquid that is immobilized on a solid. detention of sample constituents involves equilibria between a gaseous and a liquid phase

• totipotent

stem cells can give rise to all cell types

Cortisol

steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex. inhibits immune system, increasing blood glucose and necessary when dealing with stress

Aldosterone

steroid hormone: derivative cholesterol made by the adrenal cortex response to decrease in blood volume immediate effect: reabsorbs more salt by increasing Na/K pump in the nephron effect on osmolarity and volume: increases blood volume

ligan-binding domain

stimulated by ligand and induces conf. change that activates catalytic domain results in second messenger cascade

FSH (male)

stimulates the Sertoli cells and triggers spem maturation

parasympathetic division in digestion

stimulation of digestive, actives, and promotes peristalsis

gallbladder

stores bile upon release of CCK, he gallbladder contracts and pushes bile out into the billiard tree

leading strand

strand that is copied in counties fashion

Memory of traumatic events

stress hormones increase the brain's avaiable supply of glucose energy, and the amygdala increases neuronal activty and the supply of proteins within the brain's meory sytems, producing strong, highly accessible memories

Base pair

strong implication of melting temperature essentially same shape and widths

Intermediate filaments

structurally important for cytoskeleton

equipoise

studies comparing two potential treatment options, one cannot approach the research with the knowledge that one treatment is superior to the other.

• Proteomics -

study of the proteome (all of the proteins produced) and how they interact with each other (not covered in this class)

counterculture

subculture characterized by section of population whose values and norms of behavior differ from those of society

Cohort

subjects are sorted into two groups based on difference in risk factor (exposures) and then assesed at various intervals to determine how many subjects in each group had a certain outcome ex. nosmokers vs smokers for lung cancer study

Selection bias

subjects used for study are not representative of the target population ex. someone volunteering for trial may be heather and morelikly to benefit than someone who doesn't volunteer because can't make to hospital also gender, age

Phoshphoenolpyrouvate and 1,3-BPG

substrate level phosphorylation produces ATP

Transient covalent bonding

substrates brifely contact active site residues sequentially

non-reducing disaccharide

sucrose carbohydrate that is not oxidized by a weak oxidizing agent (an oxidizing agent that oxidizes aldehydes but not alcohols, such as the Tollen's reagent) in basic aqueous solution...has a hemiacetal and hemiketal so it is safe in water

reducing sugars

sugars having anomeric carbon atoms that have not formed glycosides (acetal linkage) ex raffinose (oligosaccaride)

methionin

sulfur atom inside chaine

Midbrain

superior colliculus infereior colliculus

internal validy

support for casualty identification of causality in study between independent and dependent variables

thecal cells

surround granulose cells produce estrogen

symbolic interactionism

symbols how we codify concept to handgesters and body language

S stage

syntheis stage replicates its genetic material so that ecach dauagheter will have idential copies. After replication, each chromosome consists of tow identical chromatids that are bound together at the centromere. Ploidy of cell does not change

S phase (somatic)

synthesis phase of cell cycle; portion of interphase which DNA is replicated (2n)

Eicosanoids

synthesized from arrachidonic acid degrade easily inflammation, blood pressure, and blood clotting

Cholesterol

synthesized in a metabolic pathway contacting protein enzymes which catalyze each step enzymes are encoded by genes

Type IV RE

target modified DNA

culture lag

tendency for human technology to change more rapidly than culture forms that handle the effects of technology and determine how should be used

Weber's law

test threshold at which stimulus is detected

Gonads

testosterone and estrogen

sp3

tetrahedral 109.5º

anaphase of meiosis I

the 2 pairs of sister chromatids within a bivalent separate from each other but the connection between them doesnt break. each joined pair of chromatids migrates to one pole, and the homologous pair of chromatids moves to the opposite pole

Codons that specific the same amino acid can only differ in

the 3rd codon

Antisense strand

the DNA strand that is used as a template during transcription. Is therefore complimentary to the mRNA sequence. Also called the template strand. gives rise to the heavy strand of DNA

totipotency

the ability of a single cell to divide and produce all the differentiated cells in an organism

spatial summation

the additive effects are based on the number and location of the incoming signals A large number of inhibtory signals firing diretly on the somal will cuase more profouund hyperpolariztion of the axon hillock than the deploraization caused by a few excitaory signals friting on the dendrites of a neuron

appendicular skeleton

the bones of the arms and legs along with the bones of the pelvis and shoulder area

zwitterionic

the carboxyl group is negative, amine is positive, can be neutral at neutral pH

Anaphase II

the centromeres divdie, separating the chromosome into sister chromatids Chromatids are pulled to opposite poles by spindle fibers

Specificity

the change in the outcome variable is only produced by an associated change in the independent variable

Bipolar I

the client has at least one episode of mania alternating with major depression

fatty acids and temperature

the colder the temp the more unsaturated fatty acids -don't want the cell membrane to become solid when it gets cold

test cross

the crossing of an individual of unknown genotype with a homozygous recessive individual to determine the unknown genotype

Weber's Law

the degree to which an individual perceives differences differences are proportional

chyme

the digestion of solid food in the stomach

Hydrophobic effect

the exclusion of non-polar substances by water (critical for protein The propensity of hydrophobic molecules to part ion into a hydrophobic environment

Temporality

the exposure (independent variable) must occur before the outcome (dependent variable)

Kin selection

the idea that behaviors that help a genetic relative are favored by natural selection ...reproductive success is favored....related to altruism and intrusive fitness

grouptink

the idea that when an individual participates in a group, a consensus is always the most desired result

Double-blind experiment

the investigator, subject, and assure all do not know the subject's group

Residual volume (RV)

the minimum volume of air in the lungs when one exhales completely

bond angle trend

the more non-bonding electron pairs, the smaller the angle

Vertical mobility

the movement from one social level to a higher one or a lower one by either changing jobs or marrying.

coherence

the new data and hypothesis are cosnsitstenat with the current stat of scientific knowledge

mechanical advantage

the number of times a machine increases a force exerted on it MA=hypotenuse/ height

benefience

the obligation to act in the patients best interest

homophily

the overall similarity among members in the social system

Psychoanalytic perspective

the perspective that stresses the influences of unconscious forces on human behavior

absolute poverty

the point at which a household's income falls below the necessary level to purchase food to physically sustain its members

equivalence point

the point at which the two solutions used in a titration are present in chemically equivalent amounts

kinesthetic sense

the position and orientation of specific body parts

Modeling

the process of observing and imitating a specific behavior

Consitency

the relationship is found to e similar in multiple settings

vestibular sense

the sense of body movement and position, including the sense of balance

2nd proton removed is from

the side chain carboxyl group not the amine

Proteomics

the study of all the proteins encoded by the genome and their interactions

Cannon-Bard theory

the theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers (1) physiological responses and (2) the subjective experience of emotion

James-Lange theory

the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli

Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)

the volume of additional air that can be forcibly exhaled after a normal exhalation

proteins are excellent buffers because

the wide range of pKa values found within the protein

Transcription factor

then promote transcription of genes required for the next stage of the cell cycle

viable autosomal monosomies

there are none

Plausibilty

there is a reasonable mechanism for the independent variable to impact the dependent variable supported by existing literature

organic acid

there must be a covalent bond between a carbon and hydrogen atom in the molecular structure. Organic acids are weak acids, generally having formulas of R-CO2H, with the acidic hydrogen bonded to an oxygen atom.

relative refractory period

there must be greater than normal stimulation to cause action potential because membrane is starting form potential that is more negative than resting value

If capacitor is moved in the opposite direction of electron flow...

there will be no potential difference

Microenvironmnt adjustments

through the exclusion of water adjustment of the local environs' pH

Thyroxine

thyroid hormone is a tyrosine derived and increases metabolic rate

types of junctions

tight, adherens, desmosome, hemidemosome, and gap

Fermentation

to regenerate NADH pyruvate--- Lactate dehydrogenase ---> lactate (in uncial cells in an anaerobicc environment in yeast : pyruvate --->ethanol

Why do we centrifuge

to separate soluble and insoluble portions

Heterochromatin

too tightly wound to be accessed by cellular machinery before transcription can take place it must be first unwound constitutive heterochratin is permanently wound ant therefor is not transcribed

Chargaff's rule

total purines= total pyrimidines

Nuclear Factor

transcription factor that promotes gene expression of various cytokines, endothelial adhesion molecules, and interferon regulatory factors (IRF)

repressible operon

transcription is usually on, but can be inhibited (repressed) when a specific small molecule binds allosterically to a regulatory protein (example tryptophan)

Steroid hormones bidn to receptors in nucleus and directly regulate

transcription of RNA

passive imunity

transfer of antibodies to individual

Horizontal gene transfer

transfer of genes from one organism to another other than through reproduction

Phosphorylase

transfers a phosphate group to a molecule from inorganic phosphate

social reproduction

transmission of social inequality from one generation to the next

Collagen

trielical makes up most ECM connective tissue support and flexibility

Lateral Hypothalamus

triggers eating and drinking

chylomicrons

triglycerides and esterified cholesterol molecules are packaged into insoluble chylomicrons

fuel source available to hibernation animals, migrating birds, and creatures that really consume meals....and why

triglycerides because glucose obtained from a meal high in carbohydrates will only las for about eight ours

pancreatic peptidases

trypsinogen chymotrypsinogen carboxypeptidases A and B

Serotonin is biochemically drive from

tryptophan

eustchian tube

tube from ear to mouth pressure regulation

B-DNA

turn every 3.4nm and contains about 10 bases within span

Antibody structure

two identical heavy chains two identical light chains disulfide linkages and non covalent interactions hold the heavy and light chains to getter antigen-biding region (variable reaion/domain) at tips of Y

Integrins

two membrane-spaning chains called a and B. chain important in binding and comumunicating with the ECM improtant in cell signaling , promoting cel divison, apoptosis

dissociative identity disorder

two or more personalizes

DNA gyrase

type of topioisomerase that relieves supercoiling

Middle ear

typympanic membrane-->auditory canal--->malleus-->incus-->stapes (rest on oval window)

Complex III

ubiquinone: cytochrome c oxidoreductase; transfers electrons from QH2 to cytochrome c; protons are transferred from the matrix to the IMS

skeletal myocytes

unable to divide

implicit bias

unconscious, automatic biases measured by IAT; impacts decision-making and impressions (e.g., of other racial groups) without the person's conscious awareness first impression

Wernicke's area

understanding of written and spoken language

latent funcitons

unintended positive consequences on the parts of society unstated or unrecognized

cognitive dissonance

unpleasant feeling a person experience when holding two contradictory beliefs at the same time. ex. School is important...college tuition is wasted

Ungated channels

unregulated...no gates

linoleum acid

unsaturated fatty acid

DNA microarray florescence

up -regulated= green on a gene chip, however red to the eye down regulated= appear green neither up regulated nor down regulated = yellow

Bradford Protein Assay

used to determine protein conc. accurate when one type of protein is present limited by presence of detergent in sample

glycosidic bond

used to link monosaccharides

tosylate ion

used to make alcohol into better electrophile

Dialysis

used to remove small molecules such as salts from the sample and to exchange buffers for subsequent purification steps

Edman degradation

uses cleavage to sequence proteins removes N-terminal AA which can be analyzed by mass spec For larger proteins digestion with chymotrypsin, trypsin, and cyanogen bromide may be used and then analyzed using electrophoresis or Edman degradation....however their positions cannot be determined

Functional genomics

uses the data from genome sequencing projects to predict and describe gene and protein functions and interactions and ultimately, to understand how this produces the traits of an organism

In situ hybridization

using a labeled DNA or RNA probe to find a complementary nucleic acid sequence. • Can be used to locate the position of a gene or other unique DNA segment in a chromosome • Most common method uses fluorescently labeled DNA probes (usually made from cDNAs) • This is referred to as fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH).

Bacterial knockouts created

using transposons

inducible operon

usually off, but can be stimulated (induced) when a specific small molecule interacts with a regulatory protein (example lac operon)

sound velocity equation

v=sqr(K/p) K= bulk modulus

monovalent

vaccine with only one antigen

monovalent

vaccine, antiserum, or antitoxin developed specifically for a single antigen or organism

Criterion validity

variable is able to predict a certain outcome.

independent variable

variable that is manipulated

dependent variable

variable that is observed

moderating variable

variable which changes the relationship between two other variables

Signal detection theory

various confusing or potentially misleading stimuli and tests whether a specific stimulus is detected

Expresivity

varying degree to which an allele manifests as a phenotype

Thromboxane

vasoconstriction; released by platelets, smooth muscle derived from arachidonic acid

ADH

vasopressin peptide hormone made by hypothalamus , released by posterior pituitary related in response to increase in plasma osmolarity immediate effect: increases water reabsorbing in the collecting doc effect on osmolarity and volume: decreases plasma osmolarity

migration velocity

velocity of electrophoresis migration v = Ez/f v= migragtion velcoity E= electric field strength f= frictional coeffient z= net charge on molecule

denaturing gel electrophoresis

vertical method that uses SDS in polyacrylamide to separate by size only, only primary structure remains intact confirms size

basilar membrane

vibrates-->hair cells depolarize-->electrical signals sent through the nerves

occipital

visual cortex

Superior colliculi

visual reflex center

To recharge battery

voltage must be larger than potentail of the cell

external anal sphincters

voluntary control (somatic)

motor cortex

voluntary muscle movements in response

acetylcholine

voluntary muscle ocontrol (PNS) and attention and arousal (CNS)

skeletal muscles

voluntary, multicellular, striated (overlapping strands of actin and myosin organized into sacromeres)

norepinephrine

wakefulnes and alertnes

Solubility of cholesterol and triglycerides

water insoluble and require carriers to travel through circulation

law of proximity

we tend to perceive objects close to each other in groups, rather than as a large collection of individual pieces.

The law of symmetry

we tend to perceive stimuli as grouped symmetrically around a center point.

law of closure

when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed line

somatic symptom disorder

when an individual complains of a symptom that is not linked to medical condition

agglutinate

when antibodies clump tighter

disjunction

when chromosomes come apart

Complete dominance

when dominant allele fully masks a recessive allele

Attrition bias

when participants drop out of a long-term experiment

foot-in-the-door technique

when someone has agreed to make a small commitment towards something, they are then much more likely to follow up with a greater commitment. Here, getting them to sign a petition would be a small commitment to increase their willingness to volunteer for the whole weekend.

Founder effect

when species are in reproductive isolation form other population genetic diversity decease so other trait prevalence increases

divergent evolution

when two or more species sharing a common ancestor become more different over time

Cornea

where light converges

fovea

where light is focused loated at focal point

Perilymph

where sound transmits

criterion validity

whether test reflects a certain set of abilities

Insertion of a DNA fragment into the MCS will disrupt (mutate) the LacZ gene,

white

Leukocytes

white blood cells produced in bone marrow divided into: granulocytes and granulocytes

pKa of chosen indicator

will be within +/- 1 unit of target pH

Citric acid cycle

will not occur in the absence of O2 because will lead to NADH and FADH because will not be consumed

Even numbered carbon chain

will oxidize into two carbons -last step uses 4-carbon chain

DNA polymerase a and d

work together to synthesize both the leading and lagging strand

Cluster C

worried -Avoidant -Dependent: need for reassurance from others -Obsessive-compulsive: Ego-syntoni, lack of die

Supercoiling

wrapping of DNA on itself as its helical structure is pushed toward the tellers during replication

After seven cycles of PCR how many strands of DNA will you see?

x= how many strands in DNA n=amount of cycles 2 * n^7= 128 two strands of dna therefore 128X2=256

binary

yes vs no, better vs.worse

1 day after fertilization

zygote divides

Day 3 of fertilization

zygote forms 16 blastomeres

coactivators

—proteins that increase the rate of transcription but do not directly bind to the DNA itself.

Cosmids

• Hybrid between a plasmid vector and phage λ • Can accept DNA fragments tens of thousands of bp long

Interest in stem cells centers around two main areas

• 1. They may help us understand the basic genetic mechanisms that underlie the process of development • 2. They offer the potential to treat human diseases or injuries that cause cell and tissue damage • This application has already become a reality • For example, bone marrow transplants are used to treat patients with certain forms of cancer

Nonspecific approach

• A mixture of primers with many different random sequences is used - Anneal randomly throughout the genome and amplify most of the chromosomal DNA

Gene addition versus gene replacement

• Cloned genes can be introduced into plant and animal cells • Needs to integrate into a host chromosome to be inherited by daughter cells • Needs to be present in the germ line if it is to be inherited in offspring • Integration occurs by recombination

Microorganisms are used to benefit humans in various ways

• Food fermentation • Production of medicine • Biological control • Bioremediation

- gene addition

• If a copy does, or does not, exist in the host genome the recombinant copy can undergo non-homologous recombination

gene replacement

• If a copy of the gene already exists in the host chromosome, the recombinant copy can undergo homologous recombination which results in • Can lead to ----- if the recombinant copy is defective.

Non-homologous recombination

• Middle of molecule recombined • Ends of molecule recombined • Neomycin resistant, gancyclovir sensitive

Eukaryotic chromosomes can be distinguished by

• Size • Location of centromeres • Banding patterns


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