REL 150 Final Exam

Purusha/Purusa and Caste

Social class distinction on the basis of hereditary occupation is called Caste (Fisher, p. 540). Purusha/Purusa is the Cosmic Spirit, soul of the universe in Hinduism; in Samkhya philosophy, the eternal Self (Fisher, p. 544). The Samkhya system holds that there are two states of reality. One is the Purusha, the Self, which is eternally wise, pure, and free, beyond change, beyond cause (Fisher, p. 80-81) In the Duties of the Four Castes from The Manu smrti, the social codes of India, it is written that humanity is divided into four castes in order to preserve entire creation or Purusha. It also states that the "exceedingly resplendent one, assigned separate duties," including the priest (brahmans), the warrior (Kshatriyas), the merchant (vaishyas), and the servant class (shudras) (Anthology, p. 70). (Shelly Stuckman)

tariqa/path/order

Sufi practitioners surrounded themselves around and discipled themselves to individuals they believed to be spiritual masters, together forming a fraternity, where they would practice Sufi rituals and work towards spiritual development in support of each other. These masters were often believed to have lineages connected to the Prophet Muhammad or one of his famous Companions (like 'Ali or Abu Bakr). (Dr. P.) They "evolved, one of which traced its spiritual lineage back to junayd of Baghdad. He knew that it was dangerous to speak openly of ones mystical understandings; the exoteric minded might find them blasphemous, and those who had not has such experiences would only interpret them literally and thus mistakenly. ( Fisher408) (Nathen stinson)

sutras

Sutra is a type of religious literature present in many Asian traditions such as Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. The word sutra is a Sanskrit term that means "discourse" or "threads." Sutras were originally oral traditions and designed to prompt memory. They are believed to record important religious practices, sometimes containing the teachings of key religious figures (Ancient history 1) (Starkey)

Swadhyaya movement

Syadhyaya means "self study", and is a movement throughout India which uses ideas present in early scriptures, such as the Bhagavad-Gita in order to analyze ones self, and by extention, others. Spread quickly from village to village, with great social concequences. (Fisher p. 113). (Zak Prorok)

Transcendental Meditation (TM)

TM is an example of an exported movement in the Netherlands which was begun by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in the 1960s. For $2500, his disciples teach others secret mantras that will bring great personal benefits (Fisher 114). (Starkey)

backbiting

Talking negatively about others is considered a "most grievous of sins" in the Baha'i writings for it "quencheth the light of the heart and extinguisheth the life of the soul", creating divisiveness and animosity towards one another. (Dr. P.) ...This term means when someone mentioning something about a person when he is not there that he hates (to have mentioned), whether it is about his body, his religious characteristics, etc. (Fisher 480) (Steven Bailey)

tanha

Tanha translates as desire, craving, thirst, want, longing and yearning. Tahna is a term for wanting to have or wanting to obtain. It also encompasses the negative as in wanting not to have. (Goldstein, youtube) (Starkey)

tapas,

Tapas in Hinduism represents self-discipline or repentance required to remove the concept of duality or dvandva from one's mind for longevity and austerity (hindu.co. p. 1). (Starkey)

Mysticism:

an experience of feelings, visions, or sounds that one ascribes to the supernatural or divine.

"Islam and culture"

Teenagers and young adult heritage Muslims (i.e. their parents are also Muslims) who are children of immigrants tend to differentiate their religion from the culture of their parents. In this way, they try to assume independence in interpreting Islam to be not necessarily what their parents do and say, as that might just be the national culture their parents come from. (Dr. P.) ...Muslim rule became more Persian and cosmopolitan and Islamic civilization reached its peak. The capital was moved to the city of Baghdad. No more territories were brought under centralized rule, and merchants, scholars, and artists became the cultural heroes. A great house of wisdom was built, with an observatory, library, and an educational institution where Greek and Syriac manuscripts on subjects such as medicine, astronomy, logic, mathematics, and philosophy were translated into Arabic. (Fisher pg 413)(grace cavazos)

Heart Sutra

Text recited in all Mahayana schools which even says that the teachings of the Buddha himself, and everything else are empty because they "exist in telation to and dependent on other phenomenon". This eliminates obstacles and fear by "seeing through the illusion of true existence and even core Buddhist teachings" (Fisher 159-160). (Zak Prorok)

maya

That which makes us think the physical universe has its own reality, the power by which the Absolute veils itself. The illusion that the world as we percieve it is real. A founding principle in Advaita Vedanta. (Fisher, p.81)(Aiden Campbell)

untouchables/dalits/harijans

The "untouchables" were the people considered to be lower than any of the castes. Ghandi renamed them to harijans, which means "children of god". The stigma of untouchability was legally abolished in 1948. (Fisher p. 99)(Aiden Campbell)

Afterlife (Heaven/Garden/Fire)

The Arabs practiced before Muhammad which Fisher states "was only a shadow, without rewards or punishments." (Fisher page 394). The afterlife " is a revealing of our tendencies in this life." Just and merciful have "Garden of Bliss." Whereas sinners and non believers experience hell and fire. (Fisher page 395) (Lindsey Felty)

virtues

The Baha'i Faith says that the purpose of human life is to know and love and draw ever nearer to God, carry forward an ever-advancing civilization, and to develop virtues, such as truthfulness, justice, purity, kindness, radiance, compassion, generosity, forbearance, patience, perseverance, and joy. The Baha'i writings compare the virtues to seeds in the soul waiting to be watered, or as gems ready to be revealed through the influence of spiritual education. Baha'i children's classes often focus on learning more about individual virtues, and Baha'is have been active in public life in promoting discourses of "virtue-centered" classrooms, neighborhoods, and communities, such as the workshops and books of the "Virtues Project." (Dr. P.)

dukkha

The Buddha's First Noble Truth is the existence of suffering and dissatisfaction or dukkha. The Second Noble Truth is that the origin of dukkha is craving and clinging to sensory pleasures, to fame & fortune, an attachment to things & ideas. (Fisher, p. 142). According to the Buddha, a central fact of human life, variously translated as discomfort, suffering, frustration, or lack of harmony with the environment (Fisher, p. 541). (Shelly Stuckman)

Good Samaritan

The Good Samaritan was a man who saw another man along the side of the road. The man on the road was badly beaten and had been robbed. The Smaritan nursed him back to health and took him to the nearest inn for recovery. The Samaritan paid for the man's room and made sure he was taken care of. (Fisher p. 308)(Aiden Campbell)

Mahavira

The Great Hero, Jainism's major teacher, a contemporary of Buddha that died around 527 B.C.E. Like the Buddha, he was a prince of the kshatryiya clan and renounced his position and weath at age thirty to wander as a spiritual seeker. (Fisher p 121) (Alex Goodman)

Hindutva movement (Rashtriya Svayamsevak Sangh [RSS] Bharatiya Janata Party [BJP])

The Hindutva movement is generically described as Hinduism reaching around the world and some Hindu groups within India giving Hinduism a nationalistic thrust. The RSS (Rashtriya Swvayamsevak Sangh) arose early in the 20th century. Their main focus was to spread the renewal of Hindu cultural to prevent others from modernity and go back to traditional practices and virtues, called "Ram Rajya". (Fisher, page 117) The BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party) is a powerful party in Indian politics that is also trying to restore old practices and traditions within the Hindu culture. (Fisher, page 117) (by Alex Linton)

suras/chapters

The Holy Book of Islam, the Qur'an (Koran), which was revealed to Muhammad, and put into writing in 650 CE into 114 suras or chapters (about the same length as the New Testament). The first chapter is the Fatiha, the opening sura (Surah al-Fatiha means the opening), which reveals the essence of the Qur'an. Many believe there are three levels to each verse, which is called "ayah"/signs, within each chapter: (1) a reference to a particular person or situation, (2) a spiritual lesson, and (3) a deeper mystical significance (Fisher, p. 390 and Dr. Pschaida Lecture 2). (Shelly Stuckman)

Jewish revolts of 70 & 132 CE

The Jewish revolt of 70 CE was spurred by anti-Roman militias called Zealots with Jews rising up in armed rebellion beginning in 66 CE. The rebellion was suppressed with Jews slaughtered in Jerusalem in 70 CE. The Romans destroyed the Jewish temple in Jerusalem leaving only foundation stones, which they call the Western Wall today. The Western Wall has been a place of pilgrimage and prayer for 20 centuries. The second disastrous revolt occurred in 132 CE, with a leader named Simon bar Kokhba who ruled over the independent state for 3 years. The Romans committed much resources to squashing the rebellion, killing an estimated 580,000 Jews. Jerusalem was in ruins and Jews were not allowed to practice Judaism or enter the city. Judaism "no longer had a physical heart or a geographic center" (Fisher, p. 255). (Shelly Stuckman)

"Seal of the Prophets"

The Qur'anic revelations declared Muhammad to be the "Seal of the Prophets," the last and ultimate authority in the continuing prophetic tradition. Remember that Muslims believe that God sent prophets from time to time to renew his message as religions decayed into polytheism (Adam, Abraham, Noah, and Jesus were all prophets with Adam being the first). The prophets were only humans who were holy and powerful; however, there is only one Divinity. Islam is thought to be the universal religion in its pure form. All scriptures of all traditions are honored, but only the Qur'an is considered fully authentic with Muhammad as the last (and latest) prophet (Fisher, p. 392-393 and Dr. Pschaida Lecture 2). (Shelly Stuckman)

Talmud

The Talmud is the great compendium of Jewish law and lore. (Fisher p. 241) Both different versions of the Talmud have the same Mishnah, but differ on their other commentaries. The Jerusalem Talmud was written in about 400 CE and emphasizes continual study of the Torah as a spiritual practice, a primary way of coming to know the will and ways of God. The Babylonian Talmud was written in about 500 CE and is more like an encyclopedia of the Torah. (Fisher p. 257-258)(Aiden Campbell)

the Temple cult

The Temple of Jerusalem was built to house the Ark of the Covenant which in turn kept the Decalogue inscribed upon stone tablets, representing the presence of God with the Jewish people. There, priests offered animal sacrifices on behalf of the Jewish people as a sincere seeking of forgiveness for past year's transgressions. Jewish people would travel from miles around to the Temple to give animals to priests to offer on their behalf; they would also offer prayers there outside the Temple, seen as closest to the presence of YHWH. (Dr. P.)

'ulama & qadi

The Ulama are the experts of the Quran. They were said to have the entire thing memorized front to back to be the interpreters to the Islam leadership. Fisher states the ulama "were not only guardians of the faith but were also the persuasive force holding together Islamic society." (Fisher page 415) They were also qadis or judges and muftis or jurisconsultants. They were present throughout the entire community as "guides and pastors of the artisans' guilds, spiritual leaders, mosque imams, the sole teachers of the civil and military schools, state scribes, and market inspectors." (Fisher page 415) Thus much of their and religious endowments were controlled by them. (Fisher page 415) (Lindsey Felty)

the burqa and the War on Terror

The United States media populated television and media with pictures of women in burqas, leading up to the War in Afghanistan. This helped to envision in American's minds that they were going abroad to use their military in a charitable mission to liberate women from the oppression of the Taliban. (Dr. P.) ...burqas are the garments which cover women's bodies. It can be symbolized as Islamic women under oppression and limited rights. Women decided to take a stand, "Hundreds of women in the capital city of Kabul shed their burqas publicly, demanding the right to work, education for their daughters, and a voice in politics" (Fisher 431). (Kambree Meskill) A thin cloth that covers the entire head and face often times only leaving a mesh to see through. it is different than a headscarf, because of the nature of the Burqa. In France it is oppression and war against oppression. If you wear a headscarf you can't go to school, you cant work in the public sector. When women decided to take a stand with the Burqa another war began in the city of Kubal. (Fisher 431) (Sharlenea Bracale)

Universal House of Justice

The Universal House of Justice is elected by National Spiritual Assemblies every 5 years. This is the head of the Baha'i Faith for the entire world and the only council whose collective decisions are considered "infallible." They are called to be a source of unity, guidance, and evolution of the worldwide Baha'i community, and a source of guidance, inspiration, peace, and unity for the non-Baha'i world as well. (Dr. P.)

Christology

The attempt to define the nature of Jesus and his relationship to God. Jesus has been defined by Christologists as both perfectly divine and perfectly human. (Fisher p. 324)(Aiden Campbell)

The Five Precepts

The beginning of the fourth aspect of the noble eightfold path, right action is the understanding of the five precepts. The five precepts for ethical conduct are: avoid destroying life, stealing, sexual misconduct, lying, and intoxicants (Fisher p. 144). (Zak Prorok)

jnana yoga

The discipline and path of rational inquiry and mental concentration to erase delusions about the self and replace our consciousness with a recognition that atman=Brahman that is not just intellectual but pervades our entire living reality. One develops spiritual virtues of emotional stability, such as calmness, peace, renunciation, and self-restraint along the way. This is the of deep wisdom, insight, and knowledge, and indeed the word for this kind of yoga is etymologically linked to the Greek word gnosis and the English word knowledge. (Fisher, pg. 84) -- Dr. Pschaida

Tirthankaras

The enlightened teachers in Jainism, they intervene in the great cosmic cycle when there is a getting to be more evil to teach religion to keep people from the evil (Fisher p. 122) (Zak Prorok) In Jain cosmology, the universe is without an end of beginning. Tirthankaras must create religion in order to steer people away from the growing evil in the world. The first Tirthankara introduced civilizing social institutions (marriage, family, law, etc.). 23 more Tirthankaras followed over a long period of time. (Fisher, page 122) (by Alex Linton)

Hermeneutics

The field of theological study that attempts to interpret scripture. There are two different approaches. One stresses the literal meaning; the other looks for allegorical rather than literal meanings. (Fisher p.299)(Aiden Campbell)

Umayyad dynasty

The first dynasty (661-750 CE) of rulers of the Islamicate, assuming power by ousting the fourth of the Four elected "Rightly Guided Caliphs." (Dr. P.) ...This dynasty emphasized empire building and administration more than spirituality. (Fisher p. 405) (William Morehand) During the second century of Islam, this dynasty was replaced by the Abbasid dynasty and there was a great concern "for purifying and regulating social and political life in accord with Islamic tradition." (Fisher pg. 405) (Heather Donais)

Shahada

The first sentence chanted in the ear of a traditional Muslim infant "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God". It supports absolute monotheism, and means that there is only one Absolute Reality; the underlying essence of life is eternal unity rather than the apparent separateness of things in the physical world. (Fisher p. 391)(Aiden Campbell) Literally meaning to "give testimony," this is a statement of proof by the existence of something. This could be religious forms of existence that people will discuss upon a regular basis in most religions (Dr. P) (Fisher 409). (Steven Bailey)

Shahadah

The first sentence of this is said in Muslim babies ears after their birth. The sentence is "La ilaha illa Allah Muhammad-un Rasul Allah" (Fisher, p. 391). This is translated to english as "There is no god but God, and Muhammad is the Messenger of God" (Fisher, p. 391). (Tatum Heeres) These are the words a person says, as well, when they want to convert to Islam and is also repeated daily in the Islamic call to prayer by muezzin. (Dr. P.)

orthodoxy and "heterodoxy"

The first three centuries of the Christian movement did not have any official belief, scriptures, or practices that united all followers of Jesus but had approaches that from 325 C.E. on would become normative (orthodox) and others that would later be deemed as heretical (heterodox). (Dr. P.) ...Branch of religious tradition that stand by a historical form of their religion, strictly following its established practices, laws, and creeds. (Fisher p. 18) (William Morehand)

apocalypse & the Jewish Messiah

The idea of the "End of days" followed by redemption. This idea became common in literature, and shows that God will win over evil, punishing sinners. The a Messiah, or savior, will come end the bad times and bring about peace again (Fisher 254). (Zak Prorok). The Messiah is envisioned as "one like a human being" who would, along with bringing peace back to a war-torn land, would also reinstate Jewish political sovereignty in Israel (Fisher 9th ed. p 261). (Garth Schulz)

Sanskrit

The literary language of classic Hindu scriptures (Fisher, p. 541). (by Rae Johnson) The language is of the same Indo-European family as Persian, Italian, and English. Aryan speakers considered it a perfect language, the language of the gods, and for many years too holy to try to inscribe in written form. They saw the language as not just sounds that arbitrarily represented objects, ideas, and spiritual realities, but rather than sounds themselves corresponded to and participated in these realities. -- Dr. Pschaida

Sunni and Sunna

The major branch of Islam, representing more than 70% of all Muslims. They believe that Muhammad died and left it to the Muslim community to appoint the successor with Abu Bakr becoming the first leader/"Caliph." "They consider themselves traditionalists, and they emphasize the authority of the Qur'an and the Hadith and Sunnah" (Fisher 404). (Kambree Meskill) (Dr. P.)

yoga-postures/asanas

The more advanced the practice, the greater the variety of asanas, and a few postures do reference some deities and sages. Yoga began as a set of postures dedicated to the Hindu Gods. (Fisher 81-85) (Sharlenea Bracale).

Kabir

The most famous of the bridges between Hindu and Muslim is the fifteenth century weaver Kabir(1440-1518). Legend describes Kabir as the son of Muslim parents and as a disciple of Ramananda. Rather than taking the ascetic path, he remained at work on his loom, composing songs about union with the Divine that at once earthly and sublime. He could easily transcend theological differences between religions, for he was opposed to outward forms, preferring ecstatic personal intimacy with God. (Fisher p. 440)(Aiden Campbell)

Quraysh

The most powerful of the tribes in Mecca, comprising approximately a dozen clans who lived as merchants. Nomadic tribal rules mandated that clan chiefs should take care of their weaker and poorer clan members, but this social rule was not necessarily followed by the merchant clans. (Fisher p.383)(Aiden Campbell)

Mother Goddess movements in the West

The movement included spiritual beliefs. The movement grew as a reaction to the organized religion of male dominant. Become a focus on gender and femininity. They are non-centralized and have a wide vary of Goddess that are worshiped and rules they follow. (Shelbie O'Connor) This spiritual faith is considered to be created by mostly males. There are many goddesses and is not dominantly centered around one God. There are certain responsibilities that come with each goddess of they choose to believe in it. (Heather Donais)

Mahabharata & the Bhagavad Gita

The other main Hindu epic, containing over 100,000 verses. Teaches the importance of "sons, the duties of kinship, the benefits of ascetic practices and righteous action, and the qualities of the gods". Rather than have ideal characters like the Ramayana, it shows all sides of human nature. The eighteenth book of the epic is the Bhagavad Gita, where Krishna is the charioteer of Arjuna, and instructs him on self transcendence before going into battle. (Fisher pg. 93-94). (Zachary Prorok).

Yathrib / Medina

The place where Muhammad and many of his followers emigrated to, invited to be a mediator by a delegation, after he proclaimed for 13 years his mission in Mecca. He eventually became not just religious leader but political leader as well.(Dr. P.) "In Medina, Muhammad drew up a constitution for the city of Yathrib/Medina that later served as a model for islamic social administration". (Fisher386) (nathen Stinson). Medina is the new name it was given which means "City [of the Prophet]" (Janette Contreras)

theisms

The plural form of "theism" which is defined as "belief in a deity or deities" on page 32 of our textbook "Living Religions" by Mary Pat Fisher. (Shelly Stuckman 07/13/2016)

ahimsa

The principal of non-violence. This is very prominent in the Jain teaching inspired specifically by Mahatma Gandhi. He believed that all things deserve to live and to kill is bad karma. (Fisher page 125) (Lindsey Felty)

exile to Babylon

The rabbinic tradition, which started in the first century and has shaped Jewish theology into today's period, emphasized the way back from exile was through study and righteous living. (Fisher pg.244) (Heather Donais)

Reform Judaism

The reform movement moved away from previously established traditional Jewish practices. Some of the changes that were adopted were hymns and sermons in the vernacular instead of Hebrew. They changed worship practices to emphasize Saturday instead of weekly prayer. There is even a new prayer book with leaves out the the Jew's longing for a messiah and return to Zion. Around the same time, Judaism was moving to America. (FIsher 270) (Rae Johnson)

karma

The result/fate of an action made in a previous time period. This result can lead to good or bad things happening to that person. As explained in "Living Religions", "every act we make, and even every thought and every desire we have, shapes our future experiences" (Fisher, p. 80). (Tatum Heeres)

Holi

The riotously joyful celebration of the death of winter and the return of colorful spring. It falls on the first full moon of the lunar month Phagun (late February or early March) and has been celebrated since prehistoric times. The major activity is throwing colored powder or squirting water paint with wild abandon. This colorful celebration has different meanings in different parts of India, illustrating the great diversity within Hinduism (Fisher, p. 107-108). (Shelly Stuckman)

Rule of St. Benedict

The rule of st. Benedict was the first of many monastic orders. This rule became a model to structure the rest of the rules that were put in place to help the faith. This rule is focused on the combination of manual work and prayer, "to labor is to pray" (fisher p 331) (Rae Johnson)

Sita

The second main character of Ramayana. She is kidnapped by the king of the Demons within the story and is eventually returned after an epic battle. She is used within the epic to show the ideal wife within Hindu society. One example of this is when she is kidnapped the Demon attempts to woo her but is unsuccessful due to her dedication to Rama. (Fisher Pg 92).

St. Francis of Assisi

The son of a merchant who gave up all of his wealth for a life in poverty. He was well known for caring for lepers. He later had a vision of Christ on the cross, who told him to repair the church. He focused on emphasizing the gospel. Near the end of his life he developed the wounds of Christ, stigmata. This miracle was taken to show his union with Christ (Fisher 332). (Zachary Prorok)

Creation

The stories about the creation of the world, of which there is two versions. The first is that god created heaven and earth in 6 days, beginning "unformed and void, with darkness over the surface". He then created mankind in his "image". The second story is that of Adam and Eve in the garden of eden. They disobeyed god's command and ate from the tree of knowledge, thus being exiled from paradise (Fisher 242). (Zak Prorok)

Rujiao

The teaching of the scholars. The teachings of Confucius although it didn't start with him, but rather is based on ancient Chinese beliefs in Heaven, ancestor worship, and efficacy of rituals (Fisher, 203) (McCoy).

Decalogue & "The Law"

The ten statements or declarations given to Moses on Sinai to communicate to his people; they are technically not commandments/mitzvot (which there are 613 in Judaism) but broader principles about how to live and act. (Dr. Pschaida) ...The Ten Commandments. Laws given to Moses from God on Mount Sinai for the Israelites to follow. The laws include: to worship only God, honor parents, keep the Sabbath, prohibits idolatry, blasphemy, murder, adultery, theft, dishonesty, and coveting. (Anthology pg. 193) (William Morehand) Moses recorded God's words in Exodus 20 and recounted the event again in Deuteronomy 5. When God spoke of these commandments he said "I am the Lord your God, who brought you out of Egypt, out of the land of slavery". (Sharlenea Bracale)

Arabs

The term "Arab" originates from a person's decent, not their religion. In today's culture Arab is frequently prejudged as also being Muslim, yet Arabs may practice other religions. Arab people inhabit the middle east and northern Africa. (FIsher 408) (Rae Johnson & Dr. P.) Muhammad was an Arab who communicated the Qur'an to his fellow Arabs in the Arabic tongue, yet today the majority of Muslims are not Arabs nor speak Arabic. (Dr. P.)

Indus Valley Civilization

The word used to describe the culture of the early Dravidian people, whose civilization existed in the Indus Valley in present-day Pakistan from approximately 2500 BCE to 1500 BCE (Fisher, p. 72). It is thought that the Vedas, the religious texts of Hinduism, originated from this culture. (Garth Schulz)

the four sublime attitudes/abodes [brahmaviharas]

Theravada Buddhism teaches that one should radiate at all times in all directions, through one's attitudes, words, and actions, loving-kindness (metta), compassion (karuna), equanimity (upeksa) , and empathetic joy (mudita). When one does thus, then one lives in these heavenly realities and welcome others to do the same. --Dr. Pschaida

Theravada nuns

Theravada-The remaining orthodox school of Buddhism, which adheres closely to the earliest scriptures and emphasizes individual efforts to liberate the mind from suffering. (Fisher, 546) Once only a male monk population is now attempting to revive full ordination for nuns in Theravadin countries. "According to the code of discipline, ordination of nuns is possible only if a quorum of both ordained monks and nuns is present." (Fisher, 152) (Destiny Young)

9-person Spiritual Assemblies / Councils

There are no individual priests or pastors leading Baha'i congregations, as each person has the responsibility to study, reflect, and learn about the Baha'i Faith directly from the authoritative sources. Rather, Baha'i communities on the local, regional, and national scale are led by 9-person councils, elected yearly by local Baha'is, with Baha'is 21-years or older, male and female, being eligible. They are to consult thoroughly and impartially on issues confronting Baha'i communities and ways to strengthen it and serve the generality of society. Individual Baha'is on the these councils have no more authority than other Baha'is, but when the council makes a collective decision, that decision has authority for the Baha'is. (Dr. P.)

Jewish monolatrism & polytheism

There is an ongoing debate on whether the founding fathers were purely monotheistic, polytheistic, or monolatristic in nature. There is evidence to suggest that they may have worshipped some of the Canaanite gods, such as El and Asherah. (Fisher p. 245-246)(Aiden Campbell)

Five Pillars

These are considered the essential practices that make a Muslim a Muslim: 1) Testifying in conversion and in regular prayer that there is just one God and Muhammad is His Messenger, 2) Saying 5 obligatory prayers at set times, 3) Fasting during the 30 days of Ramadan, 4) giving a 2.5% tax on one's wealth as charity, and 5) if one has the means, going on pilgrimage to Mecca and nearby sites at least once in one's lifetime. (Dr. Pschaida)

Baha'u'llah

This Persian nobleman (1817-1892) founded the Baha'i Faith. The heart of his message is shown in the Kitab-i-Iqan. According to the book "Living Religions" this man "proclaimed his own message as the most advanced and the one appropriate for this time. It contains the same eternal truths as the earlier truths as the earlier revelations, but with some new features" (Fisher, p. 482-483). (Tatum Heeres & Dr. P.) He was one of the imprisoned followers of "Bab," who wasn't executed like many of the other followers and Bab himself. "He revealed himself as the messenger proclaimed by the Bab." (Fisher page 482) (Lindsey Felty) Prior to being imprisoned he was also banished and had all of his wealth stripped away. Torture was also involved prior to his imprisonment in Palestine. (482) (Jonathan Jenkins) He was exiled to Baghdad, Iraq in 1853,, then to Istanbul/Constantinople in 1863, then Edirne/Adrionople, then Akka, (in Palestine/Israel) in 1868. (Dr. P.)

Voice/Vāk

This Vedic God is the sound and words of eternal truth -- the sounds of the scripture -- embodied as a divine being. The implications is that when a brahmin/priest recites the Vedas, he is participating in/with a divine being as there is the belief that the Sanskrit scriptures correspond to the eternal divine sounds/truth. (Dr. Pschaida)

Inquisitions

This action started in the thirteenth century. It is described in the book "Living Religions" as "the use of force and terror to eliminate heresies and nonbelievers in the Christian church" (Fisher, p. 542). (Tatum Heeres)

kama

This also is one of the four goals of human life. This term can often be translated as pleasure. According to the book "Living Religions" this term refers to, "love and sensual pleasures, and also to aesthetic expression" (Fisher, p. 100). (Tatum Heeres)

Robert Bellah, Symbolic Realism:

This approach refrains from making a judgment on whether supernatural beings exist in an absolute sense while taking very seriously that they do exist, with great ramifications, in the hearts and minds of the believer. Due to these commitments, people have intense feelings of divine nearness or quiet peace, discipline themselves to pray five times a day, or to give up their lives to refrain from renouncing their faith, partake in revolutions, actively work for social change, or sometimes for the oppression of others.

Early Christian Sect - Ebionites

This early Christian group, based around Jerusalem, believed that they should follow in the example of Jesus and the first disciples who were practicing Jews and abided by the Law, lived in a communitarian way of sharing their few possessions, and giving away money and excess possessions to the poor. They differed from the apostle Paul's position that circumcision and kosher law was not necessary for non-Jewish converts to Christianity. (Dr. P.)

Emile Durkheim (1858-1917), Functionalism - religion as a social glue

This father of sociology believed that whether or not God and spiritual realities exist, religions play a huge function in our lives: they helps constitute structures that serve as the glue of our social relationships. For example, they teach virtues such as compassion, altruism, justice, and discipline. Rituals, such as Christian mass or Islamic Friday prayer, bring people together to meet and form feelings of fellowship in relation to sacred symbols (the cross, a holy book, prostration). He emphasized that religion is a matter of beliefs, rituals, and a sense of the sacred and the profane, which creates social communities.

Hajj/Pilgrimage

This is "the pilgrimage to Mecca, for Muslims" (Fisher, p. 542). This usually takes place in the last month of the year. In addition, Muslims are expected to do this at least once in their life. (Tatum Heeres) This is the fifth pillar and when Muslims get there they devote themselves completely to God. Thgere are many ceremonies that are involved, some of which are tied to the Qur'an and others which are tied to events at the location. (Fisher 400)(Jonathan Jenkins)

Sabbath

This is Judaism's day of rest. According to "Living Religions" this term "is observed as an eternal sign of the covenant between the Jews and God" (Fisher, p. 280). In addition, this day begins sunset on Friday and ends sunset Saturday night. (Tatum Heeres) It also includes restrictions against handling money, traveling except by foot, lighting a fire, and cooking. (Fisher 281) (Jonathan Jenkins). Sabbath is often considered an opportunity to drop away the cares of the previous week so as to be in a peaceful state for the day of rest. (Fisher, p. 280) Janette Contreras.

Mormons or Latter Day Saints

This is a form of christianity that believes in the bible, but also "The Book of Mormon." In this book they believe that with "angelic guidance John Smith found this engraved on gold plates in New York in 1822. Convinced the writings of the book were the followers of John Smith moved around to escape persecutions to build their communities. They referred to this as "New Jerusalem," and "the land of Zion." (Fisher page 471-472) (Lindsey Felty) Has about thirteen million followers worldwide. Mainstream Christianity is that Mormons believe not only in the Bible but also in another scripture, called the Book of Mormon. (Fisher pg.471) (Heather Donais)

dhikr

This is a form of devotion, frequently--although not exclusively--used by Sufi Muslims. According to the book "Living Religions" this term is described as "the constant repetition of Shahadah, the remembrance that there is no god but God" (Fisher, p. 400). One may also just recite a form of the name of "Allah," "Allah-u-Akbar," or an attribute/name of God. The hope is to work oneself up into an ecstasy of experiencing the divine presence. (Tatum Heeres & Dr. P.)

Liberation Theology

This is a movement in Christian theology. According the the book "Living Religions" this term is "a faith that stresses the need for concrete political action to help the poor" (Fisher, p. 370). (Tatum Heeres) ...liberation theology is to take political action to help those in need and be in solidarity with the oppressed, disadvantaged, disenfranchised, the poor, and downtrodden. (Fisher 370). (Kambree Meskill & Dr. P.) Largely done by black churches who try to help the local community. Others go to Africa and help the poor there through building shelters, food, and medicine. (Fisher 372) (Jonathan Jenkins) WIth the disciples of Jesus No one said that any of his belongings was his own, but they all shared with one another everything they had (Fisher, 2011). They were selling everything they had and sharing it with everyone in their group, but they feel connected to Jesus as they try to carry on his mission. (Janette Contreras)

feminist theology

This is a movement occurring in several religions including Christianity. It reconsiders practices, traditions, and scriptures from a feminist perspective. In the book "Living Religions" it is said that "the church institution has historically been dominated by men, although there is strong evidence that Jesus had active women disciples and that there were women leaders in the early churches" (Fisher, p. 373). (Tatum Heeres) Happens in many religions. Feminist Theology has been separated into three main parts 1. Defining identity within the church, 2. Role models for women offered by the Bible, and 3. The concept of God. (Fisher pg.373) (Heather Donais)

Neo-Confucianism

This is a religious movement attained from Confucianism in China. In the book "Living Religions" it is said that under this influence, "the civil service examination system became fully developed as the chief means of attaining government positions" (Fisher, p. 208). In addition, people who follow this believe developed a a metaphysical basis for confucianism: "the individual is intimately linked with all of the cosmos" (Fisher, p. 208). (Tatum Heeres)

Philokolia

This is a religious writing that contains documents important to the orthodox Christians. It pairs with the bible to help complete the message of God. This is written by Orthodox masters between the 4th and 15th centuries. "Philokolia" directly translates to "love of the exalted, excellent and beautiful." (Fisher p 344) (Rae Johnson)

sannyasins

This is a renunciate spiritual leader. In Hinduism women were allowed to become sannyasins. People can become sannyasins in their last stage of life, when they are allowed to totally withdraw from society to fulfill this spiritual purpose. (Fisher P 101) (by Rae Johnson) When one becomes an ascetic in this way, one renounces all family and societal ties, except sometimes a religious order under a guru that one might join. This "stage" of life can happen at any time, perhaps in old age but perhaps as a youth or young adult as well. Mahavira (Jainism) and the Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) were ascetics in this way for a time. (by Dr. Pschaida)

diaspora

This is a term for Jewish people whom live outside of Israel. Mary Pat Fisher described this term in the book "Living Religions" by writing, "collectively, the practitioners of a faith living beyond their traditional homeland" (Fisher, p. 541). She also notes that when this term is spelt with a capital "D" it signifies that this separation of Jews occurred after the Babylonian exile. (Tatum Heeres)

Bar/Bat Mitzvah

This is a type of celebration that jewish boys and girls are recognized in when they turn thirteen. According to "Living Religions" in this ceremony "the boy has undertaken some religious instruction, including learning to pronounce Hebrew, if not always to understand it" (Fisher, p. 282). (Tatum Heeres)

Dome of the Rock

This is in Jerusalem completed in 691-692 it was the first major Muslim monument. Located in an area sacred to Jews, Christians, and Muslims. "The rock had been associated with Abraham's sacrifice of his son." (Fisher page 419) Muslims identify this monument as the "Prophet's ascension to heaven during his Night journey." (Fisher page 419) (Lindsey Felty) This rock is a very important to the Muslims and is located in an area that is important to the Christians, Muslims and Jew. This monument is connected to heaven and the beliefs that go within it. (Fisher pg. 419) (Heather Donais)

artha

This is one of the four goals in human life. One may translate this term as meaning wealth or power. According to "Living Religions" this term is described as having, "success in worldly activities, including the pursuit of wealth and advantage" (Fisher, p. 100). (Tatum Heeres) This is one of the 4 goals in life and is associated with materialistic or monetary success. Also associated with achieving wealth and power (Hindu 4 Stages) (Emilio Espinoza).

Evangelicalism

This is the "born again," experience in Christianity. The definition is often defined by Scotch historian David Bebbington with these four characteristics; biblicism (quoting the Bible is to be done as much as possible to justify and teach your points), crucientrism (Jesus died on the cross for our salvation), conversionism (accept Jesus into your heart and convert in faith), and activism (spread the Gospel and Biblical principles to all people and all aspects of life). (Fisher page 363 ) (Lindsey Felty & Dr. P.)

Allah

This is the Arabic word for God. According to the book "Living Religions" "the Qur'an revealed to Muhammad is understood as a final and complete reminder of the prophets' teachings, which all refer to the same one God" (Fisher, p. 391). Christians and Jews who speak Arabic also use this word. (Dr. Pschaida, pre-quiz) (Tatum Heeres)

Adi Granth / Guru Granth Sahb

This is the central object of worship in all Skih temples. In the book "Living Religions" it is described as "sacred scriptures of the Skihs" (Fisher, p. 539). (Tatum Heeres) Guru Granth Sahib is treated as a sacred, living guru, in line with the human gurus that lived before it. Adi Granth was compiled by the fifth guru, Guru Arjun Dev. (Garth Schulz) The Adi Granth contains devotional hgymns composed by Guru Nanak, other gurus, Hindu and Muslim saints, and many spiritual figures considered lowly. (Fisher 444) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Buddha-nature

This is the core nature of all beings. As described in "Living Religions" this term means, "a fully awakened conscieousness" (Fisher, p. 540). This meaning that all beings have the ability achieve enlightenment. (Tatum Heeres)

"deity yoga" or buddha visualization

This is the fundamental Vajrayana practice. During this practice one visualizes themselves as meditation Buddha. The book "Living Religions" defines this term as, "mediating on themselves in the form of Buddha or bodhisattva in order to embody the enlightened qualities that the practitioner wishes to manifest" (Fisher, p. 167). (Tatum Heeres)

Raja yoga

This is the path of mental concentration to attain higher consciousness, stilling the wild monkey of the mind so it can reflect pure light. To do this, one might use eight "limbs" or practices: moral and ethical principles (e.g. truth, nonviolence, noncovetousness, cleanliness), physical conditioning (asanas of yogic postures and stretches), breath control to increase one's supply of energy, sense control, concentration, meditation, and the state of peaceful spiritual absorption (samadhi). In addition, many will chant mantras or focus on a visual form (a candle flame, a picture of a saint or guru, or a yantra). (Fisher, 82-83) --Dr. Pschaida

the Dao

This is the principle of connecting the universe. In the book "Living Religions" it is described as, "traditionally diagrammed, yin and yang interdependence each other (represented by small circles)" (Fisher, p. 187). In addition, it is said that as soon as one (the yin or yang) reaches the fullest point it begins to get smaller while simultaneously the other begins to increase. (Tatum Heeres)

"manifold aspects"

This is the third central principal, which is also known as anekantwad. This is the perspective to refrain from judgment and anger and stay open minded keeping in mind there are many sides to an issue. (Fisher page 128) ( Lindsey Felty)

Abraham

This man is regarded by Jewish people as the founder of the Hebrew people through his son Isaac. Mary Pat Fisher describes him as, "an example of obedience to God's commands. Without hesitation he is said to undergo circumcision as an initiatory rite, a sign of the covenant in which God agrees to be the divine protector of [him] and his descendants, with all males to be likewise circumcised on the eighth day after birth" (Fisher, p. 244). (Tatum Heeres) In addition Christianity and Islam both trace their roots back to him with Abrahams first son, Ishmael, being considered the progenitor of the Islamic line (Anthology pg 187). (Jonathan Jenkins)

Ninian Smart's Seven Dimensions of Religion:

This religious studies scholar taught that religion is not just a matter of faith and beliefs but: rituals and ceremonies, myths and stories, experiences and feelings or emotions, social groups or institutions, ethics and legal prescriptions, and material things. Each of these dimensions are religious because they have a relationship to the sacred. Smart's definition helps us to not give too much emphasis to one dimension (i.e. rituals or beliefs) and forget that these other dimensions are central to the individual and collective phenomenon of religion.

Islamic Ethics

This term is taken from Lecture 3. The main principles of islamic ethics are being kind and humble to parents, keeping promises, being honest and fair, respect life, don't be stingy or wasteful, be modest and respect your body. These ethic principals were taken from Muslim practices and the Qur'an. (Rae Johnson)

Guru (in Sikhism)

This term is used in Hinduism and Buddhism. This person is an influential teacher or popular expert. It is described in the book "Living Religions" as "an enlightened spiritual teacher" (Fisher, p. 542). (Tatum Heeres) Guru is from the Hindu and Buddhist religion and traditionally means teacher, but in the context of Sikhism it means the "decent of divine guidance to mankind provided through ten enlightened masters" (Fisher p. 542) (Rae Johnson) There are 10 Gurus, although the Adi Granth itself is considered the 11th and lasting Guru. A guru is a teacher, a prophet. There are only 10 and they teach to the sikh, or the student. The guru is highly respected and highly educated in his teachings. (Sharlenea Bracale & Dr. P.)

transubstantiation

This term is used in some branches of Christianity. It is described in the book "Living Religions" as "the idea that wine and bread are mystically transformed into the blood and body of Christ during the eucharist" (Fisher, p. 546). (Tatum Heeres)

Hildegard of Bingen

This was a German mystic abbess 1098-1179. "Founder of two monasteries on the Rhine, from a young age she experienced frequent visions, which she recorded in several books of revelations." (Fisher page 331) (Lindsey Felty)

Crusades

This was a medieval military expedition. It was described in the book "Living Religions" as "military expeditions undertaken by the Christians of Europe in the eleventh to thirteenth centuries to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims; any war carried on under papal sanction" (Fisher, p. 541). (Tatum Heeres)

Annunciation

This was the announcement made by an angel to Virgin Mary. It is better described as, "in Christianity, the appearance of an angel to the Virgin Mary to tell her that she would bear Jesus, conceived by the Holy Spirit" (Fisher, p. 539). (Tatum Heeres)

Khadijah

Thought of as Muhammad's "first follower". Married Muhammad when she was 45 and he was 25, although this age gap may be smaller. She provided encouragement and comfort for Muhammad after his visions of Gabriel, the angel, saying "By god, god will never discrace you..." Even before his vision of Gabriel, she understood his "spiritual propensities", allowing him a lot of time in retreat. She died in Muhammad's 50th year, the year of sorrows (Fisher 383-384,386)(Online Lec. #1).(Zachary Prorok)

Shakyas and "the lap of luxury"

To not want or desire but to be content with what is given to you. Buddha was raised in the lap of luxury, with fine clothes, white umbrella for shade, perfumes, cosmetics, a mansion for each season, the company of female musicians, and a harem of dancing girls. (Fisher p.136) (Heather Donais)

creation vs. evolution & Christianity

Traditional Christains reject evolution concept. However, creation- centered Christians "see the mind of God in the prefect, intricate balances of chemistry, biology, and physics that allow life as we know it to exist." (Fisher p. 375) (William Morehand) This hit its peak in 1925 with the Scopes trial when John Thomas challenged a state law preventing the teaching of evolution in schools. Fundamentalists opposed this and the law was eventually overturned. (Fisher 364) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Pali Canon/Tripitaka/"Three Baskets"

Tripitaka is an ancient scripture written in the Pali language. This is a sanskrit in the collection the "Pali Canon." The "Three Baskets," are three writings about the rules of monstatic discipline, dharma teaching, and scholastic treaties. (Fisher page 150) (Lindsey Felty)

tzedakah and chesed

Tzedakah V'Chesed helps congregants, Jewish people and other residents believing in the religion short term emergency crises, providing funds to help with financial emergencies, supplying meals and/or assisting with transportation during periods of life transitions.(Fisher pg.280) (Heather Donais)

Nontheistic:

Unseen Reality is not conceived as a personal Being but an impersonal Force, Law, Way, "changeless Unity," or "Suchness."

Rama

Vishnu incarnates as the virtuous prince Rama in order to kill Ravana, the ten headed demon king of Sri Lanka. Rama is banned to the forest for fourteen years, he is a model of morality and goes willingly. In the end Rama blesses a sacred arrow with Vedic mantras and sends it straight into Ravanas heart. (Fisher pg. 92) (Grace Cavazos)

Vishnu & Vaishnavites

Vishnu is one of the Gods in the Hindu Trinity. Vishnu is the sustainer, tender, and merciful deity. He has been worshipped since Vedic times and has been regarded as the Supreme as a person. As a symbol, the world is continuously being reborn on a lotus grown out of Vishnu's navel. Vaishnavites are are followers and worshippers of the god Vishnu. (Fisher, 86,90) (by Alex Linton)

darshan

Visual contact with the divine through encounters with Hindu images or gurus. In Hindu temples devotees are occasionally blessed by being able to visually see the divine, which in turn means that they receive darshan. (Rae Johnson) By seeing the divine and the divine seeing you, there is a transmission of spiritual energy and blessing taking place. (Dr. Pschaida)

Wahhabism & Saudi Arabia

Wahhabism has been recently blamed as a source of everything from fundamentalist interpretations of the Qur'an to violent terrorist movements, study of Ibn' al-Wahhab's voluminous writings shows he did not use the Qur'an as justification for holy war; rather, he was very careful to explore the historical context of all passages in the Qur'an relating to jihad and then interpret them only in that context, with an emphasis on limiting violence and preserving human lives and dignity. Wahhabism has also been blamed for severe oppression of women, including Saudi Arabia's insistence that women be covered by a full burqa from head to toe and it's ban on women driving cars or leaving home unless accompanied by a close male relative.(Fisher p. 432)(Aiden Campbell)

Ludwig Feuerbach (1804-1872), religion as self-projection

We conceive of human qualities, such as power, wisdom, and love, as being part of a hypothetical being in the sky, like a projector projecting its images onto a screen. After idealizing these qualities as facets of the Supreme, we then demean/diminish ourselves, seeing ourselves as weak and sinful, rather than seeing that those same qualities lie within ourselves. Feuerbach was very much thinking of Christianity in this critique.

Polytheism:

belief in multiple beings who are above human beings in knowledge, wisdom, power, love, and justice. Sometimes each one is conceived as creator. Often they have different responsibilities, e.g. storms, the sun, the moon, harvest, weaving, or childbirth.

'Iqra'!

When Muhammad encounters the angel Gabriel says 'Iqra' which means "proclaim, resight, rehearse, or read." (Pschaida lecture Muhammad Scene and Emergence) (Lindsey Felty)

(Neo-) Colonial "West"

While admiring the material prosperity and economic opportunity in Europe and North America, many Muslims resent their domination and manipulation of governance of Muslim majority countries in North Africa and Asia: setting up national borders without little attention to ethnic segments and propping up or supporting puppet governments for their nations that are otherwise dictators. Such resentment sometimes makes Muslims sympathetic for the causes of terrorist organizations as acts of resistance to the "West" (Dr. P.) Islam was started in the middle east and migrated outwardly from there. As a result, the "west" was one of the last places that Islam reached to. African Americans were a large immigrant base that converted to Islam in large waves, especially as a result of malcolm X and other influential leaders. (Fisher 415) (Rae Johnson)

American Muslim Second Generation

While many of the children of Muslim immigrants give up religious practice and try to just "fit in" dominant popular cultural practices, many others assume Islam as a source of pride, identity, individuality (what makes them unique), and community. (Dr. P.) ...Islam is the fastest growing religion in the United States, and may now be the second largest religion in the country. Two-thirds of American Muslims are immigrants; one-third of American Muslims are converts, most of them African Americans. (Fisher pg 420)(grace cavazos)

Azusa Street Revival

William Joseph Seymour, an African American preacher, founded the Azusa Street Revival, one of the major sources of Pentecostalism. Seymour preached that speaking in tongues was a sign of baptism by the Spirit. His inter-racial revival meetings on Azusa Street drew people from all over the world (Fisher, p. 366). Seymour believed that a person, who is truly baptized not just by water but also by the Holy Spirit, will be able to manifest their full baptism by being able to speak in "spiritual languages," called tongues or glossolalia. Seymour started by gathering Christians in Los Angeles after learning from Charles Fox Penham in Texas. In Los Angeles, the movement was a coming together of Latinos, African-Americans, & Caucasians who were passionate, and it grew quickly. Popular offshoots include Assemblies of God, Vineyard Church, Foursquare Gospel Church, & Calvary Chapel (Pschaida, "Introduction to Christianity." 13 Nov. 2015. Lecture). (Shelly Stuckman)

zazen

Zazen, or sitting meditation, is central to Zen practice. Zazen results in direct insight into the true nature of one's own mind, to reveal one's own Buddha nature. (Fisher, 161) (Starkey) Zen Buddhist sitting meditation (Janette Contreras)

Revelation:

a disclosure or communication of truth or commands by the Divine, the Ultimate, God, or the Way-things-are into the world, often through (a) special human individual intermediar(y/ies).

Monism:

a form of nontheism, the belief that beneath the multiplicity of changing apparent forms there is one underlying substance or foundational reality.

Henotheism:

acknowledges a plurality of gods but elevates one of them to a special status. Hinduism and some forms of Chinese religion are often examples of this. Sometimes, other gods are seen as expressions of a certain facet of this main god who is seen to have all divine attributes and powers.

Transtheistic:

acknowledging the existence of gods—but of gods that are not vital with regard to the most crucial religious issues, such as the quest for enlightenment or salvation. Jainism and Buddhism will have examples of this.

Covenant

"A covenant is an agreement or contract involving obligations by both parties." (Hatcher and Martin page 128) As "Gods part in the "Great Covenant" was his promise of a succession of Manifestations." In turn the Bahá'i faith teaches "they must recognize and accept the Manifestation when he comes, and obey and strive to put into practice the teaching which the Manifestation gives." (Hatcher and Martin page 128) (Lindsey Felty) In the "Lesser Covenant," people should obey the one appointed by the Manifestation of God as having authority after Him. Baha'u'llah appointed His eldest Son 'Abdu'l-Baha (1844-1921) as the head of the Faith, Center of the Covenant, and Interpreter of His Word, to whom all Baha'is should turn to afterwards. 'Abdu'l-Baha in turn appointed Shoghi Effendi (1897-1957) as the head of the Faith and interpreter as well as the Universal House of Justice. (Dr. P.)

morning prayer

"But great discipline is required to attend the predawn hymns and recitations every day, and in contrast to the self-respect developed by Guru Gobind Singh..." (Fisher 455). Sikhs start their morning by reciting prayers from Jap Ji and Jaap Sahib. (Kambree Meskill).

"clear light of bliss"

"Clear light of bliss", occurs when the "gross mind" is neutralized, and the "subtle mind" manifest powerfully as the "clear light bliss." The mind of the clear light is mostly of the true empty of one's own mind. (fisher pg. 167) shelbie oconnor

sants

"Holy people", particularly Sufi mystics, such as Shaikh Farid, and Hindu bhaktas, such as Sri Caitanya and Bhagat Namdev(1270-1350). They shared a common cause in emphasizing devotion to the Beloved above all else. Many of them were from lower castes, but their spiritual realization was of great heights. They were basically nonsectarian monotheists who did not accept ritualism or casteism. (Fisher p.440)(Aiden Campbell)

Creation myths

"Myth" is defined as "a symbolic story expressing ideas about reality or spiritual history" on page 31 of our textbook "Living Religions" by Mary Pat Fisher. Fisher states that myths are "the symbolic stories that communities use to explain the universe and their place within it" (p.17). The term "Creationism" is stated as "Belief that all life forms were intentionally created by a Divine Being" (p.541). Fisher also states Creationism is "the concept of intentional divine creation of all life forms" (p. 24). Thus, Creation myths are the symbolic stories that communities use to explain the creation of all life forms by a deity or Supreme Being. (Shelly Stuckman 07/13/2016)

Easter

"The most important event of the Christian liturgical year" (Fisher 354) (Nathen Stinson), celebrating Jesus' defeat of death in his resurrection, giving Christians confidence that they too will be raised to life again in God's presence, death not being their end either. (Dr. P.)

Canaan

"The promised land". Located north of Jerusalem near the Sea of Galilee, it is a very fertile land. The Israelites wandered the desert for forty years to re-enter Canaan, where other people were living at the time (Fisher 249). (Zak Prorok)

Exodus

"The second book of the Tanakh." (Fisher page 246) The Tanakh is the Hebrew Bible. (Lindsey Felty) The book of exodus is the second book of the Torah and the Hebrew bible, the Old Testament. The book tells how the Israelites leave slavery in Egypt through the strength of Yahweh, the God who has chosen Israel as his people. Led by their prophet Moses they journey through the wilderness to Mount Sinai, where Yahweh promises them the land of Canaan (the "Promised Land") in return for their faithfulness. (Fisher pgs 244-246)(Sharlenea Bracale)

Twelver Shi'ah Islam

"Twelver" Shi'a believe that there were a total of 12 Imams (leaders or guides), who were legitimate hereditary successors to Muhammad. The 12th Imam, Muhammad ibn Hasan, is believed to be commanded by God to go into an occult hidden state to continue to guide the people and return for all to see on the Day of Resurrection as the Mahdi. The first three Imams were Ali, Hasan, and Husayn. Believers of "Twelver" Shi'ah Islam don't recognize the Sunni caliphs and state that the Imam combines political leadership with continuing the "transmission of Divine Guidance." This esoteric religious knowledge was given to Muhammad by God and Muhammad passed it to Ali who passed it on and so on to each successor in the Ali lineage. The Shari'ah is interpreted for each generation by the Imam, for he is closest to the divine knowledge (Fisher, p. 406). (Shelly Stuckman)

oneness of humanity

"Ye are the fruits of one tree, the leaves of one branch." Humanity is one and from one human family. We all come from one ancestor and all are created noble. We're all united as different leaves, blossoms, and fruit from one tree. Baha'i is not accepting of the theory of original sin. We are created to do good but can fall short and be sinful. But we are not intrinsically sinful at the core of our being. God's light is in all of us. Turning to Him, we can find this light that fills the gems of our souls and manifests as virtues. All of our spirits are a breath from God--we all have one spiritual essence, a created gem-like nature. The Oneness of Humanity also says our differences are superficial and sources of beauty and harmony. We should cooperate with one another, embracing our differences, tolerances, insights, and abilities. "Be ye as the fingers of one hand, the members of one body" (Pschaida, Baha'i Faith: Oneness of Humanity. 29 March 2016. Lecture). (Shelly Stuckman)

the Báb

(1819-1850) This young merchant named Siyyid 'Ali Muhammad-i-Shirazi is also known as "Gate". In 1844 this man "announced that a new messenger of God to all the peoples of the world would soon appear" (Fisher, p. 482), and the He was the return of the hidden Qa'im or last Imam (of Shiite Islam). After saying this he was arrested and executed because Muslim authorities were threatened that this proclamation would take away their power. (Tatum Heeres & Dr. P.) He brought the message that all prophets had represented the one true God, and that a new Messenger would come, which directly contradicts Islam, which believes that Muhammad was the last true prophet. (Garth Schulz & Dr. P.)

'Abdu'l-Baha

(1844-1921) Baha'u'llah's oldest son and successor in the Baha'i faith. (Fisher p. 483) He became leader of the faith after his father passed away in 1892 until his own death in 1921. He was freed from the Ottoman Empire in 1911, and proceeded to begin a series of journeys to Europe and North America, exposing thousands of westerners to the new religion of his father. Baha'is consider him as the Center of the Covenant, Interpreter of Baha'u'llah's Word, and Exemplar of the Baha'i teachings. (Infographic)(Aiden Campbell & Dr. P.)

the Prophet Muhammad

(570-632 CE) A merchant by trade, he unexpectedly became a Prophet when he experienced an encounter with an angelic being in a cave outside of Mecca when meditating at about 40 years old. The Qur'an was dictated to him by God and servants of God while he was living. He is not worshipped but is considered an important figure with his teachings and life being considered the proper way to worship and live under God. (Fisher 383-385) (Jonathan Jenkins & Dr. P.) ...Muhammad is considered the prototype of the true mujahid, or fighter in the path of God, one who values the Path of God more than life, wealth, or pestige. (Fisher, 428) (Young)

Amrit/Nectar

(Relate to Khalsa, baptism, & Amritsar in your definition) Nectar made with sugar and water, symbolizing the sweetness of compassion. "When amrit was first prepared for Khalsa initiation, it was Guru Gobind Singh's wife who added sugar crystals to make the initiates sweet-tempered as well as brave" (Fisher 452). This nectar that was prepared is also thought to have turned the followers into heroes. The amrit was prepared by the Guru Gobind Singh and not his wife, she only added the sugar. (Fisher 446) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Pharisees & rabbis

.."The Phsrises were more liberal citizens from a classes who sought to study the applications of Torah to everyday life. After the second temple was destroyed by the Romans Judaism maintained and shaped by Rabbis" (fisher252/ant187).(Nathen Stinson)

Noble Eightfold Path

... 1. right understanding 2.right thoughts or motives 3. right speech 4. right action 5. right livelihood 6. right effort 7. right mindfulness 8. right meditation (Fisher pg 113) (Grace Cavazos)

Bahá'ís in Iran

... A group of followers who have been subjected to persecution since the inception of the religion, a pattern that increased after the 1979 revolution and establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran. since the 1979 revolution, more than 200 Baha'is have been executed or killed, hundreds more have been imprisoned, and tens of thousands have been deprived of jobs, pensions, businesses and educational opportunities. Formal Baha'i administration had to be suspended, and holy places, shrines, and cemeteries have been confiscated, vandalized, or destroyed (Fisher, 484, 494). (Starkey).

Gentiles

... Any person who is not of Jewish faith or origin. Also referred to by Paul as worshipers of the old gods whose religion was in decline, supporters of the emperor as deity, initiates of mystery cults and followers of Greco-Roman philosophers who regarded matter as evil (Fisher, 320). (Starkey).

'Ali

... Cousin of Muhammad and the fourth caliph. He was reportedly known for his holy and chivalrous qualities, but the dynasty of Umayyads never accepted him as their leader, and he was assasinated by a fanatic who was a former member of his own party. (Fisher pg 404)(grace cavazos) He was also the first Imam of Shiite Islam, believed to have been appointed by Muhammad as his religious and political successor. (Dr. P.)

Divali

... Divali/Diwali is a festival of lights, celebrat3ed by almost all Indians, whatever their religion in September or October. (Voorst p 88) (Alex Goodman)

Ganesha

... Ganesh is the son of Pavarti who formed him from her bodys dirt and sweat. When she would not let Shiva in her angry spouse smashed the boys head into a thousand pieces. Pavarti demanded he be fixed, the first new head to be found was of a baby elephant. Shiva granted Ganesh the power of removing obstacles. (Fisher pg. 109) (Grace Cavazos)

Fatima

... The prophets beloved and favorite daughter who was married to Ali the prophet's cousin. (Fisher pg 387)(grace cavazos) She is considered the purest and most holy woman in Shiite Islam. (Dr. P.)

Judah

... The southern kingdom, continuing its allegiance to the house of David and retaining Jerusalem as its capital , renamed itself Judah, after Davids tribe. (Fisher pg250) (grace cavazos)

lingam & yoni

... The yoni is a representation of female gentalia, a symbol of feminine power of the cosmos. Lingam is Shiva's special image. The meaning is disputed and it may depict the erect phallus. Shiva is worshiped by pouring milk over the lingam. the yoni and lingam are often set together to suggest the universe is powered by a combination of the male and female. (Voorst p 74) (Alex Goodman)

original sin

... This is one of the fundamental doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, all humans are said to be morally defective, or "fallen", having inherited a sinful nature from the first human ancestors. They can be saved from this condition only by the grace of God, as mediated through the death and Ressurection of Jesus, and the cleansing sacrament of baptism (Fisher, 339) (McCoy).

fatwa

... a legal opinion issued by an authority considered an excellent scholar of Islam. An opinion from the scholars of al-Azhar (the world's oldest university) is considered authoritative by Sunni Muslims around the world (Fisher, 406). Individual Muslims can either accept or neglect the legal opinion, based on their own conscience (Starkey & Dr. P.).

Zhuangzi

... also considered one of the two most important texts of classic Daoist tradition. It elaborates, in a more emphatic and humorous way, on the teachings found in Dao de jing. The central philosophy asserts that the best way to live in a chaotic, absurd civilization is to become detached from it. (Fisher, 191). (Starkey)

Nicheren & Soka Gakkai

... based in Japan but has millions of members around the world. They combine the central practice of chanting "nam myoho rengeko" with modern social activism in areas such as humanitarian relief, environmental awareness, human rights, literacy, and cultural and interfaith exchanges. (Fisher pg 165)(Grace Cavazos)

Jain/Jina

... in Jain teaching liberation comes only through ones own strenuous and mindful efforts not to do wrong in any way. Jains reject the hindu caste system and the idea of a creator God but like hindus and budhists believe in reincarnation. (Fisher pg 94) (Grace Cavazos)

synagogues

... means "meeting places" where Jewish people gather to read the Torah and to worship communally, praying simply and directly to God (Fisher, 255) (Starkey). Synagogues replaced the previous significance of the Jewish Temple, and served as a central place of worship in the community. Though they could meet anywhere, they remained holy gatherings. There always had to be a minyan, or a quorum of ten adult males, present to conduct the worship (Fisher 9th ed. p 262). A Jewish "church" is called a synagogue, shul or temple, and is a place to worship, and to study. They are run by lay people an financed by membership dues. Rituals and ritual items are still found the temple was the center of Jewish worship and is where sacrifices were performed. A synagogue is a place of worship and study, and a "town hall" (Fisher 264-270) (Sharlenea Bracale)

Dao de jing

... one of the two most salient texts of the classic Daoist tradition. Also known as "The Classic of the Way and its Power," it is a famous Chinese philosophical text attributed to the authorship of Laozi ("Old Master"), a major conveyor of the Daoist tradition. The books central philosophy is a practical concern with improving harmony in life. (Fisher, 190). (Starkey)

mudras

... position of hands (or "way of holding fingers") as a ritual gesture that reflect and invoke a particular spiritual reality. Used during meditation, chanting or other types of spiritual practice. (Fisher, 88) (Starkey)

lamas

... qualified teacher or spiritual master who guides others through a series of tantric practices. Trained from a young age to help others advance toward enlightenment. (Fisher, 167). (Starkey).

King Ashoka

... spread Buddhism outside of India (Fisher pg 140) (Grace Cavazos) He became a practicing Buddhist after feeling remorse for the lives lost in the process of expanding his empire. Ordered inscriptions of the Dharma to be written on rocks and pillars throughout his sphere of influence (Fisher p. 150). (Garth Schulz)

shaykh and murshid

... the first refers to a spiritual master and the latter refers to a spiritual teacher. It was through the spiritual master that the blessing, sacred power (barakah) was passed down (Fisher, 408). (Starkey).

fasting (Jainism)

... the jains have modeled themselves after a vision of nature that favors peace and love over war and hatred. they worked out various meditations and disciplines to avoid temptation. (Fisher pg 109) (Grace Cavazos)

the Holocaust

... the murder of almost six million European Jews by the Nazi leadership of Germany during World War II (Fisher, 266). (Starkey). The destruction of many Jews in Germany, Poland, and other European countries. (Young)

confirmation

..." Confirmation is often offered in early adolescence in a Roman Catholicism and Protestantism"( Fisher 352) (Nathen Stinson), allowing young people to make a conscious commitment to Christ and the Church after a period of systematic religious education. (Dr. P.)

Ijtihad

..." For those Muslims intellectuals who want to retain their faith within the context of modern life, the process of ijtihad is crucial"( fisher424) (Nathen Stinson) This is a technical term for Islamic law. In the book "Living Religions" it is described as "reasoned interpretation, independent judgment by a qualified scholar" (Fisher, p. 424). (Tatum Heeres) Critical to Muslims intellects who wanted to make the faith make sense within the context of modern life, giving fresh interpretations to the tradition so it is relevant, significant, and up-to-date .(Fisher pg.424) (Heather Donais & Dr. P.)

women priests

..." Women today, qualified by seminary education and church leadership roles, have been denied the position, but some have been ordained priests or deacons by supportive Bishops. Over 24 ordinations of women have been performed in Europe and North America since 1970" ( Ant 260) (Nathen Stinson)

jiva

..."A living being or any entity that is a living organism which survives physical death." In the Hindu terms it is considered to be life of itself. The two languages use the term in different ways. (Fisher 122) -Steven Bailey

hijāb / "veiling" and the headscarf

..."Covering their bodies except for the hands,face, and feet, as they had not done for decades. In Saudi Arabia, where women have been ordered to be "properly covered" outside their homes, some wear not only head-to-toe black cloaks but also full vells over their faces without even slits for their eyes." (fisher423)(Nathen Stinson) This is an article of clothing worn by Muslim women. In the book "Living Religions" it is defined as "the veiling of women for the sake of modesty in Islam" (Fisher, p. 542). (Tatum Heeres) In honoring the "Qur'anic encouragement," of this physical modesty as a protection for women from being molested. (Fisher page 423) (Lindsey Felty) The hijab is a very thin cloth that covers and scarfs the hair and neck, some hair can show and the headscarf is the same. Veiling is different in it is a full veil over the face sometimes with eye mesh to see and sometimes with nothing. The Hijab is a symbol of privacy, and non sexuality. They are only to be showing hair, a sex like symbol, at home and not where other men can be attracted to them. (Muna Abu Sulayman) (Sharlenea Bracale).

Dalai Lama

..."Is the spiritual and temporary leader of tibiets people and exile government. In 1959 into exile and established the tibetan government in northern india. He has dedicated his life to world peace" (Dalai lama youtube video). (nathen stinson) The Dalai Lama is said to be incarnated from the 13th Dalai Lama and he has been exciled from Tibet and is teaching Buddhism from India. He believes in fighting the battle with the Chinese over the tibet freedom with a nonviolent campaign. He has stuck to the campaign and has broken some ground on helping Tibet reclaim its nation under Tibetans not Chinese. (Sharlenea Bracale)

Kingdom of God

..."Jesus seems to refer to the kingdom as a manifestation of God's full glory, the consummation of the world." (Fisher 310) This means kingdom is referred to as heaven, or something that is to come in the future when God's plan is fulfilled.

1965 Immigration Act

..."The Immigration and Naturalization Act of 1965, also known as the Hart-Celler Act, abolished an earlier quota system based on national origin and established a new immigration policy based on reuniting immigrant families and attracting skilled labor to the United States. Over the next four decades, the policies put into effect in 1965 would greatly change the demographic makeup of the American population, as immigrants entering the United States under the new legislation came increasingly from countries in Asia, Africa and Latin America, as opposed to Europe." (history.com) (Young)

Guru Nanak

..."The first of the Sikh Gurus became known as Guru Nanak. He was born into Hindu Family but in his eleventh year, when the time came for him to be invested with the traditional sacred thread, he refused" (ReL-150 Ch.11) (Nathen Stinson)... When he was thirty, his life was forever changed after allegedly being immersed in a river for three days, during which he could not be found anywhere. He appeared later in a nearby town in a very radiant personality. It is said during this time in the river he was in the presence of god, and drank the amrit nectar, giving him "power of prayer, love of worship, truth and contentment" (Fisher 442). After this, he roamed the lands teaching of his way. What we know of him is not based on historical records, but mostly on Janam-sakhis, which are stories about his life. When asked which path he should follow, he said, "There is neither Hindu nor Muslim, so whose path should I follow? I shall follow god's path. God is neither Hindu or Muslim" (Fisher 442). (Zachary Prorok) His teachings for the path to god revolved around three major teachings which "were working hard in society to earn one's own honest living in society, sharing from ones earnings with those who are needy, and remembering God at all times as the only Doer, the only Giver." (Fisher page 442) The teachings in his society were based in a very different manner in comparison to the Hindu and Muslims religions of these areas and times. (Lindsey Felty)"There is neither Hindu nor Mussulman, so whose path shall I follow? I shall follow God's path. God is neither Hindu nor Mussulman" (Fisher, 442). Nanuk believes that everyone is equal in following god. There is not one right religion as long as you are following God and on the path to the righteous you will have salvation just as much as the next. (Sharlenea Bracale)

Osama bin Laden

..."The most well known self-styled jihadi in the world is Osama bin Laden, an exiled member of the Saudi aristocracy. In his extremist mixture of religion with politics, martyrdom is an heroic cult, the world is divided into good and evil sides"(fisher432) (Nathen Stinson) This man was the founder of al-Qaeda. This terrorist group was responsible for the 9/11 attacks on the United States. According to the book "Living Religions" "al-Qaeda's agenda is to strike back at the United States for its support for Israel and its intrusive presence in the Arabian peninsula, which bin Laden and others interpret as non-Muslim control over Muslim lands" (Fisher, p. 432). (Tatum Heeres)

hijrah of 622 CE

..."This Hijrah of Muslims from Mecca to Medina took place in 622 CE. The Muslims era is caculated from the beginnings of the year in which this event took place, for it marked the changed from the persecution to appreciation of the Prophets message"( Fisher 386) (Nathen Stinson). Hijrah means (migration). Janette Contreras

miracles by Jesus (Fisher 305-7, 312-3, 316)

..."he is said to preform miracles, such as turning water into wine, healing the sick, restoring the dead to life, walking on water, casting devils out of possessed and turning a few loaves and fish into enough food to feed a crowd of thousands" (Fisher 305). Jesus would preform these to those who love and pray righteously for help. (Kambree Meskill).

bani

..."meaning word, in particular words of scripture" (Sikhism 3). Which one reads 5 hymns from 1st Japji Sahib in the morning and 2 hymns in the last Kiran Sohila in the evening. (Kambree Meskill)

Pentateuch

..."the five books of Moses". They appear at the beginning of the Tanakh and considered the most sacred part of the scriptures. Traditionalists believe that these books were divinely revealed to Moses and written down by him as a single document (Fisher, 242) (McCoy).

Yom Kippur

...(Day of Atonement) to renew God's covenant, a time of inner spiritual cleansing, forgiveness and reconciliation. (Fisher pg 221) (grace cavazos) It is also the end of the High Holy Days and was traditionally the only time the high priest entered the Holy of Holies in the Temple of Jerusalem. (Fisher 283) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Rosh Hashanah

...(New Year) around the fall equinox, the spiritual year begins with the blowing of a rams horn and prayers. (Fisher pg 221) (grace cavazos)

Sikh

....."In the Punjabi language of the founders, Sikh means "student" and according contemporary understanding of the religion, those who are known as Sikhs are not only of the Ten Sikh Gurus but also of the founders and saints of other traditions"( ReL-150 Ch.11) (Nathen Stinson) Sikh means student and it corresponds to the definition of Guru. Sikhs follow the following ideas: equality, personal right, actions count, living a family life, sharing, accept god's will, and the four fruits of life. (Found through additional research outside of assigned text) (Rae Johnson)

equality

......all people are equal, but that does not mean they are all identical. There are differences of abilities, potentials, ambitions, wealth ect. The value of this is to not be mistaken or looked over by the similarities in people (Fisher 445) (Steven Bailey)

Four Noble Truths

...1) Life inevitably involves suffering, dissatisfaction, and distress. 2) Suffering is caused by craving, rooted in ignorance. 3) Suffering will cease when craving ceases. 4) there is a way to realize this state: the Noble Eightfold Path (Fisher, 142) (McCoy)

monks/bhikshus

...A Buddhist monk or nun who renounces worldliness for the sake of following the path of liberation and whose simple physical needs are met by lay supporters. (Janette Contreras) Buddhist monks who give teachings and advice to people of all backgrounds and religions. They spend their time to life of poverty and spiritual dedication. This type of "missionary work" started due a Buddha who walked through North India for almost half his life giving these spiritual teachings. Females/Nuns who emulated this Buddhist's order are called bhikshunis.

gurdwaras

...A Sikh temple or building where the Guru Granth Sahib is enshrined and public worship takes place. Also the located where langar is held. (Fisher, 454)(Young) some Gurdwaras have previously only allowed men to read publicly. (Fisher pg.457) (shelbie oconnor)

19-Day Feast

...A gathering of all local believers every 19 days to pray and talk of spiritual growth. As Baha'u'llah said, "This feast is held to foster comradeship and love, to call god to mind and supplicate him with contrite hearts, and encourage benevolent pursuits (Baha'i.org). (Zachary Prorok)

Malcom X

...A member of the Nation of Islam and an African American activist. Became disillusioned with the leadership of Elijah Muhammad, determining his version of Islam was far removed from Muslin orthodoxy (Fisher, 20) (McCoy). . . Malcolm X was "eloquent in criticizing the institutionalized racism of America" and he inspired pride in being black and beautiful. He also inspired pride in African Americans for having the intelligence and strength to empower themselves and their own communities (Dr. Pschaida, Islam in America, 2015 Lecture) (Shelly Stuckman)

Ayatollah Khomeini and The Islamic Republic of Iran

...A revolutionary leader who swept the shah from power in 1979 and established the Islamic Republic of Iran where he served as supreme leader until his death in 1989. He insisted that social transformation should be linked with spiritual reformation, but made drastic changes in the interpretation of Islam in order to justify violent revolutionary behavior. (Fisher, 429). (Starkey).

William Miller

...A scholar who studied the prophecies of the Bible and came to the conclusion that in the early 1840's, Jesus would descend through the clouds in the sky in all his power and glory.The projected year was initially 1843 and then recalculated to 1844. Tens of thousands of Christians were inspired by his message and many eagerly sat on hilltops awaiting Jesus' arrival. They were ultimately disappointed and, thus, this event has been named "The Great Disappointment." Significantly, as a result of this Biblical scholar's proclamations, his followers formed into religious groups that are well known today -- Seventh Day Adventists and Jehovah Witnesses.

Hasidism

...A version of Lurianic Kabbalism that resurfaced in a very different form in the 18th century. This is called the path to ecstatic piety. It developed in the Ukraine and Poland (Fisher, 263)(McCoy). A Jewish movement founded in Poland in the 18th century caused by a reaction to academicism of rabbinical Judaism. (Shelbie O'Connor)

mandalas

...A visual aid to help with concentration and illumination, which portray Buddhas and bodhisattvas and representations of an ideal universe. A symmetrical image, with shapes emerging from a center, used as a meditational focus (Fisher, 168, 543 ) (McCoy)

Progressive Revelation

...According to Baha'u'llah, the spiritual education of humans has been a process of "progressive revelation". Humanity has been maturing, like a child growing in the ability to grasp complex ideas as it grows in years and passes through grade school and college. Each time a divine message appeared, the message was given at levels appropriate to humanity's degree of maturity.(Fisher, 482)(Young)

Shiite hadith

...Actions and words of the Prophet and his 12 successors or "Imams," outside of the Qur'an. "Hadith range from grand revelations form Allah to descriptions of the Prophet's life, rules of war, marriage, mosque conduct, and personal behavior...They are the second basis, after the Qur'an, for Islamic law" (Anthology, Fisher p. 280) (William Morehand & Dr. P.)

Theravada

...Also called the "Way of the Elders". Prevalent in Southeast Asian countries. Theravadin Buddhists study early scripture in Pali and honor the life of renunciation and follow mindfulness meditation teachings (Fisher, 149) (McCoy) "Traditions are the traditions buddhism as spread in the south, to sri lanka to southeast Asia" (Ant pg 119) (Nathen stinson) Southeast Asian countries of Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar (Burma), and Laos. --Dr. Pschaida

socially engaged Buddhism

...Although many assume that the Buddha proposed people to leave society to seek enlightenment; it is exactly opposite. Buddhists principles such as nonviolence, compassion and social justice have pushed followers to become social activist. "The monks of Buddhism for Development, for instance, have gone to villages and cities to carry out community development projects, emphasizing Dharma of physical, mental, intellectual and spiritual development" (Fisher 178). Schumacher explains the work of "Buddhist economics" such as living generously and humanely with each other. (Kambree Meskill)

temples / houses of worship

...Are open to all, have nine doors and a central dome symbolizing the diversity and oneness of humanity. Devotional services include include readings from scriptures of all religions, meditations, unaccompanied singing, and prayers by the Bab, Baha'u'llah, and his successor Abdu'l-Baha, his oldest son.(Fisher, 483)(Young)

Avalokiteshvara and Guan Yin

...Avalokiteshvara is said to be the bodhisattva of compassion in the Tibetan Mahayana tradition. The Fourteenth Dalai Lama is thought to be a human emanation of Avalokiteshvara (Fisher p. 160). Guan Yin is the female equivalent of Avalokiteshvara (Anthology p. 121) (Garth Schulz)

Bahá'í Principles

...Baha'is' attempts to unite the earth in faith extend into the political sphere, where they actively support the United Nations' efforts to unify the planet. Their goal is a unified, peaceful global society built on these principles: 1) The end of prejudice in all forms. 2) Equality for women. 3) Acceptance of the relativity and unity of spiritual truth. 4) Just distribution of wealth. 5) Universal education. 6) The individual responsibility to seek truth. 7) development of a world federation. 8) harmony of science and true religion (Fisher, 484) (McCoy). " Baha'i denies that Muhammad is thefinal prophet. Baha'i also finds the theological legitmacy in religions such as Hinduism and Buddhism, which ismlam does not consider acceptable god-worshiping traditions"(Fisher 484) (Nathen Stinson).

Elijah Muhammad

...Became the leader of the Nation of Islam. Proclaimed he was a messenger of God. Faith in his leadership was shaken when allegations of sexual relationships with his secretaries were made (Fisher, 420) (McCoy). Elijah Muhammad led the movement of "The Nation of Islam" and at one point had tens of thousands of followers that identified as black Muslims. Once his reputation was ruined for the reasons concerning his secretaries above, many other influential Muslim leaders began to form their own path to spread the word of Islam. (Rae Johnson) (Fisher p 415)

Noble Drew Ali

...Began a movement in 1913 that was designed to begin teaching the elements of the faith to African Americans and thus give them a strong sense of their own identity. Members were encouraged to adopt his understanding of Muslim lifestyles, change their names to Arab inspired ones, Identify as "Moors" instead of African Americans, wear modest dress, practice gender separation, traditional family structure, and community solidarity (Fisher, 420). (Starkey & Dr. P.).

three stages (of Buddhist teaching)

...Believing that all life is precious and interdependent, saying violence isn't good for anything or anyone. The Buddhist teaching is to more about the practice of meditation to generate selfless compassion, according to the teaching of Buddha. (Fisher pg. 177) (Heather Donais)

Chan/Zen

...CHAN Buddhism became the most successful form of Buddhism in China. It was brought from India around the first century C.E. by an Indian monk named Bodhidharma. The Chan school was transmitted to Japan where it is know as ZEN, it claims to preserve the essence of the Buddha's teachings through direct experience and emphasizes direct insight into the true nature of one's own mind, to reveal one's own Buddha nature (Fisher, 161) (McCoy). A Chinese and Japanese Buddhist school emphasizing that all things have Buddha-nature, which can only be grasped when one escapes from the intellectual mind. (Janette Contreras)

African Instituted Churches

...Christian churches primarily founded or shaped in Africa.Theologians of these churches reject missionary efforts from Europeans who push their customs and Westerners who impose their traditions. They want to be Christians while maintaining their customs and honoring their ancestors (Fisher, 370). (Starkey).

contemplative prayer & Christianity

...Christians use this form of prayer all the time, and is a lifestyle for most. You can use this form of prayer by singing, meditating, and many others. It is a great way to get to know God better and to strengthen your heart. Building a relationship with God is crucial to having a successful lifestyle (Fisher 377). (Steven Bailey)

devotional Buddhism

...Devotional practices of Buddhism include offerings, bowing, chanting, and pilgrimage. Devotion to the Buddha Amitabaha is the main practice Pure land Buddhism. In Nichiren Buddhism, devotion to the Lotus Sutra is the main practice. (Sangha) (Fisher 152) -Steven Bailey

dharma

...Dharma, in a sense the most central goal, is famously difficult to translate; it includes duty, religion, religious merit, morality, social obligations the law, justice and so forth. (doniger pg 5) ( Nathen Stinson) One of the 4 goals of life and is associated with the caste system in India. Very virtue oriented, with obligations to ritual, morals, and social (Doniger pg. 5) (Emilio Espinoza). -Dharma - fulfilling ones purpose in life. Dharma is your calling or duty for you to fund your life or to meet your lifes purpose (Bracale).

African Americans and Christianity

...Dwight Hopkins was quoted, "The black community has a long tradition of practicing faith as a total way of life... within worship, especially, the church is noted for its uplifting preaching, singing, shouting, and pain..." (Fisher 372). American churches try to a "way of developing an alternative reality in the midst of poverty... (Fisher 372). African American Christians also played a vital role in civil rights, notably Martin Luther King, Jr., who started the liberation theology ideal. The African American church does things like build shelters, help addiction, etc... (Fisher 371-372). (Zachary Prorok)

El & Yahweh

...El is a male God that was worshiped by Canaanites, an agricultural civilization that lived in the region around Canaan until around 1207 BCE (Fisher 9th ed. p 252). Yahweh, often written as YHWH because its true pronunciation is too sacred to pronounce, is the God of the early Jews of Israel and Judah. (Garth Schulz)

Unification of Humanity / Most Great Peace

...Essentially part of the second of the three fundamental principles, the oneness of humanity. This is basically saying that "all people have the same basic, god given abilities" (Hatcher & Martin 75). Physical differences have no affect on the spiritual capacities of all humankind. The evolution of human kind is likened to the growth of an individual child. Humankind has gone through its infancy and childhood, and is now in its adolescence. All "Manifistations of god" are thought to have guided mankind in some new teaching, with Baha'u'llah being the most recent. The "world order" taught by Baha'i is that humankind will inevitably become a global society which accepts its differences.When a global society is formed, the most great peace will come. As said in the readings, "war must be permanently eliminated and universal peace firmly established among the nations and communities of Earth" (Hatcher & Martin 130). The most great peace is thought of as the third stage humanity will reach in the development of the world order (Hatcher & Martin 140). (Zachary Prorok)

The Trinity

...Expresses the belief that God is one being, but has three individual Persons that are completely God in themselves which are all part of the single, monotheistic Godhead. They are: The Father, the son, and the Holy Spirit (Fisher p. 354) (Steven Bailey & Dr. P.)

Ramadan/Fasting

...Fasting is one of the Five Pillars, Ramadan is the only obligatory one and commemorates the first revelations of the Qur'an to Muhammad. Abstinence from food, drink, sex, and smoking is required from dawn to dusk, for all who are beyond puberty (although some start fasting before or during puberty) excluding the infirm, sick, menstruating or nursing women. The date gradually moves through all seasons with the summer months being the longest and most difficult to bear. The burden of abstaining is an unselfish surrender of God's commandment and assertion of control over lower desires. The knowledge that all Muslims are making the same sacrifices at the same time builds a bond between the haves and have-nots (Fisher, 399) (McCoy). Frequent fasts are recommended to Muslims, but the only one that is obligatory is the fast during Ramadan (Fisher, 2011). Fasting is for all who are "beyond puberty..." (Fisher, 2011, p. 399). Fasting is expected to allow the "body to burn up impurities and provide one with a Transparent Soul to transcend, a Clear Mind to think and a Light Body to physically more healthy during Ramadan fasting" (Fisher, 2011, p. 400). Fasting also helps liberates a person's body from the heaviness of food and teaches the soul not to allow anything into the mind and heart that would distract one from God. (Janette Contreras)

Incarnation

...God (as Word) made flesh in the person of Jesus Christ. (Fisher pg 264)(grace cavazos)

homosexual marriages & Christianity

...God created man and woman in his own image and does not expect for them to change that. It has been altered over time, but God will still continue to love us no matter what, it does not matter how or what we do throughout our lives (Ant 260). (Steven Bailey) Many Christian interpreters draw on verses of the Bible to assert that practicing homosexuality is a sin in the eyes of God. Other Christians either give such verses a more particular application to specific cases or focus on other verses which communicate love and kindness. Some local congregations and large denominations, such as the United Church of Christ, Episcopal, some Anglican, some Baptists, some Lutheran, and some Methodists take positions of acceptance of same sex marriage. (Dr. Pschaida)

Council of Nicea

...Group of bishops and leaders brought together by Constantine in order "to define who Jesus was and his relationship with God, and to provide clear stands in the face of various controversies." And also to bring doctrinal unity among the Christian churches. (Fisher p. 324) (William Morehand) The result of this 325 assembly of Christian leaders was the 1st proclamation of consensus/majority opinion about Christian belief and persecution of those Christian leaders who lead differing views. (Dr. P.)

angel Gabriel

...He is referred to as an angel of the Lord. He follows in Gods footsteps and always does the right thing. He is one of the three angles mentioned in the entire Bible which alone gives his name enough significance (Fisher, 429). (Steven Bailey) The angel which Muslims believe communicated to Muhammad his revelation of the Qur'an. (Dr. P.)

Thomas Aquinas

...He was known as the "Universal Teacher". He began his education at the age of 5, and loved learning about the Dominican order. He was a philosopher and a theologian. "He was considered to be one of the best known theological thinkers". He was an authority in the Roman Catholic church, an outstanding writer, and the most influential theologian in Catholicism's history (Fisher, p. 541). (Steven Bailey) An Italian, living in the 13th century, his theology and philosophy was influenced by a close study of scripture, Aristotle, Jewish Maimonides, and Muslim Averroes, with which his writings embodied his firm conviction that truth about God, the spiritual, and ethics can be known not just by scriptural revelation but by reasoning and observation of the workings of the natural world. (Dr. P.)

Husayn & Karbila & 'Ashura in Muharram

...Husayn was one of Muhammad's two grandsons, son of 'Ali and Fatima, who gave his life at Karbala in opposition to the oppressive Umayyad caliphs. The day of his martyrdom is commemorated by Shi'as as 'Ashura, held in the month Muharram on the tenth day (Fisher 406). (Zachary Prorok)

Hare Krishnas or ISCKON

...ISCKON: International Society for Krishna Consciousness. Started in 1965 by guru A.C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada. Follows asceticism and bhakti tradition. Followers dress and eat the same diet as Hindu monks and nuns with initiates living in temple communities. Days were filled with 4 a.m. meditation, worship, chanting names of Krishna and Ram, scriptural study. The aim was to turn away from the material world and find spiritual transcendence. Spent days chanting and spreading literature about the bliss of Krishna. Has continued throughout the world since the death of Swami Prabhupada's in 1977 (Fisher, p. 114-115) (McCoy)

Islam as a complete "way of life"

...Idea made popular by immigrant students from the 1960s in which religion is not simply something you do on a Friday or occasionally, but should be involved in and considered for every aspect of life. As Dr. P puts it in the video lecture, "It should influence and be the center of not just personal religion, but also social life, be the basis of ethics in your business life, and form the basis of political life" (Youtube lec, Islam in America: The great (Muslim) American Experiment). (Zachary Prorok)

American Muslim activism: Palestine issue vs. inner-city/domestic social justice

...Immigrant Muslims have spent the years since 9/11 largely on the defensive against increased suspicion and bias. But a new generation social media smarts and versed in the new tools of non importance to activism is putting itself through many various coalitions that enforce the approach and sometimes the prejudices of its elders (Fisher, 385). (Steven Bailey)

Crucifixion

...In Roman times, the execution of a criminal by fixing him to a cross; with reference to Jesus, his death on the cross, symbolic of his self-sacrifice for the good of all humanity. (Fisher, 541) (Young) As a result of this the cross became a symbol of Christianity. It is a symbol of the sacrifice that Jesus made in order to allow people to be baptized and reborn to new life in Christ. (Fisher 323) (Jonathan Jenkins)

caliph & "The Rightly Guided" caliphs

...In Sunni Islam, a caliph is a successor to the prophet (Fisher 438). The job of the Caliph is to lead in worship and enforce Shari'ah. The first four caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and 'Ali are regarded as the rightly guided caliphs to the Sunnis. The time during each of their reigns is regaurded as the "Golden age of Islam" (Fisher 405). (Zachary Prorok)

American Muslim demographics

...In the United States, two-thirds of American Muslims are immigrants, and one-third are converts to Islam, mostly consisting of African Americans (Fisher 9th ed. p. 415). (Garth Schulz) Of the Muslism Americans in the country, 30% report as being white, 23% African american, and 21% Asian. As of the time these statistics were recorded, there was roughly 2.75 million Muslim Americans living in the United States. http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/03/26/muslim-american-demographics_n_5027866.html (Rae Johnson) . . . . There are roughly 3-7 million American Muslims in the United States today with over 75% of them from immigrant families after the 1965 immigration law which allowed highly skilled and well educated and those with families to unite to enter the United States. Today the American Muslims are still a largely educated population (Pschaida, Islam in America Part 1, 2015). Today demographics are approximately 30% North African and Arab, 30% South Asia, and the rest a mix of Asian Pacific (Indonesia and Malaysia) and their children. Over 70% of the growth is since 1990 with immigrants coming here for education, employment, or running form political and social unrest (Pschaida, Lecture Part 2). (Shelly Stuckman)

mantras and om

...Indian thought has long embraced that repetition of certain sounds has sacred effects. Mantras or sacred formulas express the divine in the form of sound vibration. The language used is Sanskrit. Chanting is thought to still the mind and attune the devotee to the Divine Ground of Existence. If chanted with devoted concentration the mantra may also invoke the presence and blessings of the deity. OM can be used as a visual tool for the practitioner to concentrate. It represents the original sound of creation being topped by the sun and moon, harmonized opposites. If OM is chanted it is to commune with this cosmic sound vibration (Fisher, p. 83) by McCoy.

ISIS (aka the terrorist organization that is neither a State nor Islamic according to the UN Secretary General)

...Islamic State in Iraq and Syria, which is an extremist militant group that rules by the Wahhabi/Salafi doctrines. Often Islam religion gets perceived as these terrorist, "They feel that extremism is undermining Islam by contradicting its principles and spreading hatred for the religions" (Fisher 435). (Kambree Meskill). ISIS stands for The Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, also known as the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria. The United Nations, The United States and over 60 additional countries have waged a war against ISIS. It was formed in April 2013 and grew out of al-Qaeda. A great video to watch is : http://www.nytimes.com/2016/08/04/world/middleeast/isis-german-recruit-interview.html?_r=0 this will give first hand knowledge of why ISIS is not Islamic. The Islamic people are peaceful and ISIS is not. (Sharlenea Bracale)

Salaat/prayer

...Islamic prayer five times a day, and especially ritual worship at mosque on Friday noon. Worshipers wash ritually, then bow repeatedly facing the direction of the Mecca (qibla), which is marked by a niche. Use of prayer rug defines the sacred space for bowing while a leader leads prayers spoken in Arabic. (Anthology, 306)(Young)

Rumi & the Whirling Dervishes

...Jalal al-Din Rumi (c. 1207-1273) was a Turkish dervish, a type of poor Sufi mystic, who inspired the founding of the Mevlevi Dervish Order in Turkey. Whirling Dervishes are members of the Order who perform dances meant to attain transcendent rapture (Fisher 9th ed. p. 405). (Garth Schulz)

Mary of Nazareth

...Jesus' mother. "...who was a virgin when she conceived him by the Holy Spirit: her husband was Joseph..." (Fisher 302). (Kambree Meskill) Veneration of Mary as "mother of God," prayer to/through her, and contemplation of her iconography are central practices to Catholic and Orthodox denominations of Christianity. (Dr. P.) She is an important aspect in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox church and is seen as "the Feminine aspect of the Godhead" (Fisher 357). She is casted as the daughter of Zion or daughter of Jerusalem, the New Eve, virgin, and Mother of God. "Theologians point out that veneration of Mary is really directed toward God; Mary is not worshiped in herself but as the mother of Christ, reflecting his glory" (Fisher 358). Mary is depicted in statues, shrines, paintings and Catholics also repeat the "Hail Mary" prayer. Some followers state that to this day they see her living presence in prayer, visions, and in the world, and they describe her as, "indescribably beautiful, amid brilliant flashes of light" (Fisher 358).(Kambree Meskill)

Joseph

...Joseph was loved by Jacob he he had born to him when he was older. His father granted him a special gift when he was younger which was a richly ornamented coat. His brothers did not like this because them not feel appreciated. He was a house servant in Egypt to an extremely wealthy Egyptian Potiphar. All of the events of Joseph are found in the Torah and the Qur'an. (Fisher 249) (Steven Bailey)

Suffering and Faith

...Man is supposed to show great sympathy and compassion for others during times of suffering. The poor are still Gods people and there are all hear for a reason. This might not be their ideal form of life, but they can still have hopes and dreams of improving upon it (Fisher 262). Faith is the act of still holding strong in our Lord, and having trust in him that he will guide us in the right direction. When things go bad, there is always good to follow it. (Fisher 262). (Steven Bailey)

synoptic gospels

...Matthew,Mark and Luke. referring to the fact that they can be "seen together" as presenting rather similar views with similar stories and sayings of Jesus career, though they are organized somewhat differently.(Fisher pg 300)(grace cavazos & Dr. P.)

"unknowable Essence"

...Mere humans cannot understand God's infinite nature with their limited minds. This is of the heart of the message that appears in the Kitab-i-Iquan (The book of Certitude) (Fisher, 482) (McCoy). This is also what prophets are given glimpses of when they receive their revelations. (482)(Jonathan Jenkins) Told by Baha'u'llah, God that humans cannot understand God's infinite nature with their own limited minds. God has become known as the messenger. (Fisher pg. 482) (Heather Donais)

Louis Farrakhan

...Minister Louis Farrakhan, current leader of the Nation, maintains Elijah Muhammad's more political focus on unifying against white oppression, despite Islam's strong tradition of nonracism.(Fisher, 421)(Young)

moksha

...Moksha contrasted with the rest of the group, the original immanent triad of Dharma, artha and kama now called "enjoyment" (Doniger pg 7) ( Nathen Stinson) .....Moksha, in Hinduism, is the liberation from the limitations of space, time, and matter through realization of the immortal Absolute. It is the ultimate goal to achieve in order to escape the "karma-run wheel of birth, death, and rebirth" (Fisher, p. 80). Moksha has also been called the universal goal or the Release (Doniger, p. 14). (Shelly Stuckman)

monastics & lay/villagers (symbiotic relationship)

...Monks (monastics) devote themselves to a life of simplicity and own very few possessions. They rely on donations (usually food and equipment, sometimes money but given to a lay treasurer) from the people in the community (laity) to support them. The laity view this as an opportunity to gain merit by giving to others (Fisher p. 152), and the monks give dharma talks and perform powerful rituals for the laity in return; thus it is a symbiotic, not a parasitic, relationship. (Garth Schulz & Dr. Pschaida)

"sky-clad" / Digambara

...Monks that choose to wear nothing at all, taking the surrounding environment as their clothing (Fisher, p. 122) (McCoy) Their only possessions are a drinking gourd and a broom. This broom is used to sweep the ground before they walk it so that creatures are not harmed. (Fisher 122) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Moses

...Moses is believed to have led the israelites out of the bondage in Egypt, to have spoken directly to God, and to have received God's commandments for the people"(Ant 187) ( Nathen Stinson)

Vesak

...Most important Buddhist festival, according to Theravadins it marks the birth of Buddha, his enlightenment, and death, occurring all on the same day. The Mahayana Buddhists say it was the day of Buddha's enlightenment (Fisher, 170) (McCoy)

Shema

...Most important ancient instructions for prayer are spoken by Moses in the Torah. The first sentence is call the Shema after it's opening Hebrew word, "Shema Ysrael Adonai Elohainu Adonai Echad" (Anthology p, 200)(Young)

"farewell sermon"

...Muhammad's Farewell Sermon reflected the ideals of Islam that the Prophet sought to uphold during the years when Islam was growing from Medina outward to northern Africa, Yemen, and Oman. The prophet advocated that the unity of faithful Muslims was more important than the cultural differences that previously separated them. In his sermon he said "You must know that a Muslim is the brother of a Muslim and the Muslims are one brotherhood" (Fisher 9th ed. p. 383). (Garth Schulz)

Abu Bakr

...Muhammad's friend who was one of the few people who originally believed his recitations of the Qur'an from the angel Gabriel. After remaining steadfast with Muhammad until his death, Abu Bakr was nominated and elected the first caliph, successor to the Prophet, by a group of Muslim leaders in Medina, or (Fisher 9th ed. p. 383). (Garth Schulz & Dr.P.)

The Night Journey

...Muhammad's visionary journey to Jerusalem and up through seven heavens to Allah to receive revelations. (Fisher pg 306)(grace cavazos) It is said that he also received the command for five prayers per day at this time as well. (Dr. P.)

creation theology / environmentalism

...Old Judeo-Christian creation taught that humans were "Given dominion over all things of the Earth" (Fisher 375). This seems to give humans the divine right to exploit the environment for their own gain. Many now believe this idea has led to the environment to be severely altered. Many believe that Christianity should "emphasize the miracle that is creation, thus helping to unite science and religion" (Fisher 375). Recently some evangelical leaders have been saying that we must change our ways or "millions could die" (Fisher 375). (Zachary Prorok)

Orthodox Judaism

...One of its Staunchest advocates was Moses Sofer the leader of Central European Traditional Judaism. His testament is still read by today's ultra- Orthodox Jews" (Fisher 265) (Nathen Stinson) Was lead from scholars and rabbis asserting the validity of the oral work of God, the proper framework for all of life, and encouraged Jew to not only live by halakhah but also to segregate themselves from non-Jewish secular culture. (Fisher pg.265) (Heather Donais)

Gospel of John

...One of the four gospels of the New Testament--not considered among the three "synoptic"--which describe Jesus's life and career. The Gospel of John is different than the other three because it focuses less on documenting Jesus's life, and instead broadly tells of Jesus as the "eternal Son of God", and asserts that he was the Messiah that Jews had been waiting for (Fisher 9th ed. p. 304). It was also likely written later than the other three, possibly around the end of the first century CE, and has stories and sayings of Jesus which do not occur in the other Gospels. (Garth Schulz & Dr. P.)

Sadducees

...One of the three sects of Jews formed under the rule of the Hasmonean kings. They were priests and wealthy business people, conservatives intent on preserving their letter of the law (Fisher, 252) (McCoy).

Shi'a / Shiah / Shiite

...One of two opposing Islamic groups (the other being Sunni). They felt that 'Ali was the rightful successor to the Prophet Muhammad. Rather than recognize the Sunni caliphs (spiritual leaders of Muslims), the Shi'a pay allegiance to a succession of seven or twelve Imams (leaders, guides). The Imam provides political leadership with continuing the transmission of Divine Guidance (Fisher, 406) (McCoy).

Ataturk and Turkey

...President Ataturk led the abolishing of the Ottoman sultanate and the creation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923. This was a development that followed a general trend of modernized societies separating religion from politics (Fisher 9th ed. p. 418). (Garth Schulz)

"clash of civilizations"

...Principal conflicts of global politics that occur between nations and groups of different civilizations. Osama bin Laden wanted a clash of civilization between Islam and the West. Predicted in 1993 by Harvard political scientist Samuel Huntington, although oversimplified sets up a supposed unified bloc of "Muslims" vs. "the West" when both categories are diverse and interpenetrating.(Anthology, 300)(Young & Dr. P.)

Amritsar & the Golden Temple

...Ram Das, the Fourth Guru founded the holy city of Amritsar, within which the Fifth Guru (Arjun Dev) built the religion's most sacred shrne, the Golden Temple which features four doors, inviting people from all traditions to come and worship. (Fisher, 444). (Starkey).

Narmada River

...Regarded by Indians as sacred and a goddess. The banks are lined with thousands of temples devoted to Mother Narmada and Lord Shiva. Worshipers travel the river from one end to the other and back again. Conflicts have erupted since 1990 as the river has become the subject of water development in the area, dam building, and reservoir making, diverting water to drought-ridden areas. Dam building would adversely affect at least one million people (Fisher, p. 104) (McCoy)

righteous war (in Sikhism)

...Sikhism has a concept of the Just War. It's called Dharam Yudh, meaning war in the defense of righteousness. In this specific war, the war must be the last resort. All other ways of resolving the conflict must be tried first (Fisher 453) (Steven Bailey) Contains five stringent conditions; 1)Military means are a last resort to be used only if all other methods have failed. 2)Battle should be undertaken without enmity or feeling of revenge. 3) No territory should be taken or captured properly retained. 4)Troops should be committed to the cause, not mercenaries fighting for pay, and the soldiers should be strictly disciplined, forswearing smoking, drinking, and abuse of opponents' women 5) Minimal force should be used and hostilities should end when the objective is obtained. (Fisher pg. 453) (Heather Donais)

"The Five K's" & symbolism

...So called as all the words begin with "k" in Punjabi. They have been interpreted as proud hallmarks of Sikh identity dating from the birth of the Khalsa in 1699. They clearly distinguish Sikhs from Muslims and Hindus. supporting the assertion that Sikhism constituted a third path with its own right of spiritual sovereignty (Fisher, 447) (McCoy). . . .The 5 K's are as follows: (1) Kesh: uncut hair (and beard), symbolizing their close relationship to God & the Guru--faith identity; (2) Kangha: a wooden comb, symbolizing to remind a Sikh to always be clean & orderly in appearance, having a beautiful physical appearance while having a beautiful spiritual appearance before God; (3) Kara: a metal bracelet, symbolizing there is no beginning or end with everything in life as a part of the whole to worship one God; (4) Kachera: a specific style of cotton undergarment worn at all times (even while bathing), symbolizing (a) readiness to defend the community from invaders at all times and (b) readiness in spirituality to serve God at all times; (5) Kirpan: a small, strapped curved sword to be worn, symbolizing (a) always be ready to defend the faith even if in violence but as a last resort and (b) cut away the evils or veils that keep you from God, cut away especially ego but also lust, anger, greed, and attachment with the sword of love and devotion to God (Pschaida, Sikhism 4, 4 Dec. 2015. Lecture). (Shelly Stuckman)

ghettos

...Special Jewish only quarters, which were often walled in and locked at night and during Christian holy days, to limit mixing of Christians and Jews (Fisher, 261)(McCoy)....An urban area occupied by those rejected by society, such as quarters for Jews in some European cities. (Fisher,)(Young) This could be a source of inter-Jewish support and cultivation of a distinctive Jewish identity, but at times forced ghettos were a source of discrimination or persecution, such as in the middle ages and the forced ghettos of the Holocaust/Shoah. (Dr. P.)

merit / punya

...Spiritual virtue and power accumulated through good deeds, thoughts and words. Merit follows us through rebirths/redeaths. Bodhisattva's have a magnificent amount of merit and can use it to do more than the ordinary human beings. Goodwill and loving kindness allows one to transfer punya to others while keeping one's own punya, thereby doubling it. (Buddhism: Mahayana & the way of the bodhisattva) (Alex Goodman)

the Gülen movement

...Started by Turkish Imam Fethullah Gulen, this is a movement which represents "A moderate brand of Islam which is compatable with the modern world" (Youtube Gulen #2). The focus of this movement is to engage in inter-faith dialogue, provide humanitarian aid, and build many schools which are purely secular. The movement believes that one can be scientific and modern and still be a good observant Muslim (Youtube pbs). (Zachary Prorok)

Three Bodies of the Buddha (Trikaya & Buddha-nature)

...The Buddha exists in the universe within three bodies. They are more so of aspects in which the first one is the enlightened wisdom of Buddha. Second, body of bliss of a Buddha. Third, emanation body which is when a Buddha can become many different forms in order to help suffering beings. "Although some may interpret the Buddhas and bodhisattvas as metaphors for various aspects of enlightened awareness, others regard them as living presences that are able to impart blessings and guidance to those who call on them" (Fisher 158). The reasoning for Three Bodies of Buddha is to protect and be an answer to those in need.

Dhammapada

...The Dhammapada is a collection of 423 key Buddhist verses of wide influence and importance"( Ant 119) (Nathen stinson) Verses in the Dhammapada were originally spoken by the Buddha in response to different situations. It urges a life full of peace and non-violence, and overcoming hatred with kindness. (Ant 119) (William Morehand)

Logos/Word

...The Gospel of John says "In the beginning was the Word/Logos." (Christianity quiz video taken with Dr. Pschaida) "And the word became flesh and dwelt upon us, full of grace and truth; We have beheld his glory, glory as of the only son from the father" (Anthology pg 228.) This was taken from the book of John 1:14. Speaks of the Word of God and now the truth of Christ. (Sharlenea Bracale).

Tanakh

...The Hebrew Bible recounting the Jewish sense of history through stories. It begins with creation of the world by God and progresses through the patriarchs, matriarchs, and Moses (Fisher, 239) (McCoy). . . .The Jewish scriptures (Fisher, p. 297) Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts (1) the Torah or Pentateuch which is the first 5 books of Moses + (2) the Prophets which are a group of books to lead reformers + (3) the Wisdom Literature, or the Writings, which is a collection ranging from Psalms to the drama of Job. It started out as oral tradition with the complete canon not being finalized in writing by rabbis until 70 CE (Anthology, p. 188). The acronym is from the first syllable of each division--Torah, Nev'im, and Kethuvim (Fisher, p. 241) (Pschaida, Judaism 1 Lecture). (Shelly Stuckman)

Muslim Student Association

...The MSA is an organization who's goal is to keep a Muslim presence in Colleges and Universities across America.It focuses on being non political (MSA website). (Zachary Prorok) It is instrumental in nurturing an Islamic identity and Muslim support group of friendships for young adult heritage-Muslims and converts alike. (Dr. P.)

"skillful means"

...The Mahayana scriptures emphasize the importance of religious experience, the Dharma is not embodied only in scriptures; for the Mahayanist it is the source of a transformative experience that awakens the quest for enlightenment of life. each school- and there are many branches within Mahayana- offers a special set of methods, or "skillful means" for awakening. These methods are quite varied (Fisher, 156) (McCoy). Skillful means are also defined as skillful methods and these are the practices that we can implement in our everyday lives in order to teach ourselves how to be better people. We might use skilful means to control our temper when we are in a heated conversation or skillful means to not let our sadness bring other people down. This is practiced thoughout a Buddhas life. (Sharlenea Bracale).

Last Judgment

...The Qur'an states that after a period of time after death, all humans will be bodily resurrected for judgement day. At the unknown time of the Final Judgment, the world will end cataclysmically. Hell is the destination for nonbelievers, those that didn't forbid evil and hypocrites. What we experience in the afterlife is revealing our tendencies in this life, awaken to our truer nature (Fisher, 395) (McCoy).

Christmas

...The celebration of Jesus' birth on earth as the incarnation of God (Fisher, 353) (McCoy). Dedicated to December 25th, although the Church did not know when Jesus was born and this date was probably chosen to re-signify the meaning of the already prominent winter solstice festivities in Europe from which we get evergreen trees. Gift-giving is probably inspired by a 4th C. Turkish bishop named Nicholas who was a joyful giver of gifts to children. (Dr. P.)

langar/kitchen

...The community meal, which is freely offered to all who come, regardless of caste. (Fisher, 454)(Young) a free meal provided daily at some gurdwaras, all visitors are expected to partake. Rich and Poor have to sit side by side with no distinction. (Fisher pg. 454) shelbie oconnor. The langar originated in Kartapur, the community founded by Guru Nanak and his family. Many sikhs traveled to the community and ate in the langar, which was a product of community support. (Garth Schulz)

Sharī'a and fiqh

...The divine law, as interpreted by judges, based on Qur'an and Hadith. Fundamental to Shari'ah are the Five Pillars of Islam. 1. Pronouncing the confession of faith 2. Performing salaat prayers 3. Fasting during the moth of Ramadan 4. Zakat, or charity 5. Hajj, or spiritual pilgrimage to Mecca. (Anthology, 282)(Young) Shari'ah is the scared law of Islam. The Shari'ah specifies "patterns for worship (the Five Pillars of Islam) as well as detailed prescriptions for social conduct, to bring remembrance of God into every aspect of daily life and practical ethics into the fabric of society" (Fisher, 2011, p. 405). (Janette Contreras) For Shiite Muslims, it is interpreted for each generation by the Imam, for he is the closest to the divine knowledge,or by the clerics if the Imam is thought to be in occulation" (Fisher pg. 406) (Shelbie O'Connor), while for the past twelve hundred years it has been through ayatollahs, mujtahids, and mullas who are self-proclaimed to represent the Imam's interest in his absence. (Dr. P.)

excommunication

...The exclusion of participation in the sacraments cutting a person off from the redemption of the Church (blocking a person's entrance into heaven) as well as from the benefits of the Church's secular power, disagreement over what the church decided could cause a person to be excommunicated (Fisher, 327) (McCoy).

the five sees and the pope / "bishop of Rome"

...The five major sees were those of Rome, Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. The bishops of the chief cities of the Roman Empire had the greatest responsibilities and authority, with the greatest prestige being held by the Bishop of Rome, eventually known as the pope. (Fisher pg.326) (Heather Donais)

Exile and Return

...The history of Judaism is defined by the often repeated process of exile of the people from their homeland, and the arduous process of returning to the land that is rightfully theirs. One such instance is when the descendants of Israel were enslaved in Egypt, only to be led by Moses back to their homeland in Canaan (Fisher 9th ed. p 252-56). (Garth Schulz)

Hadith

...The preserved stories of Muhammad's life and his sayings (Fisher, 383) (McCoy)....A traditional report about the Prophet's saying or action (Anthology, 306) (Young) Because there are many more times Hadith statements than there are Qur'anic verses, Muslims have relied greatly on Hadith to fill in gaps about correct belief and practice in their religion. (Dr. P.)

Resurrection

...The rising of Jesus in his earthly body on the first Easter Day, three days after his crucifixion and death (Fisher, 545) (McCoy). The third day Jesus rose from the dead, his earthly body on the first Easter Day. (Fisher pg. 545) (Heather Donais) For many Christians, Jesus' own victory over death instills confidence that Jesus will gather faithful believing Christians to himself in blissful eternal life after they too die. (Dr. P.)

Hsi Lai Temple (Hacienda Heights, CA)

...The significance of the Hsi Lai Temple in Hacienda Heights, CA is a meditation place where the Buddhist people will go to meditate. The key goal for all Buddhist people is to achieve personal enlightenment. It is described that this form of enlightenment is beyond words. It is interesting to most people when they walk out of the temple that they automatically feel a sense of joy and happiness within there lives immediately. "It is a state of mind where you have abolished strong emotions, and getting rid of the mindset of wanting things and hating things" (video). These people that worship in these temples just want to understand the real truth about themselves, and they want a less materialistic life. (Steven Bailey)

Singh & Kaur

...The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, asked for four volunteers "Who would offer their heads for the cause of protecting religious ideals" (Fisher 446). Five came forward, and became the "Five beloved ones", the first initiates of the Khalsa. The men who were initiated were given the surname "Singh", meaning lion, and the women "Kaur", meaning princess (Fisher 447). (Zachary Prorok)

taqwa

...The term used to describe the truth and realizing the whole fear of God. It is known to be recognized in the Quran. It is considered to be the essential quality of a believer (Fisher 340). (Steven Bailey) Currently, the term is often translated as "piety" or "God-consciousness" that God is before you at every moment, loving, nurturing, and supporting you, but will also judge the content of your faith and life on the Day of Judgement. (Dr. P.)

12 Disciples

...The twelve disciples who accompanied Jesus through most of his ministry and helped him spread his teachings during and after his life: Simon Peter, Andrew, James (son of Zebedee), John, Philip, Bartholomew, Thomas, Matthew, James (son of Alphaeus), Simon ("the Cananean"), Thaddaeus, and Judas Iscariot (who was later replaced by Matthias). These were all major followers of Jesus throughout his life. These people were also considered to be leaders or philosophers of Christ (Fisher 375). Some of the Gospels are attributed to them, but scholars usually consider them to have been passed down the line to native Greek speakers before being written down. (Steven Bailey & Dr. P.)

matriarch

...This is a woman with strong powers and the head of the family. This woman will normally be the person giving out the orders to the others. If you do not do what she asks of you you better watch out because they are known to be pretty relentless. She rules the family and expects you to do what you are asked. (Fisher 248) (Steven Bailey) In the Jewish context, the wives of the patriarchs who also play a significant role in Jewish history, such as Sarah, Rebekah, Rachel, Leah, and the sister of Moses -- Miriam. (Dr. P.)

'Aqīda

...This is an Islamic term that means "creed" this word has been used for a long time and is a historic word in Islam. It is all the Islamic studies and tells what Islam is all about. It shows exactly what it consists of too (Fisher, 408). (Steven Bailey) It is the Islamic creed and it is a word that represents the studies and the the two types of beliefs the Sunni and the Shiite. (Dr. Pschaida - Lecture 1) (Sharlenea Bracale). Meaning literally "to tie" [to God or certain precepts], for Sunnis it includes belief in the unity of God, angels, holy books, prophets and messengers, resurrection day, and Qadar/decree/predestination, while for Shiites it includes belief in the unity of God, belief in the justice of God, belief in Prophethood, belief in the Imams, and belief in the Resurrection Day. (Dr. P.)

Jesuits

...This is considered to be the Society of Jesus within the Roman Catholic Church. It demands these four things: obedience to Christ, obedience to the Pope, poverty, and chastity (Fisher p. 546). (Steven Bailey)

inner alchemy

...This is the individual spiritual practice for the sake of inner transformation, self-cultivation, longevity, and perhaps immortality. The aim is to use the energy available in the body in order to become strong and healthy, and to intuitively perceive the the order of the universe (Fisher, 195) (McCoy).

Islamic Society of North America

...This is the largest Muslim group of all of North America. It is referred to as the umbrella group. It helped treat many student organized organizations, when the Muslim Student Association (MSA) of the United States and Canada. The goal for the Islamic Society of North America is to improve the overall structure for the people. This will help when trying to promote and for various other reasons as well (Fisher, 415). (Steven Bailey)

Last Supper

...This occurred the night before Jesus' death, perhaps linked with the Jewish practice of Passover. He called all of his disciples together and eats his last meal. He washed all of the feet of the disciples to show his love for them. This was just the type of person Jesus was. He showed his love for people in many ways and this was just one of them. He shared the bread and wine, which were considered the body and blood of him (Fisher, p. 540). This later became the basis of the central Christian ritual of the Eucharist/Communion. (Steven Bailey & Dr. P.)

Manifestations of God

...Throughout the ages, humanity's spiritual, intellectual and moral capacities have been cultivated by the Founders of the great religions, among them Abraham, Krishna, Zoroaster, Moses, Buddha, Jesus Christ, Muhammad, and—in more recent times—the Báb and Bahá'u'lláh. These Figures are not simply ordinary people with a greater knowledge than others. Rather they are Manifestations of God, Who have exerted an incomparable influence on the evolution of human society. While each of them has a distinct individuality and a definite mission, the Manifestations of God all share in a single, divinely-ordained purpose—to "educate the souls of men, and refine the character of every living man..." (http://www.bahai.org/beliefs/god-his-creation/revelation/manifestations-god)(Young)

Nation of Islam

...Under the leadership of Elijah Muhammad tens of thousands of African Americans became "Black Muslims" calling themselves the Nation of Islam. With the assistance of Malcolm X and Warith Deen Muhammad, they developed contacts with Muslims in other countries and steered converts to what they perceived as the true traditions of Islam (Fisher, 420) (McCoy).

Four Classes/Castes/Varna

...Varna are the four social classes, 1Brahmins: priests, philosophers, teachers, intellectuals. 2 Kshatriyas: nobility, kings, vassals, and warriors. 3 Vaishyas: farmers, merchants, business people. 4 Shudra: manual laborers and artisans (Fisher, p. 99) (McCoy)

Laws of Manu

...Was a hybrid moral religious law of code brought up in Asia. It has sustained throughout all of the Hindu culture sine about 200 BC. It was also the code for some inter cast relationships in India. (Fisher pg.100) (Hopkins, Edward) -Steven Bailey

Gospels

...What the first four books of the New Testament are called, these are what the Christian beliefs are based on, including the teachings of life of Jesus Christ, the gospels means "good news". They were written about 40-60 years after the death of Jesus and are based on oral transmission and discourse which may have been influenced by the growing split between Christians and Jews (Fisher, 300) (McCoy).

Khalsa

...Word meaning "Pure Ones", the first five initiates of Sikhism. They were a community pledged to a special code of personal discipline. They were sworn to wear five distinctive symbols of their dedication: unshorn hair, drawstring underbreeches, small sword, iron bracelet (Fisher, 447) (McCoy). The one who is Khalsa renounces anger and does not criticize anybody. He fights on the front line against injustice and vanquishes the five evils in himself. (Fisher pg. 454) (Heather Donais)

Martin Luther

...a German priest which pushes faith instead of the focus of the works to seek God. He also believes that followers must not only preach their faith but must act upon what they believe. "He proclaimed many of the principles of the Protestant Reformation..."(Anthropology 245). (Kambree Meskill) Martin Luther also started the controversy that If you simply believe in Christ and the teachings you would be forgiven for your sins. He believed that it was enough to be forgiven for your sins and that you did not need good deeds. (sharlenea Bracale)

Mandate of Heaven

...a belief that Heaven provides rulers authority to rule based off their ability to govern well and fairly. "Rulers have a moral duty to maintain the welfare of the people and a spiritual duty to conduct respectful ceremonies for Heaven" (Fisher 187). The virtue that Heaven responds from is based off the personal interest of the dynasty at the time. Overall, it justifies their power to rule. (Kambree Meskill)

Rabi'a al-Basri

...a female Sufi mystic who lived in Iraq from 713-801 CE. She was so devoted to God that she turned down a marriage offer from a wealthy man, saying that she "didn't want to be distracted for a moment from God" (Fisher 9th ed. p. 403). She referred to God as the Beloved, and advocated "disinterested love", with no selfish motives for one's love of God. (Garth Schulz)

Puranas

...a form of "smrti scriptures" that originated from Sanskrit poetic texts. These historic literatures describe the abundance of gods/goddesses along with their supernatural powers and exploits. It gives in depth description of their looks and personalities. As for example, "Siva Purana" casts the goddess, Durga, perched on a lion fighting off demons to protect the world. (Anthology, p 75) -Kambree Meskill The Puranas was a series of poems that classified and popularized spiritual knowledge and devotion through national myths and legions. The Puranas represent the supreme as a person or rather a humanous like deities. (Sharlenea Bracale)

creeds

...a formal statement of the beliefs of a particular religion. These professions of faith were composed by the Church for use in religious instruction and baptism, to define who Jesus was and his relationship to God, and to provide clear stands in the face of various controversies (Fisher, 324) (Starkey). Since belief was deemed as central to the Christian religion, determining salvation or the lack thereof, what Christians should believe was also deemed essential to figure out. (Dr. P.)

Ahmadiyyah Movement in America

...a missionary effort from India that was active in publishing tracts and English translations of the Qur'an and in helping African American converts learn Arabic. By the end of the twentieth century, this movement had established branches in thirty-eight cities in the United States as part of its global family of ten million members (Fisher, 420). (Starkey)

Ashureh

...a mythologic "Great Mother Goddess" worshiped by Canaanites. She dealt with vegetation, agricultural knowledge and is also a scared tree-symbol. The asherahs were destroyed but Israelites took some of the concepts of their faiths. "The hymns recorded in the biblical books of Psalms, for example, may have roots in Canaanite traditions" (Fisher 246). (Kambree Meskill).

atman

...a person's innermost self or soul. Each person's innermost soul is part of the one world soul. (Voorst, p69) (Alex Goodman) in Hinduism, the soul (Janette Contreras)

"unceasing prayer"

...a practice of the Eastern Orthodox Church in which adherents repeat a phrase or prayer over and over, in an attempt to maintain "continual remembrance" of God (Fisher 9th ed. p. 344-5). (Garth Schulz) A popular phrase is "Lord Jesus Christ, Son of God, have mercy on me, a sinner." (Dr. P.)

"four" stages of life

...a series of four (ideally) 25-year periods in one's life which lead to the ultimate goal of spiritual realization or liberation. Originally the spiritual training necessary to completing the four stages was available only to male brahmins. Traditionally from birth to death, they are 1) being a chaste student under the guidance of a teacher, 2) being a head of household and raising a family, 3) beginning to renounce worldly pursuits and turning to meditation and study, and 3) achieving the status of sannyasin, or renunciate, who has renounced world, wife, and family. (Garth Schulz) Note: the 4th stage, sannyasin / renouncer / ascetic, can occur at any time in one's life, not just when one is really old. (Dr. Pschaida)

the non-canonical gospels

...also known as the "Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical books", these are short books which recorded orally passed down narratives of Jesus' sayings and some of his actions, but as a whole did not make their way into the New Testament (Fisher 9th ed. p. 303). (Garth Schulz & Dr. P.)

Inquisition

...an ecclesiastical court that was created by the Western Church and backed by the papacy in the thirteenth century. It's purpose was to use coercion, imprisonment, torture and death to control and convert heretics (Fisher 9th ed. p. 330). (Garth Schulz)

jinn & Iblis/Satan

...an invisible being of fire whose nature is between that of humans and angels. He proudly refused to bow before Adam and was therefore cursed to live by tempting Adam's descendants (all of humanity) to follow him rather than God. His followers ultimately go to hell (Fisher, 394). (Starkey).

Buddhist Churches of America

...an organization which practices Jodo Shinshu, a Japanese school of Buddhism (Fisher, 9th ed., p. 175). Its origins date back to Japanese workers who emigrated to California and Hawai'i who brought with them Japanese Buddhist priests. (Garth Schulz)

Zionism

...based off the anti-semitism in Europe, Zionism was a Jewish movement which was meant to bring Jewish culture politically and internationally back to Israel. "The desire to end the centuries-long exile from Zion (the site of the Jerusalem temples) was a central theme in all Jewish prayer and in many religious customs" (Fisher 268). Most did not support this movement because they felt that God sent them away from their promised land due to their unfaithfulness. According to them, only God would end this exile. But, the United Nations declared Palestine into two areas, which one would be for Jews and the other for the Arabs. However, that lead to chaos and uneasy tensions through out the areas. "...Religious Zionist believe that the land has been promised to them by God for the redemption of the Jewish people and eventually the entire world" (Fisher 272). Israel has granted citizenship to Jewish people but is still declared "nonreligious". (Kambree Meskill).

Monotheism

...belief in a single God. Central to the Jewish belief system (Fisher, 273) (Starkey). "It is in fact the seminal tradition for the two largest existing world religions: Christianity and Islam. They all share a central belief in Monotheism"(Ant 187) (Nathen Stinson) One God for all people and all time seemed to be new belief given to the world by the Jewish people from about 2,500 to 3,000 years ago.

conversos

...converted Jews with in Spain (to Christians). In the twelfth century many conspiracies about Jews spread through Europe. Many were along the lines that Jews took apart of anti-Christian acts. The Roman Catholic Church established Inquisition which watched over the large amount of converses who might still be practicing their past religion. "The Inquisition, which had the power to torture the accused and to execute the convicted..." (Fisher 261). (Kambree Meskill)

Jati/ethnic groups

...groups who share a geographic origin and a common culture. This may include religious beliefs, food practices, occupations, language, and endogamy (marriage within their group as required by custom or law) (Fisher p. 98). (Garth Schulz)

Pakistan and India

...in 1947 under the guidance of colonial Britain, West and East Pakistan were separated from India to be led by a Muslim-ruled government, while India would remain Hindu-led. East Pakistan later became Bangladesh. This attempt at separation and peace quickly led to violence and conflict, including the destroying of a mosque in Ayodhya, India, by Hindu militants in 1992 (Fisher 9th ed. p. 412). (Garth Schulz)

marriage

...is called a fortress of well being and salvation. It is a unity between man and women which its purpose is to spiritually foster harmony and fellowship. Teachings state that it is a connection spiritually for in the next life the bond can continue. (Kambree Meskill)

drugs & alcohol

...it is prohibited to consume drugs (that are not prescribed by competent doctors) or alcohol. Baha'is see the physiological, mental, emotional and social effects of these. They follow the laws in which state that Baha'i practices abstain from drugs and alcohol. (Kambree Meskill). Cognitive abilities of thinking, reasoning, and understanding are of the "greatest gift of God to man" so that we can know, love, and worship Him well, and these abilities are hindered by drugs and alcohol and so should be avoided. (Dr. P.)

Martin Luther King Jr. & Liberation theology

...liberation theology is to take political action to help those in need and be in solidarity with the oppressed, disadvantaged, disenfranchised, the poor, and downtrodden. Martin Luther King Jr. stressed this theology when working as a civil rights leader. He states, "'It was Jesus of Nazareth that stirred the Negroes to protest with the creative weapon of love'" (Fisher 370). (Kambree Meskill & Dr. P.) "let us develop a kind of dangerous unselfishness. One day a man came to Jesus; and he wanted to raise some questions about some vital matters in life. He wanted to trick Jesus and show him that he knew a little more than Jesus knew, and through this, throw him off base." ( Ant 249) (Nathen Stinson)

barakah/blessing

...meaning blessing or sacred power. The shaykh passed down this from one to another until Muhammad. "...a chain reaching back to Muhammad, who is said to have transmitted the barakah to Ali" (Fisher 408). (Kambree Meskill).

Torah

...means Jewish teachings. Refers to the "five books of Moses." At the highest level, it is considered God's will or God's wisdom (Fisher, 273) (Starkey). . . .The Pentateuch; also, the whole body of Jewish teaching and law (Fisher, p. 297) The first five books of the Tanakh (Anthology, p. 188). (Shelly Stuckman)......Variously used to mean the first five scrolls of the Hebrew Scriptures, all the Laws of Israel, or oral traditional law. (Anthology, p.220) (Destiny Young) It can also mean the TANAKH or Jewish Bible itself (Dr. P.)

angels

...nonphysical beings of light who serve and praise God day and night. They are numerous and each has a specific responsibility. These invisible beings are not to be worshiped; they are to be simply utterly submissive servants of God (Fisher, 394). (Starkey). Two angels are said to be with each person at all times writing down one's every deed. (Dr. P.)

kirtan/melodic-chanting

...passages from the Guru Granth Shabib that are chanted or sung in melodies, often with musical accompaniment. This devotional tradition was initiated by Guru Nanak (Fisher, 454). (Starkey)

D. T. Suzuki

...primary interpreter of zen in the west. Argued that zen was not limited to a Buddhist context, but that it could be practiced by anyone of any faith. (Fisher pg 134) (Grace Cavazos)

Catholic sacraments

...seven sacraments in which are sacred rights invested to develop Christ to worshipers. "Seven sacraments: baptism(Purification from sin by water), confirmation (membership of Church), Eucharist, penance (confession of sins), extreme unction (anointing the sick with oil), holy orders (priest or bishop), and matrimony" (Fisher 350). (Kambree Meskill).

Beatitudes

...short statements by Jesus about those who are most blessed. Blessings are promised to the poor in spirit, the mourners, the meek, the seekers of righteousness, the pure in heart, the merciful, the peacemakers, and those who are persecuted for the sake of righteousness and spreading the gospel (Fisher 309). (Starkey). " Indeed, Jesus said, it was only in childlikeness that people could enter the kingdom of heaven. In famous series of statements about supreme happiness called the Beatitudes. (Fisher 309) (Nathen Stinson)

short history of Buddhism in Tibet

...since 1959, Tibetan Buddhist started in Western countries, and others including South Asia and India, where several hundred thousands of followers to this day are spiritually involved in. They did many things to be involved but most are interested in Buddhists teachings and practices. (Fisher pg. 171) (Heather Donais)

dependent arising

...states that all things emerge in dependence upon other things. "Buddhists emphasize that when we envision the independent existence of things, we cling to them." (Ant pg 121) (William Morehand)

parables spoken by Jesus

...stories told by Jesus in which earthly situations familiar to people of his time and place were used to to make a spiritual point (Fisher 309). (Starkey).

karma

...the Jainism security to rebirth. Jains believe there is no creator or destroyer and it is the actions one displays in life that will determine their fate. "To perfect and purify themselves as quickly as possible, Jains try to eliminate within themselves any false mental impressions, negative tendencies, or passions, and to develop pure thoughts and actions" (Fisher 123). By avoiding "ahimsa" (nonviolence), "aparigraha" (nonattatchment) and "anekantwad" (nonabsolutism) they could possibly reach the highest stage of perfection known as "kevala". (Kambree Meskill)

circumcision

...the Jewish tradition of cutting of the tip of the penis as part of the Covenant with God. New Testament writings describe how Paul thought circumcision wasn't necessary for faith, partly to incorporate Greco-Roman gentiles into Christianity (Fisher p. 322). (Garth Schulz)

communion & Eucharist

...the Lords Supper , Holy Communion or Mass (Fisher pg 336)(Grace Cavazos) Based on a reading of the Gospels, Christians believe in this ritual that they are partaking of the blood and body of Jesus the Christ when they eat bread and juice (either fermented or not) or water, either actually (in transubstantiation), symbolically, or as a reminder/remembrance. (Dr. P.) Luther felt that the sacred rites, or sacraments, of the Church were ways of nourishing faith instituted by Jesus and that they included baptism and Lord's Supper and Holy Communion. (Fisher pg. 336) (Heather Donais)

ecumenicalism in Christianity

...the attempt to unify all Christians around some point of agreement or at least fellowship with each other. in attempt to restore some bonds among all Christian churches, there are dozens of official ecumenical dialogues going on. The world council of churches, centered in Geneva, was founded in 1948 as an organizational body allowing Christian churches to cooperate on service projects even in the midst of their theological disagreements. (Fisher pg 376)(grace cavazos)

unity in diversity, beauty of diversity

...the beauty of diversity is that the contrast of color is what makes for charm and beauty. Each brings out qualities of others and shows the loveliness of each and all. Unity in diversity humans should collaborate and build off each other to help the human race advance. (Dr. P video lecture)(grace cavazos) Beauty in diversity is putting all race and color away. The beauty is everyone looks different but we are all still the same. Unity in diversity can happen if we are all advancing the human race by collaborating and building off of each other. (video) (Sharlenea Bracale)

Lent

...the forty days of spiritual preparation leading up to Easter. Many Christians repent and fast during this period. They also perform acts of self denial, prayer, and charity to join in Jesus' greater sacrifice (Fisher, 354). Starkey.

polygyny and Islam

...the practice of men having more then one wife; allowed up to four. "Even though so much Qur'anic legislation is aimed at protecting the rights of women in the context of marriage,' women cannot claim equality with their husbands" (Anthro 276). (Kambree Meskill) Polygyny is allowed for the men whom can financially support all the wives. (Fisher page 405) (Lindsey Felty)

Brahman

...the supreme/priestly member among the Hindus highest class. This term generated from historic fire rituals in which brahmins (priests) preformed sacred chants and actions to beseech the breath behind all existence. "Living Religions" by Mary Pat Fisher informs that, "This universal breath was later called Brahman, the Absolute, the Supreme Reality." He is the central of all Hinduism but refrains from being worshiped in temples; rather in people's minds and hearts. Brahman is mysterious yet omniscient and appeals to more of those who seek Knowledge and Truth. Brahman is everywhere even through all spiritual existence. (Kambree Meskill) " the undifferentiated, nonmanifest being, the essential underlying reality" (Ant pg 65) (Nathen Stinson) The belief in Brahman might be considered a form of monism - the belief that beneath the mulitiplicity of changing apparent forms there is one underlying substance or foundational reality. (Janette Contreras)

samsara (Jainism)

...the wheel of birth and death. Jains, Hindus and Buddhists all believe in the cycle of being born until one can free themselves from samsara. It is a challenge which the soul must figure out how to detach itself from the material world until the purity of "jiva" remains. "In true state, it is fully omniscient, shining, potent, peaceful, self-contained, and blissful" (Fisher 123). (Kambree Meskill) In Hinduism, after death, rebirth in a new body higher or lower in the caste system, according to one's karma. (Janette Contreras)

Bhakti / bhakti yoga

...this term is used in various ways throughout the Hindu religion. Dr. Pschaida in powerpoint "Hinduism 5-Devotionalism" refers to Bhakti as devotion and passionate love towards ones personal deity. There is multiple ways these feelings can be expressed such as; practice of yoga, worshiping, continuous love for God and natural condition of the soul. -Kambree Meskill

sannyasin (Buddhism)

...those who declare independence from a wife and family. They often live in temples but most travel alone from place to place. Sannyasins do not carry many items with them; water jar, walking staff, begging bowl and many do not wear clothes. They find this way of life is a quicker release from samsara as long as they concentrate. "No one belongs to me and I belong to no one" (Fisher pg 102)

qigong

...traditional health exercises used to cure diseases, physical weakness and improve concentration. Mary Pat Fisher on page 201 in "Living Religions" talks about a patient cured himself by using this technique. "...by practicing the energy training disciplines from an old Daoist inner alchemical text describing traditional meditation and longevity techniques." Some argue that it can cure common diseases today such as AIDS. (Kambree Meskill)

the Qur'an

...translates to "readings" or "reciting". It makes up the revelations the Prophet Muhammad received over a course of twenty-three years (610-632 CE). It is slightly shorter than the New Testament, organized by 114 chapters, each chapter having varying numbers of verses/ayah. It is organized more-or-less by chapter/surah length instead of chronology of revelation. "Recitation of the Qur'an is thought to have a healing, soothing effect, but can also bring protection, guidance and knowledge..." (Fisher 389). (Kambree Meskill & Dr. P.)

"megachurches"

...translates to Protestant church in which has over 2,000 attendees in a weekend. Though there is a big crowd the church is made to make each individual feel welcomed. "In attempt to capture the feeling of neighborhood churches, megachurches encourage members to form smaller groups, or 'cells,' within the main congregation" (Anthropology 260). (Kambree Meskill).....attracts customers through marketing and compelling "products". Sermons delivered by a charismatic pastor with the use of top-notch sound system and using video clips accompanied by live music. They emphasize on the upside of faith and downplaying notion such as burning in hell for eternity. (Anthology 258) (Young)

Garden of Eden

...was a pure and free from evil. God put the first two human beings in the garden, Adam and Eve. They were ordered by God to not take apart from the fruit of knowledge. But Eve was offered wisdom from a serpent (symboled as Satan) if she ate the fruit. In which, both she and Adam did. "God cursed the serpent and the land, and banished Adam and Eve from their garden; their lives were no longer paradisiacal nor were they immortal..." (Fisher 242). This story applies to the Hebrews everyday life because if they go against God's commands they may seek displeasure. (Kambree Meskill) Only present in the Second account of creation in Genesis. The first makes no mention of the Garden of Eden or anything of Adam and Eve. (Anthology Pg 190-191) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Thic Nhat Hanh

...was exiled out of Vietnam is home land because he did not agree with the Vietnam war. he continues to lecturing and writing books on the theme of engaged buddhism which blends together the practice of meditation with social service. (Fisher pg 136) (Grace Cavazos) The second most famous and influential Buddhist in the world. The solutions to the causes he fought for included community and compassion listening. (Oprah interview) (William Morehand)

John Calvin

...welcomed Luthers new principles and established a theocracy in Geneva, Switzerland. Calvin's church leaders effectively governed the city council. His theology became the basis of the reformed church, which led to the churches of Christ, Presbyterian, Congretional and other churches.(fisher pg 247)(grace cavazos)

Consultation

...within the Baha'i elected groups, and also within business, school, and family settings, Baha'is attempt to reach decisions by this nonadversarial process. The point of the process is to investigate the truth of depth and to build consensus rather than struggle for power. Attempts are made to reach unanimous consensus (Fisher, 483). (Starkey). "participants are enjoined to gather information from as many sources as possible and to be at once truthful and courteous to each other" (Fisher 482) (Nathen Stinson)

Amarnath Cave

11,090 feet up in the Himalayas of Kashmir where "ice formed a giant stalagmite, which is highly revered as a Shiva lingam." This is where many Hindu's take pilgrimages to be "blessed by the divine." (Fisher page 106) (Lindsey Felty)

home altars (& prasad, havan, ghee)

A Havan is a ritual burning of various offering including grains and ghee (a fatty oil similar to butter, but is primarily from a buffalo) as a celebratory symbol of births, marriages, or other special occasions. (Jacob Adam)

rishi

A Hindu word meaning an enlightened sage. Rishis would hear the ancient scripture of Santana Dharma which were separated into two categories, Sruti texts, and Smrti texts. They would hear these texts while in "profound and ascetic meditation after they had cleansed their minds and were transparent to eternal truth" (Anthology, pg. 63)- Steven Bailey

Julian of Norwich

A big player in medieval mysticism, she would pray when she was young that she would become ill at 30 to understand Christ's passion. She did become ill, and had many visions of Christ. Many of her writings were dealing with the problem of evil in the world, and a god who could stop it (Fisher 332). (Zak Prorok)

St. Augustine

A bishop in the 5th century who was said to be one of the most "influential theologians in the history of Western Christianity." (Fisher page 323) (Lindsey Felty)

bodhisattva & his/her vow

A bodhisattva is a being who is dedicated to liberating others from suffering. They strive to become buddhas. The vow is this: "Beings are infinite in number, I vow to save them all; The obstructive passions are endless in number, I vow to end them all; The teachings for saving others are countless, I vow to learn them all; Buddhahood is the supreme achievement, I vow to attain it."(Fisher p.157)(Aiden Campbell)

Ren

A central term in Confucianism including "innate goodness, love, benevolence, perfect virtue, humaneness, and human-heartedness." Confucius described a rare person who is devoted to ren would be motivated by what is moral not by personal gain and would be concerned with self-improvement and not public recognition (Fisher, p. 205). (Shelly Stuckman)

Council of Trent

A council of Roman Catholic bishops from the years 1545-1563. The council attempted to legislate moral reform among the clergy, to improve the Church administration, to have everyone officially recognize the pope as the "earthly vicar of God and Jesus Christ," to take historical position on issues and call them dogmas, or authoritative truths, and to proclaim salvation includes "good works" and faith. The council said that good works included acts of mercy, veneration of the saints, relics, and sacred images and participation in the sacraments (Fisher, p. 339). (Shelly Stuckman)

"Hindu"

A current designation of a world religious tradition which historically designated people living near or east of the Indus river valley. This term was used by 19th century British census-takers to lump together what people were not more than what they were: not Muslim, not Christian, not Jewish, not Zoroastrian, not Buddhist (sometimes not Sikh and not Jain as well). Today, Hindu identity politics may insist that all Hindus recognize at least the Vedas as scriptures yet in actuality there is not any single scripture or belief which all people that may be called "Hindu." Rather, this term more names the grand diversity traditional religious beliefs, practices, gods, and scriptures native to the subcontinent of India, often with only loose family resemblances. Sometimes Hindus themselves call their religion "Sanatana Dharma" meaning "eternal religion/truth/faith/law/path/order/duty" (Anthology, pg. 62; Textbook Fisher, pg. 73) -- by Dr. Pschaida

circumcision / brit milah

A cutting away of the foreskin of the penis and is considered an initiatory rite and sign of the covenant in which God agrees to be the divine protector of Abraham's descendants. All males are to be circumcised on the eighth day after birth (Fisher, p. 244) Brit milah, literally Covenant of Circumcision, is the circumcision ceremony performed by a "mohel" or circumciser. Circumcision was commanded by God to sign the covenant, also called the bereeth, that Abraham would have as many descendants as the number of grains of rice or the stars in heaven and they would be blessed while Abraham and his descendants would only worship the true God and follow his laws (Pschaida, Judaism_HistoryCovenantTeachingsPractices 3, 12 Mar 2016, and Judaism_HistoryCovenantTeachingsPractices1, 9 Mar 2016. Lectures). (Shelly Stuckman)

Mary Magdalene

A dedicated early follower of Jesus, who was given the honor to anoint Jesus' feet, and who first came to recognize and proclaim Jesus' resurrection, according to most Gospels. (Dr. P.) ...suffered the criticism of being called a prostitute by a medieval pope, with no biblical evidence. (Fisher pg 232) (grace cavazos) In contrast to women's role at the time she was welcomed as a disciple by Jesus and supported other disciples financially. (Jonathan Jenkins) (Fisher 306)

Kumbha Mela

A festival for Hindus of all types. It is held every few years, alternately at four sacred spots where drops of nectar of immortality are said to have fallen. (Fisher p. 110)(Aiden Campbell) A special type of gathering usually held every few years within special locations in which Hindus believers call sacred. The rivers are sacred because it is believe that they formed from the nectar of immortality. (Fisher pg.111) (Heather Donais)

Jesus

A founder of the largest following among the world religions (Christianity), traditionally believed to be from Palestine, born between 2 BCE and 4 CE and executed by Roman authorities about 30 years later, reports of whose sayings and actions inspired a Jewish movement that by the end of the 1st century C.E. would break from Judaism. (Dr. P.) Jesus is the incarnation of God, according to a common Christian belief. According to the Gospel of John, Before Jesus' death he told his disciples that he would be going to "my Father's House...To prepare a place for you". (Fisher347) (Nathen Stinson)

Religious Studies

A humanistic and social science discipline that researches and teaches about the teachings, beliefs, rituals, myths, sacred objects, psychological experiences, institutions, scriptures, and histories of religious groups. Instead of preaching the truth of a religion or religion more generally, this discipline brackets (sets to the side) the question of the ultimate truth of religion or of any particular religion.

The (Western) Pure Land

A land of spiritual bliss and peace, free of the mundane cares of this world, created as a mental field by Amitabha Buddha from his great merit/punya for people who call upon his name sincerely to be able to learn from him the dharma, practice meditation, and quickly become ready for full liberation, enlightenment, and nirvana. (Dr Pschaida)

1893 World Parliament of Religions

A landmark meeting of representatives from almost all the world's great religions held in Chicago. It included a large delegation of Buddhist teachers from Japan, China, Thailand, and Sri Lanka. They discussed "the noblest of lessons of tolerance and gentleness" and an overflow of crowds came to listen; it was an important step in the spread of Buddhism in America (Fisher, p. 171). This meeting was extensively covered by the press and it introduced many forms of world religions to Americans of European descent, or Euro-Americans (Anthology, p. 134). (Shelly Stuckman)

Jataka Tales

A large collection of stories about the past lives of Buddha and their moral lessons. (Fisher 147)(Destiny Young)

Lotus Sutra

A large compilation of parable, verses, and descriptions of innumerable beings who practiced the Buddha's teaching. Some believed the the highest truths of Buddhism were embodied in this compilation.(Fisher, 165) (Starkey) The Lotus Sutra is an important piece of scripture for Mahayana Buddhism because it explains how practitioners must strive to achieve not only liberation, but the status of bodhisattva (Fisher p. 159). (Garth Schulz)

Advaita Vedanta

A monistic system of Hindu worship, positing a single reality. It is based on the Upashanids. It is said to be founded by Vyasa, who systematized the Vedas. (Fisher, p. 81)(Aiden Campbell)

Babri Mosque of Ayodhya

A mosque built in Ayodhya on top of the previous Hindu Temple. According to Hinduvta this was the birth place of Lord Ram with a temple built to commemorate his birth place. Babur, a Muslim Mongol ruler, tore it down and then built the Babri Mosque on top of it. This was later torn down when 200,000 Hindu followers managed to enter the village. (Fisher 117) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Bahá'í Calendar

A mostly solar calendar that begins on the first day of Spring (around March 20th) like that of Persian New year (Naw Ruz). There are nineteen months with nineteen days each, each month named after an attribute/name of God (e.g. Glory, Light, Power, Knowledge, Beauty, Mercy, Majesty). There are also four or five "intercalary days" just before the Baha'i month of fasting, which are not bound by the 19x19 day system, and thus reflect the infinity/boundlessness of God (say the Baha'i writings), and these are to be days of joy, visiting one another, giving generously, and doing service and acts of charity. (Dr. P.)

Koan

A paradoxical question, riddle, or anecdote that sets up a standard of judgement, whereby one's Zen understand is tested as to its correctness. (Fisher, p 124) -Luke O'Shea Used in Zen buddhism to provide logical reasoning, and provoke enlightenment. (shelbie O'Connor) Popular such riddles have been questions that push the meditator to transcend normal logic to see the unity of all space and time and thingsk, such as "If a tree falls in the woods and no one is there to hear it, does it make a sound?" Or "What's the sound of one hand clapping?" Or "Show me your original face before your mother and father were born."

Maccabean rebellion

A rebellion against the Hellenistic ways of Antiochus IV Epiphanes, who held the land of Israel. The Hasmon family of priests won this rebellion in 164 BCE, taking Jerusalem and establishing a new kingdom of Israel (Fisher 252). (Zak Prorok) Was a Jewisg rebellion, led the Maccabean against the Selucid Empire and the Hellenistic influenced on the Jewish life. (Shelbie O'Connor)

ashram

A retreat community that has developed around a teacher, similar to a monastery. (Fisher p.102)(Aiden Campbell)

Covenant & Relationship

A sacred contract between God and Israel, stipulating obligations such as circumcision and obedience to Torah on the part of Hebrews, and the promise of a great nation in Israel on the part of God (Anthology, p. 220). Essential to Judaism is the covenant. Like contracts made between individuals, states, and kings with their subjects, God made numerous covenants with Israel, such as "I shall be your God and you shall be my people" (Leviticus 26:12). Most notable are the covenants with the following: (1.) Noah, signified by the rainbow, that God would never again destroy humanity with a flood (Genesis 9:8-17). (2.) Abraham, signified by male circumcision, that God had chosen Israel as his people and that they would have the land that they "sojourn in" and be numerous (Genesis 17:1-21). (3.) Moses, signified by the laws of the Torah, that, if Israel obeyed God's Law, they would be God's treasured "kingdom of priests and a holy nation" (Exodus 19:5-6). (4.) King David, that he should build a temple in Jerusalem, and that his "throne shall be established forever" (ll Samuel 7:5-16) (Anthology, p. 192). In regards to the relationship, Dr. P lectured about circumcision being commanded by God to sign the covenant, also called the bereeth, that Abraham would have as many descendants as the number of grains of rice or the stars in heaven and they would be blessed while Abraham and his descendants would only worship the true God and follow his laws. Dr. P. discussed how the relationship was if you do as I, your God, command, then many blessings both spiritually and materially will be bestowed upon you (Pschaida, Judaism_HistoryCovenantTeachingsPractices 3, 12 Mar 2016, and Judaism_HistoryCovenantTeachingsPractices1, 9 Mar 2016. Lectures). (Shelly Stuckman)

peepul/Pipal tree

A sacred tree species which sprouts wherever it can gain the slightest foothold, often in stone or brick walls. The Hindu practice to worship these trees helps keep large virgin forests intact in some parts of India, where they reverently protect both animal and plant life with the belief that the area is the home of a deity (Fisher, p. 104). (Shelly Stuckman)

Laozi

A sage and curator of the royal library of the Zhou dynasty, who left society for the mountains at the age of 160. Legend says that Laozi compiled a record of his wisdom for Daoism by inscribing 5,000 words, or characters, now known as Dao de jing (Tao te Ching or "The Classic of the Way and its Power"). Laozi means "Old Master" and some scholars believe there might not have been a single person named Laozi but rather a group of scholars who wrote the book whose central philosophy is a concern with improving harmony in life. The books says that a person can "best harmonize with the natural flow of life by being receptive and quiet" (Fisher, p. 190 - 191). (Shelly Stuckman)

t'fillin / phylactery

A small box with verses about God's covenant with the Jewish people, bound to the forehead and arm and held close to the heart. These would be worn by men during their weekday morning prayers. (Fisher, p 279)(Young)

mantras

A sound or phrase chanted to evoke the sound vibration of one aspect of creation or to praise a deity. (Fisher, 543....)(Young)..The importance of the Vajrayana Buddhism is the fact that " It teaches students to learn from both Thervada and Mahayana principles" ( Ant 127) (nathen stinson)

fana'/self-extinction

A state of Sufi mystical experience in which one becomes fully forgetful of self and experiences only God as the Ultimate and truly Real, as a drop which returns to the ocean, or a moth which becomes consumed in its beloved Fire. (Dr. P.)

baqa'/abiding-&-remaining-in-God

A state of mystical experience in which the lover of God experiences the self as transformed in its relationship to God, taking on the attributes of the spiritual, and truly becoming a servant serving his/her Lord or a lover loving his/her beloved, constantly remembering and mentioning God in every moment. (Dr. P.)

koan

A tool used in the Rinzai Zen tradition where attention is focused on a question that boggles the mind. As Roshi Philip Kapleau observes, "Koans deliberately throw sand into the eyes of the intellect to force us to open our Mind's eye and see the world and everything in it undistorted by our concepts and judgments." To concentrate on a koan, one must look closely & experience it directly without thinking about it. Kapleau states, "The import of every koan is the same: that the world is one interdependent Whole and that each separate one of us is that Whole" (Fisher, p. 163). An example of a classic koan is "What is the sound of one hand clapping?" (Anthology, p. 124)(Shelly Stuckman) .... "A koan, according to one authority, means " A public document setting up a standard of judgment, "whereby ones Zen understanding is tested as to its correctness" (Ant 125) (Nathen Stinson)

Lohari

A well known Hindu festival. It is commonly celebrated by the people and children gathered around a bonfire. They rejoice knowing that they got through one of the coldest periods of times that will come. They tend to wear the brightest color clothes they own during this time. In the morning on the same day, the kids will go from door to door singing and demanding money. Many others significant things happen on this day those are just the main ones -Steven Bailey

arhat

A worthy one, who has found nirvana in this life. (Fisher p. 147)(Aiden Campbell)

Abraham & Hagar & Ishmael

Abraham is the patriarch of the Abrahamic religions (Judaism, Christianity, and Islam). Hagar was Abraham's second wife, the fist being Sarah. Ishmael is the son of Abraham by Hagar, while Isaac is his son by Sarah. The Ishmaelites descending from Ishmael are said to be the ancestors of several Arab tribes and the forefathers of Muhammad. Likewise, the Israelites descending from Isaac (via his son Jacob) are the forefathers of the Hebrews, including Moses and Jesus. (Genesis:16-21) (Alex Goodman)

aḥkām al-khamsa / 5 categories for legal issues

According to the Shari'ah, "the sacred law of Islam" (Fisher, p. 405), there are five categories of law: (1) obligatory, (2) meritorious, (3) indifferent, (4) reprehensible, and (5) forbidden (Anthology, p. 282). In Dr. P's lecture titled Islam Law & Ethics, Sahri'ah is defined as "The Pathway" with Ahkam al-Khamsa as the 5 values or norms to understand a law. The five categories are (1) mandatory, (2) recommended, (3) neutral, (4) discouraged, and (5) prohibited. For example, a mandatory law is to pray, while an issue which is "neutral" or "discouraged" (depending on the Muslim scholar) is "music." (Pschaida, 14 June 2016, lecture). (Shelly Stuckman & Dr. P.)

dhawq/tasting

Al-Ghazali in his Sufi writings said that one's experience of God's presence should be so intimate and substantial as tasting of one's favorite dessert or food multiplied. (Dr. P.)

Alan Watts

Alan Watts was a writer, philosopher, speaker and best known as an interpreter for Eastern philosophy. He wrote "The Way of Zen" (fisher pg.177) shelbie oconnor

Great Mosque of Damascus

Also called the Umayyad Mosque, this is the oldest surviving stone mosque, built around 705 C.E. from a church said to have been "purchased" from Christians. It has a huge courtyard for prayer with an arcade of arches and an inner hall for worship. It became an architectural model for many later mosques. (Dr. P.)

anatman

Also known as "anatta," or no eternal self, is one of the three characteristics of existence that Buddha described and said becomes apparent during the process of meditation (Fisher, p. 153). Insight into anatman is spiritually valuable because it reduces attachment to one's mind, body, and selfish desires (Fisher, p. 142). (Shelly Stuckman)

anicca (impermanence)

Also known as "anitya," or impermanence, is one of the three characteristics of existence that Buddha described and said becomes apparent during the process of meditation. Buddhists believe this mindfulness needs to be carried over into every activity everyday (Fisher, p, 153). According to doctrine, there is no separate, permanent, or immortal self; instead a human being is an impermanent composite of interdependent physical, emotional, and cognitive components (Fisher, p. 142). (Shelly Stuckman)

Zakat

Also known as almsgiving, this is the third pillar, charity. One's prayer is accepted only if one also shares with others. According, at the end of the year, all Muslims must donate at least two and a half percent of their accumulated wealth to needy Muslims. This provision is designed to help decrease inequalities in wealth and to prevent personal greed. It's literal meaning is "purity", for it purifies the distribution of money, helping to keep it in healthy circulation. (Fisher p. 399)(Aiden Campbell)

the "pro-life" or anti-abortion movement & Christianity

Although the Bible makes no explicit comment on the issue of aborting embryos and fetuses, many Evangelical and Catholic Christians are impassioned by this issue as an extension of the "thou shalt not kill" ethic to protect unborn children. Many are active passing out pamphlets, speak in social media, or through television shows and commercials to give their views, while a few are more radical, destroying abortion clinics and physically assaulting or (ironically) killing clinic doctors. (Dr. P.)

Amitabha / Āmítuófó / Amida Buddha

Amitabha Buddha was a prince who wanted to obtain enlightenment. Once he met this goal, he used his pure virtue to create a land of bliss, a "Pure Land" is a place where people can return to after death. In order to get to this land, it is believed that one only needs to say the name "Amida Buddha" with honesty and devotion. (Fisher p. 166) (Rae Johnson) The Buddha of Infinite Light, the personification of compassion whom the Pure Land Buddhist revere as the intermediary between humanity and Supreme Reality. (Fisher) (Destiny Young)

Abu Hamid Al-Ghazali

An 11th and 12th century Muslim Islamicist from Persia and the most famous Muslim scholar who did much to systematize and reconcile the Islamic sciences of law, theology, philosophy (unintentionally), and mysticism/Sufism. He taught at the great university at Baghdad before retiring when he experienced a spiritual crisis and in which he turned more towards Sufism. He asserted a moderate form of Sufism that would be fully in harmony with Islamic law and theology. (Fisher 408, Anthology 288-9, Dr. Pschaida) (Dr. P.)

Prevention of Atrocity Act

An Act (1989) to prevent the commission of offenses of atrocities against the members of the Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes, and to provide for special courts for the trial of such offenses and for the relief and rehabilitation of the victims (delhi.gov. p. 1). (Starkey)

Fundamentalism

An early 20th Century Christian movement in reaction to scientific theories (such as Charles Darwin's theory of evolution & the universe being millions of years old-- whereas, the Bible might date us as about 6,000 years old), and Biblical criticism (such as the men who wrote the Bible were influenced by their social, political, and cultural contexts). Adherents proclaim that they would publish and spread far and wide the 5 main principles, or the basic true Christian beliefs--the true fundamentals, to other Christians and receptive souls. The principles include the following: (1) Biblical inspiration and inerrancy, meaning the Bible from Genesis to the last book of Revelation is the Word of God and has no errors. You can trust whatever was written in the book because God's hand himself guided what was written. It does not have any social or theological agenda by men. (2) Virgin birth of Jesus, meaning his mother Mary/Miriam/Maria did not have intercourse with a man but that Jesus was conceived by the intervention of the Holy Spirit. (3) Christ's death was the atonement for sin, meaning his death was a sacrifice to allow our sins to be forgiven by God. (4) Bodily resurrection of Jesus, meaning he was not resurrected as a spiritual or ghostly entity or seen as just visions by his followers. It was a bodily resurrection and physical. (5) Historical reality of the miracles of Jesus, meaning they aren't metaphors of spiritual healing. He defied normal physical forces--he did walk on water, he did heal sight & other ailments, he did resurrect Lazarus, and he did feed many from a little fish or bread and wine. Fundamentalism influenced other groups, such as Evangelical Christians, to affirm the essential Godly source (Pschaida, "Introduction to Christianity." 13 Nov 2015. Lecture). (Shelly Stuckman)

Christian demographics (see Dr. P's PPT)

An estimated 2.18 billion people are Christian in the world today. Almost 1/3 of the word population but counting Christians is not an exact science & we cannot be precise. As a % of the population, the percentage stayed fairly constant over the last 100 years from 35% to 32%. Currently, Christianity has 37% of the Americas, 24% sub-Saharan Africa, & 12.5% Asia & Pacific Islands--every continent except Antarctica has many Christians. The largest changes from 1910 to 2010 occurred in the Americas with an increase from 27% to 37%, a decrease in Europe from 66% to 26%, an increase in Africa from 1.4% to 23.6 %, and an increase in Asia Pacific from 4.5% to 13%. Much of the increase in Africa has been from missionary and evangelistic work (Pschaid, "Introduction to Christianity." 10 Nov. 2015. Lecture). (Shelly Stuckman)

The Muslim Brotherhood

An important Islamic organization that arose out of Egypt, but now trans-national, founded by an educator named Hasan al-Bana' in the late 1920s, emphasizing Islamic education, social and economic services and empowerment to the disenfranchised, and political activism. It is often considered as the "father" of Islamist movements worldwide, striving to make Islamic ideals pervade ever facet of individual and collective life. It has sometimes been a militant organization although at most times has striven for social and political change through peaceful political participation. (Dr. P.) ...Muhammad stated" You must know that a Muslim is a brother of a Muslim and the Muslms are one brotherhood"(fisher pg 387) (Grace Cavazos)

anatman

Anatman is the principle that there is no eternal self. By understanding this principle it is thought that you are less attached to earthly and selfish desires and therefore we become aware that nothing in this world is permanent and independently existent. (Fisher P. 144) (Rae Johnson)

nonattachment (Jainism)

Aparigraha, one of three central Jain tenets. One should cut one's living requirements to the bare minimum. Possessions possess us; their acquisition and loss drives emotions. It is considered a way to inner peace. In the modern world it is of value to the world community as limiting consumption alleviates poverty, hunger, and environmental degradation. (Fisher p 127) (Alex Goodman)

Orientalism (& Occidentalism)

Ascribing negative traits of primitiveness, aggressiveness, or hyper-sexuality to the peoples of Asia (southwest, south, east). Corollary, peoples of Asia ascribing negative traits of aggressiveness, violence, corruption, greed, or materialism to peoples of Europe and North America. (Dr. P.) ...Styles and traits that are involved with the cultures of Asia. This term is used by many scholars in history and cultural studies. Other people that use this term are writers and designers that are trying to get the point across about stereotyping of others (Fisher, 421). (Steven Bailey)

"gem-like reality" of human beings

Baha'is believe our special purpose is to know God and to love God. Similar to how the Manifestations of God (like Muhammad and Jesus) are "luminous gems of holiness," human virtues and qualities, such as compassion, honesty, integrity, friendliness, and loyalty, are qualities we are able to develop and reflect from the gems of our souls. We are reflecting His greatness, the many facets of His glory, His perfections, His attributes, His characteristics (which we show as virtues) when we know Him, learn from Him, and love Him. From all created things, God has singled the pure out for this special favor of a gem-like reality with the unique capacity to reflect His glory (Pschaide. Baha'i Faith: Oneness of Humanity. 29 March 2016. Lecture). (Shelly Stuckman)

Promised One

Baha'is consider Baha'u'llah to be the One promised by Messengers and Prophets of other religious scriptures, the One to bring justice, peace, and brotherhood to the planet, uniting all races, religions, and peoples in harmony. Baha'i writings cite promises of the Immaculate Incarnation of Krishna, the 5th Buddha or Maitreya Buddha, the Prince of Peace, and the Return of Christ, which Baha'is believe that Baha'u'llah fulfills. (Dr. P.) Is what the center of the teaching are surrounded by. He is chosen by the members who feel had loyalty, self-devotion, and a well trained mind. (pg.483) shelbie oconnor

Scriptures

Baha'is consider the writings of the Bab and Baha'u'llah--of which they wrote many volumes--are the revealed word of God for promised age of humanity's maturity. The writings of Baha'u'llah's son and successor 'Abdu'l-Baha are also considered scripture, while the writings of Shoghi Effendi and the Universal House of Justice are considered "inspired" and "infallible" but not scriptures. The Baha'i Faith also teaches the Qur'an of Islam is the word of God and that the Bible of Judaism and Christianity is "inspired." Many Baha'is also consider scriptures of other religions as "inspired" and incorporate them in inter-faith devotional gatherings, although no official status has been given to those other scriptures in Baha'i official/authoritative statements. (Dr. P.)

Holy Days

Baha'is have nine official holy days in which they are to take off work and spend more time in prayer, celebration, and or commemoration: Birth of Baha'u'llah, Birth of the Bab, Declaration of Baha'u'llah (3 days of the 12 day period are individual "holy days"), Declaration of the Bab, Ascension (i.e. passing) of Baha'u'llah, Martyrdom of the Bab, and the Ascension of 'Abdu'l-Baha. (Dr. P.)

recitation and meditation

Baha'u'llah in his Most Holy Book commands that every believer in God should recite and meditate upon the Words of God in Scripture (Writings of the Bab, Baha'u'llah, the Qur'an, the Bible) for a while each morning and evening. (Dr. P.) ...in formal worship services in Baha'i Houses of Worship, scripture from a variety of religions are recited, often accompanied with meditation (Fisher 9th ed. p. 478). (Garth Schulz)

prayer

Baha'u'llah, the Bab, and 'Abdu'l-Baha revealed thousands of prayers that Baha'is should draw from each day in their daily prayers. Baha'u'llah also gave certain obligatory prayers, similar to Islamic Salah with precise movements of the body to go with it, for Baha'is to say each day. Baha'is are also free to make up their own prayers from the heart. Prayer is considered similar to the lung's respiration but for the soul. (Dr. P.) Each local member is asked to pray and meditate. Baha'i house of Worship has 9 doors and a central dome symbolizing the diversity of ones humanity. (pg. 483) shelbie oconnor) Part of a devotional service done by all religions. Prayers are done by the Bab, and 'Abdu'l-Baha. (Fisher pg. 483) (Heather Donais)

fasting

Bahá'u'lláh established the guidelines of the fast in the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, his book of laws. Fasting is observed from sunrise to sunset during the Bahá'í month of `Ala' (between March 1st and 2nd through March 19th and 20th) and it is the complete abstention from food, drink and smoking. (Sharlenea Bracale) ...Like the moral duty that Muslims in the 9th month out of every year (Ramadan) do not eat or drink from dawn to when the sunsets to show the love they have for God (Fisher 485) (Steven Bailey), Baha'is do not eat or drink from sunrise to sunset in the 19th/last month of the Baha'i year. (Dr. P.)

Early Christian Sect - Arianism

Based on the 4th century priest (about 250 to 336 CE) of Egypt's position which agreed with the proto-normative position that Jesus was divine and the Son of God but differed in saying that his divine aspect is secondary, dependent, and lesser than God the Father, just as the sun takes precedent over its rays of light. This controversy precipitated the 1st Nicene Council and persecution and exile of those who did not hold the Nicene view of the co-eternity of God the Father and God the Son. (Dr. P.)

Community Building

Besides the founding of schools, agricultural programs, programs for the empowerment of young women, and social work institutes, Baha'is around the world are working to create collaborative relationships with neighbors and friends to create local children's classes that focus on practicing virtues, junior youth empowerment programs in which pre-teens see themselves as effective agents to enact projects to better their local neighborhoods, inter-faith devotional gatherings, and study circles to study the Baha'i teachings together. (Dr. P.)

Bodhidharma

Bodhidharma was a south Indian monk who traveled to a monastery in northern China. According to the legacy, he spent 9 years in total silence. Bodhidharma was the first person to be called Chan Buddhism. (See below definition, that means that Bodhidharma was a big deal) It is pretty much assumed that parts of the story were exaggerated, but Bodhidharma still became a leader in the Buddhist world as a result of his determination to reach enlightenment. (Fisher P. 162.) (Rae Johnson)

brahmins

Brahmins are priests or members of the priestly caste in Hinduism. This is the highest in India's caste system. Brahmin assist people in spiritual services. (Fisher p. 101.) Rae Johnson

Ka'bah / Kaaba

Built by Abraham and Isma'il, it is the holiest sanctuary in Islam. It was thought to be the site of Adam's original place of worship; part of the cubic stone building is a venerated black meteorite. According to the Qur'an, God told Abraham that the Ka'bah should be a place of pilgrimage. It was regarded as a holy place by the Arabian tribes. (Fisher p.381)(Aiden Campbell)

"Capitalist Confucianism"

Business conducted according to Confucian ethics such as humanity, trustworthiness, sincerity, and altruism (Fisher, p. 211). (Shelly Stuckman)

feng shui

By letting things take their own course feng shi also known as geomancy. This is "determining natural flows of qi through the earth, as revealed by the flows of wind and water." (Fisher page 194) (Lindsey Felty)

Western vs. Orthodox/Eastern churches & 1054

Called the "Great Schism," leaders of the eastern and western Churches excommunicated each other over a unilateral choice by the western church to add to the Nicene Creed that the Holy Spirit does not just proceed from the Father but the Son, over the demand that priests be celibate in Western Catholicism, and over whether the eucharist bread should be leavened or not (Catholics said unleavened; Orthodox said leavened). Since then Catholics and Eastern Orthodox have each seen themselves as the upholders of the true Church and the other as having gone astray. (Fisher, 328) (Dr. P.) The orthodox split with the Western church, the Eastern Orthodox had spread throughout the Slavic and eastern Mediterranean countries. Eastern orthodox, patriarchate of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem. Self governing local churches. (Fisher pg. 342-343) (shelbie oconnor)

Christ

Christ is a title for Jesus, not his surname or family name. Christ is Greek for Messiah or "anointed one." Messiahs were sometimes also called "sons of God" but the word means more literally to be "anointed" by a priest with holy water or oil in a ceremony that would make a Jewish person political king or sovereign. Later Christ was reinterpreted as a spiritual savior who would give eternal, perfect life in God's kingdom, rather than a political king and deliverer of total peace on earth (Pschaida, Christianity Pre-Quiz). Christ is also a translation of the Aramaic word M'shekha or Messiah, which means "perfected" or "enlightened one" (Fisher, p. 312). (Shelly Stuckman) Christians today commonly believe and use this term interchangeably with the idea of Son of God, although that is not its literal or traditional meaning. (Lindsey Felty & Dr. P.)

Anglicans

Christians of the Anglican Church, which was called the Church of England when Henry VIII separated from the Church of Rome. This form of Christianity, now called Anglicanism (and often "Episcopalian" in North America), retains many of the Roman Catholic rituals but rejects the authority of the pope. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual leader. Also, the priests are allowed to marry (Fisher, p. 337). When the King of England, Henry the VIII, was prohibited by the Pope to marry another woman with whom he wanted to produce a male heir, he asserted his and his archbishop's independence from the Vatican authority (Pschaida, Christianity_Terms, Lectures 3 &4). (Shelly Stuckman)

1492

Columbus reached the new world on this date. Founding the pilgrimage and the idea of manifest destiny. At the same time the expulsion of Jews in the Kingdom of Castile and Aragon due to the coalition of the catholic monarch of Spain.

"Oral Torah"

Commentary and elaboration on Jewish law and Tanakh-based stories, orally passed down for generations until began to be written down after the 1st century C.E. ...Spoken Jewish teachings, and/or the "five books of Moses". (Fisher, p 273) Also known as The Mishnah, which is a collection of Jewish laws. (Fisher & Bailey, p 198) (William Morehand)

Tibet & China (and Dalai Lama & Buddhism)

Communist China invaded Tibet in the years between 1950 and 1959, destroying monastaries and killing thousands. The fourteenth Dalai Lama was exiled to India, where he made a headquarters high in the Himalayas. He tried to steer people away from "violent responses to violence". With violence, he said "although we may solve one problem, we simultaneously seed a new problem" (Fisher 168-169). (Zak Prorok)

Vajrayana

Considered the most elaborate branch of Mahayana Buddhism. It began in India, then went to Tibet, and then to many other countries. (Fisher page 166) (Lindsey Felty) Encourages people to learn from both the Theravada and Mahayana principles before studying Vajrayana. Emphasis that emptiness is complemented by the compassion of bodhisattava and that the wisdom of emptiness has an indestructible diamond that cuts through dualistic illusions. (Anthology, pg 127) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Constantine & Theodosius

Constantine is a ruler who converted to Christianity, marking a big step towards the acceptance and later domination christianity. Theodosius was a Roman empire who made Christianity the official religion of the empire.

Dharma

Cosmic law, the teachings of the Buddha, and the realization and practice of the truth. (Fisher, p 138) -Luke O'Shea. In Hinduism. Moral order, righteousness, religion. In Buddhism, the doctrine or law, as revealed by the Buddha; also the correct conduct for each person according to his or her level of awareness. (Janette Contreras)

Egypt

Country in the Northeast Africa, boarded by the Mediterranean sea on the North side, Israel and the red sea to the East, Sudan to the South and Libya to the West side. (Shelbie O'Connor) Jacob and his sons went here after there was famine in land of Canaan/Israel where they and their descendants prospered until there was a Pharaoh who saw the Hebrews/Israelites as a threat, enslaved them, and killed their first born sons. Then Moses led them out of this land of oppression back toward Canaan/Israel. (Dr. Pschaida)

David & Solomon

David was the second king of Israel and is considered Israel's greatest king. David started as a obscure shepherd and was chosen by a prophet named Samuel and was anointed on the head with oil. When Saul and his son were killed in battle, that's when David was named king. Solomon is king David's son, when Solomon was king, a great temple was built in Jerusalem which became a home for the Ark of the Covenant. (Fisher pg.250) (Heather Donais)

Triple-Gem/Three-Refuges (and Dharma & Sangha)

Declaration of one's commitment to the Buddhist path. Refuge used by Buddhists; "The Buddha (The Enlightened One), the Dharma (The teachings he gave), and the Sangha (community). " This is a type of training or practice to become a Buddhist by reciting the Pali formula. (Fisher pg. 150) (Heather Donais)

Desmond Tutu

Desmond Tutu is an Anglican Archbishop in Capetown, South Africa. Tutu also served his country as Chairperson of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission. Tutu also received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1984 for his fearless stance on behalf of truth and justice for the oppressed, against apartheid. He confronted not only those who were in power, but also those who sought change through violence. (Fisher p. 371)(Aiden Campbell & Dr. P.)

Early Christian Sects [Gnosticism, Docetism, Marcionites]

Different varying sects that shared a common belief that Jesus "appeared" to be flesh and human so that he could communicate his teachings to other humans, freeing them from the oppression of the physical, fleshly, material life. Jesus did not have a physical body but needed to look human in order to teach us. They believed the key to salvation was understanding the truths that Jesus communicated, releasing one from flesh and material things which are evil and sinful (Pschaida, "Christianity Hermeneutics & Heterodoxy." 25 July 2016. Lecture). Our textbook stated The Gnostics had a somewhat "mystical perception of knowledge" in that they believed only people with spiritual maturity could truly understand or comprehend the deep meanings from the teachings of Jesus. They also believed that the Kingdom of Heaven is a "present reality experienced through personal realization of the Light" (Fisher, p. 322). As stated in our textbook, this interpretation was seen as an elitist view of salvation by many. (Shelly Stuckman)

stupas & sacred relics

Dome shaped reliquaries where Buddha's passing was "commemorated." (Fisher page 141) (Lindsey Felty) Each one is supposed to have pieces from Siddhartha Gautama's body, such as parts of teeth or bone and so they are seen as a sacred and spiritual efficacious place to visit. (Dr. Pschaida)

Dr. Ambedkar & India caste

Dr. Ambedkar was born as an untouchable Hindu. He was in charge of the new democratic constitution. He was an advocate for trying to get rid of the old Indian Caste system, which he felt was oppressive. He decided to find his own religion, and he wanted something that provided "freedom and dignity to all human beings" (Fisher p. 183). He found this in Buddhism. He said that Buddha presented himself to him after he was the first person to graduate from high school from the lower caste. He did not publicly convert until the end of his life, but when he did come out as Buddhist, he inspired half a million other people to do the same. Dr. Ambedkar was a large presence in the Buddhist religion and sculpted the way it is viewed now through being openly critical of his belief. (Fisher p. 183-184) (Rae Johnson)

Kabbalah

Esoteric teachings developed in the Middle Ages. The most important book of these teachings is the Zohar or "Way of Splendor." Kabbalah's most influential leader was Isaac Luria; thus the term Lurianic Kabbalism is used. Luria wrote about "sparks of holiness" and tikkun olam or "repairing the world." He helped emphasize the important Jewish thought of how the relationship between God and man is "covenantal" with reciprocal responsibilities of working to uplift the world and that every action has significance (Fisher, p. 262-263). (Shelly Stuckman)

muezzin/call-to-prayer

Five times a day, one will hear calling from a tower/minaret/azan on a mosque, or through a loudspeaker, a melodic voice calling one to come to prayer, to come to success, to perform one of the five obligatory Salah. He also says that God is Great and proclaims the Shahadah. An Ethiopian-Arab Muslim named Bilal became the first muezzin in the time of the Prophet to use his beautiful voice to call Muslims to prayer at the proper times, after a companion of Muhammad had a dream that this should be done instead of the Christian way of bells. (Dr. P.)

'Ali

For Shiite Muslims, "Ali was the rightful original successor to the Prophet Muhammad. Several weeks before his death, the Prophet reportedly took Ali's hand and said "Whoever i protect. Ali is also his protector, O God, be a friend to whoever is his friend and an enemy to whoever is his enemy." (fisher406) (Nathen Stinson) He was the first male to believe in the Prophet Muhammad, and for Sunni Muslims he is also the fourth and last of the "rightly guided Caliphs." (Dr. P.)

Ottoman Empire

For a few hundred years this imperial system had encompassed Egypt, the Sudan, the Levant, and Iraq. In 1908 the Young Turks assumed control of the Ottoman political system, later to be replaced by a modernist named Ataturk. This point is often seen as a "crisis" to be remedied for Muslims, as now there was no more "caliph" to represent many Sunni Muslims; the vacuum/vacancy of general Islamic authority was now complete. (Dr. P.) ...Islamic land and with the Ottoman conquest, the Islam religion was able to spread. "...prop up the decaying Ottoman Empire so that it could serve as a bulwark against Russian imperialism; the new Jewish presence in Palestine would also serve as a check against the attempts of Egypt..." (Fisher 420). (Kambree Meskill). Purpose is to create a pan-Islamic state encompassing Egypt, Syria, and the Arabian peninsula. (Fisher pg.420) (Heather Donais)

Sin & Salvation

For most Christians, the central problem of existence is that of the possibility of blissful eternal life when human beings are seen as stained by moral corruption. For Christians, acceptance of Jesus' teachings and act of sacrifice on the cross is the answer to this problem. (Dr. P.)...Jesus taught that those who repent would be forgiven by God. "Those who sincerely repent-even if they are the hated toll-collectors, prostitutes, or ignorant common people- are more likely to receive God's forgiveness than are the learned and self-righteous" (Fisher p.309) (William Morehand)

Seventh Day Adventists

Forming in the mid 1800s out of a movement of eschatological expectation produced by predictions of Biblical scholars like William Miller that Jesus was about to return, this denomination believe that the Second Coming of Christ will soon occur, and they regard the Bible as an absolute guide to faith and spiritual practice in anticipation of his return (Fisher, 338) (McCoy & Dr. P.).

Jehovah's Witnesses

Forming in the mid 1800s out of a movement of eschatological expectation produced by predictions of Biblical scholars like William Miller that Jesus was about to return, this denomination, this denomination is very Biblically-oriented and criticizes other religions as having developed false doctrines from the second century onward, and they urge people--often door-to-door--to leave these "false religions" and prepare for a coming time when all who do not hold true belief will be destroyed (Fisher, 338) (McCoy & Dr. P.)......Movement holding that many modern Christian doctrines are false, and advocating what is regarded as early Christianity. (pg. 542) (Young)

Grace

Freely given forgiveness from God. (Lindsey Felty) Love and mercy given to us by God because God desires us to have it. (Shelbie O"Connor) A spiritual belief given to and from God. Mercy and love is given because God wishes upon us to have it. (Fisher pg. 305) (Heather Donais)

Arjuna

From the 18th book of the Mahabharata, a prince of the Pandava family, set to battle his cousins for the throne, and so is emotionally and morally torn between doing his duty/dharma as a warrior fighting for a righteous cause and that of reluctance to kill his own friends and family members. He revered Krishna revered as a manifestation of the supreme, who also happened to be his charioteer for the battle. His questions and Krishna's answers become the content of the Bhagavad Gita-- a most beloved of Hindu scriptures. Krishna enjoined him to withdraw his attention from the impetuous demands of the senses, ignoring all feelings of attraction or aversion. (Fisher P. 92-93) (Rae Johnson & Dr. Pschaida)

"there is neither Hindu nor Muslim"

Guru Nanak (1469-1539 CE in Punjab) said, "There is neither Hindu or Muslim; I shall follow God's path." Nanak felt his own religion or his own faith was one that transcended or is the universal path towards God. Nanak believed the rituals of Hinduism and Islam were not needed. What is needed is a sincere. heart-filled devotion to God (Pschaida, Sikhism Lecture 2, 3 Dec. 2015). Our textbook states Nanak said, "There is neither Hindu nor Mussulman, so whose path shall I follow? I shall follow God's path. God is neither Hindu nor Mussulman" (Fisher, 442). When Guru Gobind Singh created an army to resist tyranny, he said do not hate Islam or Hinduism--feel no enmity toward either. The enemy, he said, is oppression and corruption (Fisher, 452). Additionally, Sikhism does not claim to have only one path to God, nor does it try to convert others. Sikhs believe the purpose of life is to realize God within the world--we are all equal and on the path to join God with our hearts and minds. All people are to be treated equally because God's light dwells in us all. The house of God is without walls (Fisher, 451-2). (Shelly Stuckman)

Hamza Yusuf

Hamza Yusuf is one of the leading proponents of classical learning in Islam. He has promoted Islamic sciences and classical teaching methodologies throughout the world.He has also been a strong advocate for social justice, peace, and conviviality among peoples and places. For several years, he has argued that the "them versus us" problem is fundamentally flawed, as he considers himself one of "them" as well as one of "us." He has served as an advisor to many organizations, leaders, and heads of state. Yusuf has been an innovator in modern Islamic education, founding the highly imitated Deen Intensives, and with Shaykh Ibrahim Osi-Afa, he started the first Rihla program in England, which has been running for over fifteen years. Dozens of young Muslims who were influenced by his call to reviving traditional Islamic studies in the West went to the Muslim lands in the nineties and early part of the current decade to study, many of who are now teachers in their own right. Hamza Yusuf's contribution to the development of Islam in England has been described as "immense", "considerable", and "enormous", by the academic Haifaa Jawad in her recent book, Towards Building a British Islam.(Sandala.org (his official website))(Aiden Campbell)

Hanukkah

Hanukkah has multiple names. It is also known as the Festival of Lights and the Feast of Dedication. It is always celebrated near the winter solstice, the longest and darkest night of the year. It is an eight night festival in which a new candle is lit on the menorah each night. It is a histical celebration of the victory of the Maccabean rebellion against Antiochus. (Fisher p. 283)(Aiden Campbell)

God (in Sikhism)

He/It is both transcendent & immanent - far above and removed from the characteristics of this world yet also willing all things to be and pervading all creation. (Dr. P.),

dharma

Hindi word used to describe many meanings. Although it is normally translated as simply "religion" in English, it actually means everything from "duty, natural law, social welfare, ethics, health, and transcendental realization" (Fisher, pg. 73). Many Hindus prefer the term "Santana dharma" over Hinduism, which is the "ageless moral order and natural law of the cosmos" (Anthology, pg. 62). -Zachary Prorok

Upanishads

Hindu philosophical scriptures from the period 600-400 B.C.E. Upanishads are primarily dialogues between teachers and students who seek sacred knowledge through a withdraw from ordinary life. The Upanashids criticize Vedic rituals as unnecessary and rejected the rising social and economic of the Brahmin priesthood. (Voorst p 69) (Alex Goodman)

Inclusivism:

I follow my way toward God, truth, salvation, or enlightenment but there are other pathways that are also valid.

Converts & immigrants

Immigrants are people like the Japanese Buddhists who moved to Hawaii as plantation workers or the Asian Buddhists from China that moved to California during the Gold Rush (Fisher, p. 171). They are practicing Buddhists who have moved from their homeland and usually try to keep traditions and beliefs true to Buddha. Converts are people who become Buddhists but live in their own nation and were possibly Christian or some other religion before. They may try to assimilate the Buddhists truths into their own culture, focusing on the tolerance and adaptability aspects of Buddhism (Anthology, p. 134-135). (Shelly Stuckman)

The Second Vatican Council

In 1962, Pope John Paul XXIII, known for his holiness and friendliness, convened the Second Vatican Council for the express purpose of updating and energizing the Church and making it serve the people better as a living force in the modern world rather than being an old, embattled citadel. (Fisher p. 341)(Aiden Campbell) Changes included using the local languages, instead of the traditional Latin, for mass and liturgy and more openness to different kinds of sacred music being used in Church. The Catholic Council also affirmed the workings of the same Holy Spirit in other Christian churches and that Catholics share religious bonds with Jews and Muslims as well. (Fisher 341) (Dr. P.)

justification

In Christianity, having been absolved of sin in the eyes of god. (janette contreras) This absolution of moral corruption occurs not by merit or earning it, but freely given as a gift of grace to those who have faith in Jesus. (Dr. P.) For Christians this is God's act of removing the guilt and penalty of a sin. According to the book "Living Religions" Abraham received this blessing from God "because of his great faith in God rather than by his circumcision" (Fisher, p. 321). (Tatum Heeres)

Bahá'í World Centre

In Haifa, Israel, on the Biblical Mount Carmel this includes Shrine of the Bab and 18 garden terraces, the Seat (or administrative building) of the Universal House of Justice, the office of the International Teaching Center, the Baha'i Archives building, the Baha'i library, pilgrimage hospitality buildings, and a number of other auxiliary office buildings. In the future, a Baha'i House of Worship will also be built there. Across the bay in Akka, Israel is the shrine of Baha'u'llah. (Dr. P.)

sacrificial fires

In Hindu culture it is believed that generous sacrifices to a deity through fire will be rewarded. Fruits, fragrances, herbs, grains, and ghee are burned in the fire while worships to the god of fire, Agni, are made. Fire sacrifices are also made in death to cremate the bodies of lost loved ones. (Fisher, 98) -Luke O'Shea

Devi

In Hinduism, the great goddesses have been worshiped in the plural and also in the singular when one goddess is seen as representing the totality of deity--eternal creator, preserver, and destroyer. The general term Devi may be used to refer generically to the goddess in all her forms, understood as the supreme Divine Mother, the totality of all the energy of the cosmos. Devi is known by many names, and is thought to have many manifestations. Among them are benign, extremely powerful, and even fierce forms (Fisher, p. 86-87). (Shelly Stuckman)

Shiite Imam

In Sunni Islam, it just means a Muslim prayer leader and sometimes more general mosque leader. In Shi'ite Islam it is a religious leader believed to be the successor in authority of the Prophet of God - Muhammad. (Fisher pg 306)(Grace cavazos & Dr. P.) The Imam combines both political and religious organization into one. He is to continue the transmission of Divine Guidance while also leading the people onwards. (Fisher 406)(Jonathan Jenkins)

Functionalism - religion for personal coping and self-organization (influenced by psychologist Erich Fromm, Christian theologian Paul Tillich, Hindu mother guru Mata Amritanandamayi, and others)

In a world of a multiplicity of demands, responsibilities, relationships, opportunities, and advertisement, religion is an "ultimate concern" and "frame of reference" that brings unity and harmony to an otherwise schizophrenic life. We can fit the relative and differing value of these courses of conduct into a greater whole - our more fundamental commitment to God, Buddhist ethics, or a principle of non-violence. It also gives us the mental strength to confront the difficulties of life, whether personal relationship crises, disappointments, sickness, or immanent death. It makes us feel safe and loved. In an ambiguous world, we feel the world is for us and ultimately working for our benefit.

natural manifestations of God

In distinction to Prophets who show the word and attributes of God, in the Baha'i writings it is said that all of the natural world--trees, rivers, mountains, valleys, sun, moon, air, fire, etc.--all are signs that disclose names and attributes of God for those who look with the eye of discernment. (dr. P video)(Cavazos & Dr. P.)

karma yoga

In the Bhagavad Gita, Krishna encourages this to Arjuna: "service rendered without any interest in its fruits and without any personal sense of giving. The yogi knows that the Absolute performs all actions, and all actions are gifts to the Absolute". (Janette Contreras & Dr. Pschaida)

Afterlife & Heaven

In the Christian faith, afterlife and heaven provides a major system of beliefs. It is thought that by having your sins forgiven by the Son of God, Jesus dying on the cross anyone can get to heaven if they repent for their wrong doings. Heaven is a primary incentive for people of the Christian faith to follow the commandments laid out by God in the bible. (FIsher p 346) (Rae Johnson) While belief in an afterlife is central to Christian faith, details of when it happens is contested, some readings of the Bible interpreting that it occurs after a longer waiting period until our soul and body is resurrected together when Jesus returns, while others believing it happens immediately in an existence without our physical body in a purely spiritual existence. Either way, most Christians believe that those who have faith and are faithful will be rewarded with a delightful existence in God's presence while those who turn their backs to God will live estranged and in despair. (Dr. Pschaida)

99 Most Beauteous Names of God

In the Qur'an there are 99 names for God which are learned by muslims who are in good faith. These terms are to be used in everyday worship. The different names represent God in different lights. The first and most predominant name for God in the religion is Allah, but in the Qur'an discusses other names and almost personalities of Allah, such as the Merciful, the Generous, the Just, the Powerful. (Rae Johnson & Dr. P.)

Shiva and Shaivites

In the older system, Shiva is the third deity of the Hindu Trinity and represents "The Destroyer" (2nd Youtube lecture, Prof. Pschaida). Today, Shiva is a personal, many-faceted manifestation of the attributeless supreme deity. The Shaivites worship him as the totality, with many aspects (e.g., creator, preserver, destroyer, personal Lord, friend, primal Soul) (Fisher 88). (Starkey)

music as yoga

Is a type of helpful tool to "elevate a person's attunement and may go on for hours if the musicians are spiritually absorbed." (Fisher pg. 83) Music is used to help elaborate the feeling of yoga and a form developed in India. (Heather Donais) The single minded concentration on the performance of music is itself a kind of discipline (yoga) that helps develop the mind. (Dr. Pschaida)

tawḥīd

Is the religions most necessary concept that holds that God is one. It is the concept of monotheism in islam. (Shelbie O'Conor)

Battle of Badr

It was one of the first and most important battles in the first years after Muhammad emigrated to Yathrib/Medina. Meccans came to ambush the Muslims, who had been raiding their caravans to try to recuperate some lost property after forcing to emigrate. It was important for Islam to win because the battle laid the foundation of Muhammad and his companions becoming the leaders of a powerful city-state. (shelbie O'Connor & Dr. P.)

Jacob & Israel

Jacob was the son of Abraham. He was one of the patriarchs focused on throughout the Jewish bible. Jacob is a large presence in Jewish culture and continues to be a common modern Jewish name. Jacob means "Israel". He took his family to Egypt which ultimately put the Jewish people into slavery. (Fisher p 149) (Rae Johnson)

Agape

Jesus taught that love is the greatest command or that "hesed" (meaning loyal love) to be the greatest "mitzvah"(meaning command or law). The most important law is to love God with all your soul, heart, strength, and mind (Deut. 6:5). The second most important mitzvah is to love your neighbor as yourself (Levit 19:18). Dr. P. called them the "twin mitzvahs" or the duo to arrive at the agape type of love . Agape is also the term used to describe God's "all-embracing love" with all things forgiven and forgotten. It's God's immeasurable, incomparable love for humankind. It can be described as unconditional, selfless, and limitless (Pschaida, "Introduction to Christianity 5B - Ministry of Jesus." 11 Nov. 2015. Lecture.). Paul spoke of agape--altruistic, self-giving love--as the center of Christian concern (Fisher, p. 322). (Shelly Stuckman)

John the Baptist

John was a prophet citing Isaiah's apocalyptic prophecies of the coming Kingdom of God. He was conducting baptisms in the Jordan River in preparation for the Kingdom of God. (Fisher p. 303) Jesus claimed that John the Baptist was Elijah reincarnate. (Fisher p. 313) (Aiden Campbell)

Jewish Afterlife belief

Judaism is primarily focused on the living world, but it does has both an afterlife and a belief in resurrection. When one dies they go to Sheol, the grave pit of all mankind, regardless of whether they were righteous or unrighteous in their life. At the end of the world, everyone will be brought back to life and judged by god. God creates Olam Haba, "the world to come," a paradise where righteous Jews (and non-Jews that follow the Seven Laws of Noah) go and live in eternal life. The unrighteous go to Gehenna, a purgatory analog where the wicked have their spirits purified for at most a year, before they too go to Olam Haba. (Alex Goodman) Many Jews today call themselves Secular Jews and do not practice the Judaism religion today. (Fisher 278)

Confucius / Kong Fuzi

Kong Fuzi, or Master Kong was a master of Rujaio. Westerners also call him Confucious, and his teaching Confucianism. But he did not found these teachings. Based on roots in heaven, ancestor worship, and the efficacy of rituals, he developed his own teachings that emphasize the cultivation of moral virtues and the interaction between human rulers and heaven, with political involvement as the way to transforming the world. (Fisher p. 203)(Aiden Campbell)

kosher dietary laws

Kosher laws are followed by devote Jewish people year round. Kosher foods are considered ritually acceptable. Kosher meats come from warm blooded animals with cloven hoofs which chew their cud. Pork and shellfish are not considered kosher. Meat is kosher if it has been butchered with a sharp knife, with little to no blood, soaked in water and drained on a salt board. (Fisher p 283) (Rae Johnson)

Talmud

Large body of commentary on the Mishnah's oral traditions. It is comprised of commentary on Halakhah, and the rest Haggadah. It contains manners, folklore, customs, proverbs, prayers, rituals, and medical advice.(Anthology 199) (Luke O'Shea).......Jewish law and lore, as finally compiled in the sixth century CE. (Fisher, p.543)(Destiny Young)

mosques/masjids

Literally "place of prostration," a building that serves as a gathering place or shelter for Muslims to pray. Various styles of prayer buildings have been developed, including one's with a big central dome to enclose the prayer-giver (such as the Blue Mosque) as well as open air mosques surrounded by walls and large doors (such as the Great Mosque of Isfahan). Friday/Jumu'a is the most important time in which Muslim men (and in some women too) gather around midday to perform the prayer in unity and communion with each other. A sermon/khutbah is also given at this time on some religious topic and Muslims will visit with and chat with their friends afterwards. (Dr. Pschaida)

Mahatma Gandhi

Mahatma ("Great Soul") Gandhi (1869-1948) was a spiritual leader in India who claimed that the qualities of awareness in spiritual truth and nonviolent resistance to military or industrial oppression were the essence of all religions, including Hinduism, which he considered the universal religion (Fisher, p. 111). Gandhi is called the father of independent India and asserted that Hinduism's special identity lies in its inclusiveness, dynamism,and continuing search for truth (Fisher, p. 118). Gandhi was an opponent of the caste system, which he viewed as social injustice, and renamed the lowest caste "harijans" or "the children of God" (Fisher, p. 99). (Shelly Stuckman)

Mahayana Buddhism majority countries

Mahayana became dominant in Nepal, Tibet, China, Korea, Mongolia, Vietnam, and Japan. (Fisher page 149) (Lindsey Felty)

Maitreya, Budai / Hotei

Maitreya is regarded as the future Buddha for this world who will bring peace and liberation to all beings through his dharma. Budai is known as the laughing Buddha, and he is known as the Chinese monk of the 10th century who would give to children, was chubby and jolly, from where some of us get the idea that the Buddha was obese with a "buddha belly." Hotei is the Japanese version of this same bodhisattva or future Buddha of contentment and happiness. (Fisher) (shelbie O;Connor & Dr. Pschaida)

sunyata

Meaning emptiness or voidness and is the most complex and profound of the Mahayana teachings in Buddhism. According to the philosopher Nagarjuna, the world of phenomena is empty of true or inherent existence. Insight into emptiness also arises by understanding the dependent nature of thought constructs and freeing our minds from fixed concepts. Everything being empty, there is nothing to cling to, so one who realizes emptiness (which is always paired with compassion, skillful means, & the wish to benefit all living beings) is free to experience reality directly and to be compassionate without attachment. Distinctive note: even the teachings of Buddha & emptiness itself are empty of true existence (Fisher, p. 159). (Shelly Stuckman) ..... "A basic element of Mahayana Buddhism. This is the subtle and debatable term full of paradox. Early Buddhism initially rejected the brahmanic notion of the atman" (Ant pg 121) ( Nathen Stinson)

Mahdi

Muhammad Mahdi is related to the arrival of judgement day. According to Islam, there was said to be 12 different valid successors to Muhammad. The 12th was Mahdi. Mahdi is the Muhammad of the day of Resurrection. He is the "redeemer of Islam." Mahdi is related to the Ahmadiyyah movement from India, because the prophet declared himself to be the Mahdi and Messiah, but Muslims don't usually see that as a part of the faith. (Fisher P 402) (Rae Johnson)

Mecca

Muhammad was from this city and first received his revelations near and in this city. (Dr.P.)...a city in Saudi Arabia which is the center of much activity and holy city in Islam. "The band of Muslims was asked to return to Mecca..."(Fisher 386). Prophet Muhammad did a lot of work in this area. (Kambree Meskill) This is also where the hajj is made, the pilgrimage to Mecca. All muslims who have the physical and financial ability to make it are expected to do so at least once in their lifetime. It is a time to be close to God and to remember that he is the only true God. (Fisher 401-403) (Jonathan Jenkins)

Naam/Name-of-God

Naam in Sikhism means the Name-of God and includes all perfections and all attributes of God. Naam is the one name that includes all other names. The sound of "aam" even sounds like the Hindu universal sound that signifies everything, both general and particular (Pschaida, Sikhism 3, 4 Dec. 2015. Lecture). "Sikhism sees God as truth, whose holy name/Naam we should remember in everything we do" (Pschaida, Sikhism Pre-Test, 2016). Nam, the Holy Name of God, dwells in all creation. God is not separate from this world. God pervades the cosmos and is within everything. Sikhs often refer to God as Sat ("truth") or as Ik Onkar, the One Supreme Being who is pure and without form and boundless (Fisher, 450) Sacred practices include continual inner repetitions of the Name of God, Nam, and detachment from negative worldly mind states. In Sikh belief, Nam carries intense spiritual power, capable of making a person fearless, steady, calm, and inwardly strong in the face of any adversity, willing to serve, and showing love to all. Some believe Nam is the essence of creation with the sound and vibration of which the cosmos is a material manifestation. The Name of God comes as a transmission of spiritual blessing, transforming people and linking them to God. Other names of God include Murari, Narain, Allah, Ram, Wahe Guru, Il Onkar Sat nam Siri Wahe Guru, the One, the Most Respectful, and the Truth Itself (Fisher, 453). (Shelly Stuckman)

Council of Chalcedon

Occurred in 451 CE. This council made the dogma that Christ is of two natures, one being divine and one human. This caused divisions in the eastern church (Fisher 329) (Zak Prorok).

nirvana (& karma & samsara)

Once a person reaches this state they experience no suffering or desire. This state represents the last goal in Buddhism. This term is described in "Living Religions" as "liberation, the goal of spiritual effort; the planks of the raft are insights into the truths of existence and teachings about the path to liberation" (Fisher, p. 141). (Tatum Heeres)

Bilal

One of Muhammad's first converts. He was persecuted for his beliefs, and every day was forced outside into the great heat and held under a large rock and forced to deny Muhammad's teachings. He remained loyal, reportedly saying "one,one". He was eventually purchased by Abu Bakr, he was the first muezzin, or "one who calls the people to prayer from a high place (Fisher 385). (Zachary Prorok)

sruti

One of the categories of the ancient scriptures of Santana Dharma. They were believed to have been written in about 1500 BCE. They were heard and written by the Rishis who were considered ancient priests or enlightened sages. Many of these texts were written in Sanskrit. (Anthology pg. 63) -Steven Bailey

St. Anthony

One of the first Egyptian desert recluses who did much to inspire the monastic way in the 4th C., living away from family entanglements in cemetery tombs and spending his time in prayer and meditation, subsisting off very little food. (Dr. P.) A saint "known for having special areas of concern and power," (Fisher page 360) ). St. Anthony is known for the assistance of finding lost things. (Fisher page 360) (Lindsey Felty)

early Muslims in America

One of the first explorers was a Moroccan guide named Estevanico in the 16th Century. Another was a colonist from Moroccan colonist named Anthony Jansen van Salee in the 17th Century. 10-20% of enslaved Africans were most probably Muslim--even Christopher Columbus used "free labor" (Pschaida, Lecture 2015). (Shelly Stuckman) The early Muslims in America were based on missionaries for the "Ahmadiyya Movement," which was from India. Among the early Muslims in American was a large population of African Americans converting to Muslim. Part of this movement was to convert some of the Qur'an into english while teaching the converters Arabic. (Fisher page 420) (Lindsey Felty)

Mahayana (not "Hinayana")

One of the later schools of Buddhism also known as the "Great Vehicle." (Fisher page 149) (Lindsey Felty) The Mahayana stresses one's inherent wisdom and compassion for all living beings. (Ant pg 121) (William Morehand) This is the majority form of Buddhism (Dr. Pschaida).

Sayyid Qutb

One of the leading radical voices that emerged in the twentieth century was that of the Egyptian scholar and activist Sayyid Qutb(1906-1966). After World War II, he saw most Muslim countries being controlled either by corrupt monarchies or by cruel military dictatorships. He had also visited the United States, but was disgusted by its culture. Devoutly religious, he saw the sex, violence, and selfish greed in western culture as the headwaters of evil that was spreading around the world. His writings during years of imprisonment by the Egyptian government before they eventually executed him have been pivotal in the thinking of all later Islamists. (Fisher p. 429)(Aiden Campbell) Simply, an Egyptian scholar and activist, who was a leading radical voice that rose in the twentieth century. (Fisher pg.429) (Heather Donais)

Agni

One of the major devas is Agni, the god of fire (Fisher, 78) (by Alex Linton) The Devas is believed to be one of the controlling forces of the cosmos, praised and blessed by many for their divinity (Fisher, pg. 78) (Emilio E).

Indra

One of the major devas is Indra, the god of thunder and bringer of welcome rains (Fisher, 78) (by Alex Linton)

Krishna

One of the many Hindu gods. He is one of the most famous god that has blue skin and uses the flute. This god is worshiped highly and is know as the eighth incarnation of lord Vishnu. When he was, born, many thought of him to be considered "the dark one" because of the many demons he has fought off throughout his life. (Steven Bailey) Krishna upholds many functions, but it is often stated that he is the source from which everything in the universe springs. This point is made clear in the Hindu epic Mahabharata (Fisher p. 92-93). (Garth Schulz)

Ramayana

One of the two main epics which is dealing with "the eternal play of good and evil". Written in sanskrit, it depicts "ideal characters", such as the perfect wife, servant, king, etc. The epic follows a human incarnation of the god Vishnu, Rama, in his battles to defeat the ten headed demon Ravana. (Fisher pg. 92). (Zachary Prorok)

Parvati

Parvati is seen in the Hindu faith as the goddess of love, fertility, and devotion. She is also believed to be very "motherly," kind, and giving, and creative and energetic like her consort Shiva. (youtube lecture - Devi, Shakti, & Goddesses) (Emilio Espinoza). "Parvati is seen as a nurturing and very gentle....Parvati's consort shiva cannot enact his power without his consort Parvati" (youtube lecture - Devi, Shakti, & Goddesses) (Nathen Stinson)

Saul/Paul

Paul/Saul is an apostle and a follower of God and Jesus Christ. He wrote part of the book of Acts in the New Testament. Saul was openly trying to persecute followers of Jesus when God spoke to him. In this life altering experience, Saul found Jesus and became baptized in a new life and spread the Christian faith while being a loyal disciple to Jesus. When he was baptized he took on a new name, Paul. He traveled to territories now in Turkey that were part of the Roman empire to spread the religion, and wrote many influential letters to guide early Christian communities in belief and practice. (Fisher p 322) (Rae Johnson & Dr. Pschaida)

Pentecostalism & Charismatics

Pentecostalism is a rapidly growing world movement in which adherents look for a second experience of the Holy Spirit after the initial experience of salvation by accepting Jesus as Savior for the forgiveness of sin. The second experience is the speaking in tongues which is considered a sign of a "second grace" of baptism by the Holy Spirit. Being under the influence of the Holy Spirit, adherents speak in tongues, sing praises, pray joyfully, heal by laying on of hands, and see miracles. The Pentecostal-Charismatic movement is estimated to be the fastest growing religious movement in the world, with explosive growth in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. It is considered an emotional spiritual experience and 1/4 of all Christians today could be considered members of this "Spirit-oriented" movement (Fisher, p. 366-368). Adherents believe you receive a direct experience & empowerment of the Holy Spirit which you use in special service to God. Gifts include speaking in tongues, prophecy, healing, wisdom, and the ability to interpret tongues (Pschaida, "Introduction to Christianity." 13 Nov. 2015. Lecture). ~Please refer above to" Azusa Street Revival" definition for more information~ (Shelly Stuckman)

Passover & Seder

Pesach (lamb) or Passover celebrates the liberation from bondage in Egypt. The tenth plague, death of the firstborn son, caused the Pharaoh to relent and the Israelites were warned to slaughter a lamb and mark their doors with its blood so that the angel of death would pass over them. The beginning of Pesach is marked by a Seder dinner, with the eating of various items of food holding symbolic significance, like unleavened bread (Matzah) to remember urgency of departure and bitter herbs as a reminder of slavery. (Fisher 284) (Alex Goodman)

Sermon on the Mount

Presented in the Gospel of Matthew as the first lengthy and detailed proclamation by Jesus of his teachings when a crowd surrounded him in Galilee (northern Israel/Palestine), containing the Beatitudes, reinterpretations of many traditional Jewish teachings/ethics/laws, and the Lord's Prayer. (Dr. P.) Extremely high ethical standards, Matthew 5-7, that seem impossibly challenging. Jesus would ask who could follow these, with people knowing that if they couldn't fulfill one commandment it is a violation of the law. (Shelbie O'Connor)

puja

Puja refers to Hindu ritual worship. It is typically performed by pujaris, or brahmin priests who conduct worship ceremonies in which the sacred presence is made tangible through devotions employing all the senses (Fisher 97). (Starkey) Puja can take many forms, but usually revolves around an act or phenomena that can be physically sensed. In sacred temples, worshipers can receive darshan, or a visual connection with the divine, by looking at images (Fisher p. 95). Other forms of puja include blowing a conch shell, chanting mantras, and ringing bells. (Garth Schulz)

purity rituals

Purity Rituals are features of many different religions. Someone who attempts to establish lost purity, or to reach a higher level of purity. Purity rituals being a social concern because lost purity can spread through individuals. (shelbie oconnor)

Vedas

Religious texts often referred to as the foundations of Hinduism. Argued by 18th/19th European scholars, that they are the product of "Aryan" invaders from the north due to linguistic similarities between Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit (Fisher, p. 74). (by McCoy) " the foundation sruti texts for most forms of Santana Dharma are the Vedas" ( Anthology pg 63) ( Nathen stinson)

Unitarian Universalism

Rooted in two of the many movements that formed in the Protestant Reformation, it rejected original sin, the Trinity, and Jesus divinity in favor of a simple theism and imitation of Jesus. (Fisher pg 337)(grace cavazos & Dr.P.) This Church now strives to build a community of acceptance, mutual support, kindness and integrity, over and above any specific doctrines, beliefs, or religion its members may hold to. (Dr. P.)

Li

Sacred rites of ancestor worship. Such rites may include, but are not limited to: funerals, mourning rites, and continuing sacrifices to founding ancestors and recently deceased. (Fisher p.185)(Aiden Campbell)

samadhi

Samadhi represents the state of peaceful spiritual absorption as part of the eight "limbs" of the yogic path (Fisher 82). (Starkey)

samatha & vipassana meditation

Samatha is calm abiding, Vipassana is insight. You focus on a specific object and achieve calm abiding, then proceed to vipasanna to develop insight into dukkha, anicca, and anatta. (Fisher p. 152)(Aiden Campbell)

Samkhya

Samkhya is believed to be the oldest of the lines of Hinduism. The semimythical sage Kapila is believd to have founded it. It holds that there are two states of reality, Purusha and Prakriti. The first is the principle of self and the other is the material world and all suffering comes from confusing the two. Prakriti has three qualities sattva, fine illuminated balance, rajas, active passionate, and samas, heavy, inert, coarse. The interaction of these three govern the development of the world according to Samkhya. (Fisher 80-81) (By Jonathan Jenkins

samsara

Samsara is the continual round birth, death, and rebirth in Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. (Fisher, p. 545) The ultimate goal is to escape samsara and reach moksha. (Destiny Young)

satori and kensho

Satori is the flash of insight leading to enlightenment, which is the aim of Zen practice. One directly experiences the inter-relatedness of all existence in a sudden recognition that nothing is separate from oneself. Kensho is the sudden burst of insight leading to the perception of "thusness," the true nature of things (Fisher, p. 163). (Shelly Stuckman) Satori is achieved when the koans are understood, and is the framework of the masters mind. Without this zen is a sealed book. (Anthology Pg 126). (Jonathan Jenkins)

Tara

Savior and mother of the world; she protects us and helps us to achieve our spiritual longings. (Fisher p. 167)(Aiden Campbell) She was born out of a tear of Avalokitesvara and comes in different colors each of which embodies a different virtue and power of the Buddha, such as enlightenment activity, healing, assertiveness, and abundance. (Dr. Pschaida)

Shakti, Shaktas

Shakti is the feminine energy of the gods. Followers who worship a Mother Goddess are called Shaktas. There are an estimated fifty million Hindus that worship some form of this goddess. Some follow a Vedic path while other are more independent of Vedic tradition. (Fisher, page 86) (Alex Linton)

Kali

She is a fierce goddess. Some choose to worship this goddess with blood offerings of animal sacrifice. In the book Living Religions, Mary Pat Fisher writes, "what appears as destruction is actually a means of transformation. With her merciful sword she cuts away all personal impediments to realization of the truth for those who sincerely desire to serve the Supreme" (p. 87). (Tatum Heeres) Kali is often portrayed as dripping with blood carrying a sword and a severed head. (pg. 87), she is also portrayed as wearing a necklace of skulls, to ward off and get rid of demons and symbolizing the destroyer of evil. (Sharlenea Bracale)

Durga

She is a goddess who is considered the mother of the universe and is responsible for the root cause of creation. This goddess is never distressed; she is omnipresent (present everywhere at the same time) and eternal. As described in the Anthology book, "her complexion has a glossy hue of collyrium. She had comely features. She had four divine arms. She was seated on a lion" (p. 75). (Tatum Heeres) "Her face shone like the autumnal moon, the crescent moon bedecked her forehead. She had three eyes, looked beautiful and the nails, and pearls adorned her dishevelled hair" (Pg.75) (Nathen Stinson

Lakshmi

She is a great goddess of wealth, generosity, good fortune, beauty, and charm. She is presented on a floating lotus flower. Fisher describes her as "the lotus floats pristine on the water but has its roots in the mud, thus representing the refined spiritual energy that rises above the worldly contamination." (page 87) (Lindsey Felty) Lakshmi is described to be the wife or consort of Vishnu. It is also believed that if one wishes to be successful or do well they will make praise to Lakshmi, as well as give charitably in order to continue to be fortuitous. (Youtube Lecture - Devi, Shakti, & Goddesses) (Emilio Espinoza).

Siddhartha Gautama, The Buddha

Siddhartha Gautama means "wish-fulfiller" or "he who has reached his goal" he lived in the 5th century B.C. his family name honored an ancient hindu. He is said to have been born when a white elephant carrying a lotus flower entered into his mother's womb during a dream. He embarked on a journey to find the way for people to be totally liberated from suffering at the age of 29. (Fisher p. 139) (Rae Johnson) Siddhartha founded the "four noble truths". He had a wife and a son and left them to seek out his answers. He lived all four of the truths and began teaching the truths. (fisher pg. 138-144) (Sharlenea Bracale).

the "four sights"

Sights which, according to legend, the gods had arranged Siddhartha Gautama o see. They were the sight of a bent old man, a sick person, a dead person, and a mendicant seeking lasting happiness rather than temporal pleasure. These helped him renounce his wealthy ways (Fisher pg 137-138). (Zak Prorok)

Simhat Torah

is a Jewish holding that completes the annual cycle of reading of the Torah by a joyous celebration of the Torah, with dancing and singing (Fisher, p. 284) Janette Contreras & Dr. P.

moksha

liberation of the soul from illusion and suffering (Fisher, p. 539) by Rae Johnson

Atheism:

the belief that there is/are no God(s)

Purusa

the eternal self, pure consciousness (Fisher pg. 80) - Grace Cavazos

Agnosticism:

the lack of surety if there is/are God(s) or not or whether even human beings can know the answer to this question.

Monotheism:

there is a being who is often conceived as Creator and Lord and who is above human beings in knowledge, wisdom, power, love, and justice.

Exclusivism:

there is only one way toward God, truth, salvation, or enlightenment; that is my way.

Sikh purpose of life

to purify yourself, meditate on God and eventually become one with God. To become a true Sikh, he or she "live disciplined life of surrender and devotion to God, with hours of daily prayer, continual inner repetition of the Name of God (Nam), and detachment from negative, worldly mind-states (Fisher, 2011, p. 453). (Janette Contreras) ... "working hard in society to earn one's own honest living" and "sharing from one's earnings with those who are needy" and the most important one that they see as the number one priority is "remembering God at all times as the only Doer, the only Giver." (Fisher pg. 442) They do not believe in any other God by their own, knowing that he has done all things and they shall do all things with his Grace and give him Glory. They strive in everyday life to fulfill this need of knowing God created all things in this world, and to do so, as the purpose, they strive "through everyday practices of work, worship, and charity, of sacrificing love" (Fisher pg. 452) (Heather Donais)

Universalism:

words in different languages and various doctrines of different religions allude to the same indescribable Whole or Being.

Kathenotheistic:

worshipping one god at a time. For example, when there is need for a rain, one might worship vigorously the god of storms; while when is preparing to take a test in school, one might pray to the goddess of learning; when your child is sick, to the goddess patron of children.