Study Unit 1- 11

Registered counsellors may specialise in :

Trauma, HIV/AIDS Career counselling Primary Mental Health Family and School Counselling HR Counselling Pastoral Counselling Employee wellbeing

"TC" => acronym for Touch and Cultural differences:

"T" = Touch => relative to culture => in some is acceptable and shows empathy and understanding and in others is strictly unacceptable; eye contact may show respect and disrespect; gestures can have different meanings; important to note the cultural background of the clients and can influence the SOLER MAP TC Framework. May be helpful o establish openness about cultural differences from the onset. Golden rule: "Never assume, rather ask". In counselling frame: We don't touch clients We don't reveal personal details about us We don't give advice or pass judgement We don't engage in multiple relationships with our clients So we are able to define the relationship as professional and not everyday socialising. Protects the clients by making them feel safe and comfortable and the counsellor

Empathy

(feeling with another) opens up the possibility for bonds to be built and allows us to move beyond the first impressions created by the person's dress, accent, mannerism or physical appearance.

Supportive community arrangements not visible to outsiders

(stokvels, religious support networks and groupings, informal bartering arrangements, various cultural traditions which enhance communal expression and joining, cultures of giving and sharing with the poor)

Supervision:

= Is counsellor debriefing necessary = Should the supervisor be contacted and when

MacLeod says that the social nature of counselling permeates the work of counsellors in 3 ways:

1- going to see a counsellor and the change arising from counselling will always have an effect on the social world of the client 2-he power/status of the counsellor derives from the fact that he/she occupies a socially sanctioned role of healer/helper. The specific role the counsellor adopts will depend on the cultural context 3-client and counsellor re - enact in their various relationships the various modes of social interaction they use in the everyday world The concepts "being" and "becoming" are used as an attempt to focus attention on issues of identity and locality that are usually easy to neglect or taken for granted in counselling.

Pertinent issues when contracting with a client:

= Briefly describe the nature of the service = Check and verify client's expectations = Appointment times and cancellation policies = How to handle contact outside the counselling context (when bumping into your client outside) = Length, frequency and estimate of number of sessions = Confidentiality and its limits

Focusing skills include: Using present tense in response rather than past:

= Clients' problems develop in the past and go into the present. They refer to them in the past (no one can change it) so the only locus of change is in the present => using present tense verbs in responses helps clients to focus on what they can do NOW (e.g. "She spent so much money"..."How are you handling the bills NOW?")

Where do lay counsellors and other non - professionals fit into the picture:

= Community health workers => short course, work in their communities; contribute to health care of friends and family = Lay counsellor/paraprofessional/community caregiver => often get involved with HIV/AIDS counselling, victim empowerment and support and trauma counselling; Received non - formal training to render counselling services; no regulatory body for lay counsellors = Unqualified counsellors => work in areas where psychologists and social workers aren't available; have Grade 12 and work under supervision; traditional healers, social auxiliary workers, trauma counsellors, career counsellors, health and wellness practitioners and etc

Psychological assessment can guide you in understanding the client's functioning and how are his problems manifested. Consider the following areas when assessing a client: :LISTEN

= How your clients speak about themselves? --- evidence of self - hatred or other self - defeating statements and/or behaviour --- are there indications of potential self - harming behaviour like suicidal or substance abuse --- is the client able to separate his/her current issues from their identity = How your clients speak about others? --- are they demanding and dismissive of them --- do they blame others --- are there indications for potential harm to others or property (displaced anger which may lead to violence) = How your clients speak about their problems? --- how do they allocate responsibility --- do they show resilience in the face of adversity or do they seem totally overwhelmed and desperate --- are they only half saying what they want to say and maybe testing your thoughts and feelings on the issue

Psychological assessment can guide you in understanding the client's functioning and how are his problems manifested. Consider the following areas when assessing a client: Observe:

= Non - verbal communication --- what is the client saying through body language and actions = Are there discrepancies between what the client is saying and how is behaving? ---client is sharing something painful and smiling/be in a happy mood at the same time => incongruence

Focusing

= Renegotiating of contract and aim of counselling at every session = Identification of problem requires focus => becomes the central point which directs the process => may require zooming in on specific thoughts, feelings or behaviours as they relate to the central problem or engaging and reflecting on them through summaries or clarification = Effective helping requires accurate problem definition => makes the client feel safe and comfortable = By gaining client's trust => related issues may surface and give a different direction to the counselling process and aims

Making process notes:

= Seasoned counsellors/therapists use process notes as standard practice = Make the best notes immediately after session, brief and to the point = Process notes help you share views/perspectives with yourself and future supervisors/trainers

The bare essentials of relationship encounters:

= Show positive and unconditional regard for others in forming a successful relationship with people. Positive acceptance encourages interactions and disclosure, opportunity to explore change and provides clients with acceptance and genuine caring.

Non - judgemental presence:

= Showing empathy and genuineness encourages the development of trust. Maintaining warmth and understanding, without being judgemental provides a comfortable foundation for development of counselling relationship. Conveying warmth through body language - using posture, maintaining eye contact and personal space - encourages the development of trust as it provides reassurance. =Valuing and respecting others; accepting the other person totally shows that you value them and are there to support them through the counselling process

What to do when there's no transformation/learning:

= Some people we are not suited for partnership and can't help => clients can become abusive and angry or manipulative if a counsellor doesn't agree with them = Counsellors should accept their limitations, not give in to "saving clients and trying to fix things for them" and implement boundaries => you can't empower others psychologically only provide a context where they can empower themselves

The qualitative shift towards termination is made using:

= Summarising of the session = Review or reminds about action pl at the treatment = Emphasising achievements = Normalising mixed feelings = Concluding on a high note and not avoiding challenges or gaps

Transforming our humanness:

= The core components of good counselling => self - awareness, ability to connect, a model of counselling counsellors have worked for themselves and consistency between the counselling approach and who they are as person = Counsellors bring to the session heart, warmth, empathy and congruence for people facing difficulties

Conclusion and reflection:

= The report can affect the client therefore the counsellor has the responsibility to write it objectively and fairly to ensure it's based on facts, is clear, concise and comprehensive

The relational ethics approach of ethics

= makes one consider the effects of particular action in specific context = Relational ethics combines relationship and ethics in a multidimensional concept = Codes and standards inform rather than determine our ethical decisions = Each client, counsellor and situation is unique

Problem solving => The traffic - light problem - solving model

= stop, think and then act => useful way in approaching problem situations

Telephonic contact:

= Phoning takes a lot of courage therefore the 1st phone contact is important because impressions are made on both sides (negative impact => client doesn't show for the session or the counsellor doesn't want to see the client) = Client deal with situations differently => some are nervous and hesitant and others are eager and start counselling on the phone = being able to end counselling without rejecting the client or being disinterested

"Good" referral practise:

= Referrals mostly happen via the police and hospitals in the VEP; particulars of those on A/H duty should be visible = Comprehensive and updated resource directories with the available services in a community are invaluable for referrals

Ethics is about:

= Relationships, working to develop well - informed conscience = Being true to the idea of who we are and what we stand for = The courage to explore difficult questions and being accountable = the science and study of moral norms and laws, the ability to differentiate between good and bad and do the right thing

France's guidelines emphasise strength based approach rather than people in crisis being portrays as weak, vulnerable and needing to be rescues:

= Restoration or partial improvement of coping = Immediate problem - solving assistance = Client competency emphasising own restorative power to deal with crisis, to make own decisions = Secondary prevention of potential negative effect of crisis (life skill training) = Focusing on problem - solving

Preventing counsellor burnout:

= Self - care, stress management and mentorship ensure counsellors learn how to sustain and nurture themselves and maintain more professional level of counselling skills

Providing context about counselling:

= The importance of circumstances and events that form the environment within which sth. exists or takes place. = Info conveyed through gestures, facial expressions, relationship to people and objects in the vicinity and shared histories are used as cues to assist in understanding the explicit communication. = Context is used to refer to any info that can be used to characterise the situation of an entity (person, place or physical space). = Context is valuable because counselling is within historical context that provides different ways of thinking about people and the nature of being

The normative approach on ethics based on rules:

= The person directs behaviour according to certain set of norms and values; will treat all people with respect irrespective of whether one benefits from it. It's part of one's value system = These norms are usually linked to a code of conduct/philosophy /religion and is characteristic of the person = Read the Code of Conduct for Psychologists according to the HPCSA = Counsellors shouldn't adopt roles of parents or rescuers of the clients = Acceptable to treat a client FREE if it's appropriate = Physical contact with clients may become highly controversial = Client - counsellor relationship excludes all other relationships = Counsellors should avoid professional relationships with family, employees, students, peers (counsellors' professional judgement may be /compromised; clients' trust/dependency may be exploited and there may be conflict of interest = Cultural boundaries should be seen as learning opportunities instead of obstacles

What works in counselling?

= The personal qualities of the counsellor are the most important for effective counselling => self - awareness and self - acceptance, the ability to form connections, possess a model of counselling they've worked with, consistency with who counsellors are as a person and their approach = Good counsellor can tune in to the meaningfulness of the stories and accounts people give of their lives in relation to an issue = Genuine commitment to truth, honesty and connection = Counsellor - a non - judgemental embodiment of love, hope and opportunity = Counselling means to encourage people to create and make sense of their experiences and life

Uses of summaries:

= To give direction to a counselling session and prevent getting stuck on an issue = Check out if the counsellor has understood what the client is saying = To link the different points and themes together = Help clients to get perspective of their situation and show them where they've been and where they are going = Help clients to identify possible areas to be explored further

Social upheaval and multilayers of human experience:

= Violence and repression affect mental health (Ms Mbanga's shooting) = The disruption on the communities has many implications and affects wellbeing. Loss of income leads to malnutrition and poverty. = Dislocation of people breaks ties of reciprocity and sociality increases the illegal status of refugees, leading to additional trauma and further deterioration of living standards, family break ups and children being abandoned or orphaned.

Counselling climate and working alliances:

= Was an appropriate context and climate created (rapport, warmth, non - judgemental attitude and unconditional acceptance) and what is the quality of the working alliance = How do you think the client experienced the session and were there any difficulties = What was the scope of the encounter and what was the implicit contact that was formed

Psychiatric Nurses (MHNP):

= Work with people with high distress usually in hospitals as well as outpatient programmes, community health centres, mental clinics = Provide care for patients with psychiatric disorders, medical mental conditions and substance abuse = Licensed to provide emergency psychiatric services, assess psychosocial and physical state of patients, create treatment plan and manage their care = May serve as consultants or educators for family and staff = They focus on depression, anxiety and traumatic stresses, medical disorders with psychiatric symptoms and their medication treatment = If they obtain Masters/Doctorate degree they can work in Psychiatric - Mental Health, Clinical Nurse Specialists or Psychiatric Nurse Practitioners and become certified as specialists in adult, child and adolescent psychiatric - mental health nursing

Contending with diversity:

= Acceptable behaviour for one culture may not be acceptable for another = Behaviour is the manifestation of the person's underlying values, learnt from one's culture

Some voices from within formal structures:

= As a counsellor be a good listener who is able to ask the right questions - ask he client to look at themselves, their lives and options = The basic human needs are to be accepted, acknowledged and honoured; simply be there

Counsellor should also consider referring clients in the following situations:

= Crisis in your own life = Following a significant loss = Commitment to other obligations = Physical/emotional health problems = Anxiety and stress = Overworked in general

Reflection of process/Immediacy

= High level of trust required for this skill to be used effectively; only to be used by experienced counsellors after good and trusting relationship has developed = Reflection of process/immediacy refers to the possibility that the problem the client is facing in their normal life circumstances plays out in the counselling setting => by making problems visible, clients potentially identify, understand and address them. Open questions assist clients to decide if they wish to engage with the problems = Immediacy skills can reflect on the relationship between the counsellor and client => anger clients if they perceive they've been humiliated or put on the spot about an issue or had an unpleasant experience with another counsellor about the same issue. = Using immediacy helps clear the air and get to the root cause of an issue

When and how does one start the termination phase?

= If clients don't improve or benefit from counselling, the issue of termination should be raised. If clients don't improve, they should be referred for second opinion = In some cases clients hold values which the counsellor can't accept => counsellors shouldn't impose their own values

Initial contact:

= In most cases the client contacts the counsellor by phone or walking in the practise = The client may be referred or a self - referral. Who refers him might be important

Educational Psychologists

Assess, diagnose and intervene in order to facilitate the psychological adjustment/development of children/adolescents within the context of family, school, social or peer group and effectiveness

Counselling Psychologists

Assist relatively well adjusted people in dealing with normal problems of life concerning all stages/aspects of a person's existence to facilitate desirable psychological adjustment, growth and maturity

Challenging and confrontational:

= Inconsistencies and ambivalence can gently be challenged during counselling = To be used when counselling relationship is firmly established = Inconsistency between verbal and non - verbal behaviours, blaming someone else for client's current situation, clients justifying their behaviour by comparing it t others = Summarising and reflection of process => useful ways to provide gentle challenges = Gentle challenges can be used to confront distorted logic, unrealistic goals and aid clients identify the differences between their "wants" and "needs". = Useful to apply various life contexts to a situation/problem => the client and the main problem, others, the family, mutual issues of couples/groups; cultural, environmental, political and economic issues = After clients recognise and accept reality, it may require them to revisit their views on themselves and others, their relationship and where are they going; they can choose to let go of the old which doesn't serve them

Pastoral Counsellor:

= Ministers who integrate religion with behavioural sciences in their counselling practices = r utilises insights/principles derived from theology and the behavioural sciences in working with individuals, couples, families, groups and social systems towards the achievement of wholeness and health = Besides theology educational qualifications may include B. Psych.

*Counselling =

a helping relationship between counsellor and a client = a contract between a person help and a person offering it and that the counsellor is the expert on what the client needs. = There are instances when the client has no choice to be in counselling

Complexity =>

assumption of the world/people/ourselves are subject to re - interpretation, pointing to us that life is complex

*Frame of reference definition =

the context, viewpoint or set of presuppositions/ evaluative criteria within which person's perception and thinking seem always to occur and which constrains selectively the course and outcome of these activities

Too much conservation of what was and worked in the past shrinks the world of possibility and flow =>

to stagnancy, rigidity, stuckness, opposition to new/different concept, choice or action. In this case there is only one right way - "my way". Other people/systems not taken into consideration. People who over conserve may be judgemental, defensive and even aggressive towards outsiders. Creative and life - enhancing energies decline rapidly, leaving system/person with few options or maladaptive problem - solving strategies.

Structurally caused/co - caused problems refer

to widespread pathological and exclusionary ways of relating like sexism, racism, genderism, ethnicism, xenophobia, elder - neglect and other difference - based behaviours and norms. Structural consequences include labelling, stigma, exclusion and disenfranchisement.

Diversity and creativity = v

variety of models and approaches in counselling show that there are fundamentally different ways of viewing people and their emotional and behavioural functioning. Counsellors need to find sth. that can ground their practise and they can work with.

Davis, Sumara and Luce - Kapler =>

in every activity which involves learning or self - transformation you are always and already entangled in a relational web meaning that habits, tradition and expectations play a role in shaping our experiences and these forces are sometimes difficult to overcome.

What not to do!!! => persuade, reassure, instruct or moralise =>

increase of resistance and refusal to continue. Don't do" Ordering: "You must..." Warning: "You'll be sorry when..." Assuming: "Your partner is an evil person..." Moralising: "How could you!!!"; 'What will people think?"; "You should..." Judging: "You're stupid/wrong..."; "You must be mad..." Aggressive interrogation/blaming: "What on God's Earth gave you that idea!!!?" Imposing your beliefs/stereotypes: "All men/women/Christians/Muslims/young people..." Lack of boundaries/role confusion: "Let's go for a drink after the session..." Over - empathising: "Ag, shame..."; "Please don't cry, it's going to be ok. Here's a tissue..." Alarming/catastrophising: "I don't think anyone can help you..." Stupidity: "You've said you're going to commit suicide many times. When are you actually going to do it?"; "Don't come back till you've sorted all your problems!" Satisfying your own curiosity about private personal details: "Are you gay?"; "Do you have STIs? Asking leading questions: "So you are getting divorced?" Disrespecting client's confidentiality: "You'll never guess who came to me for counselling..."

Life is more complex than it used to be =>

increasing demand for counsellors to restore and support sense of order and wellbeing in people's lives. Network of family and community depleting and people struggle to find people to turn to for help.

Mental health professional =

individual who offers services improving an individual's mental health or treats mental illness (psychiatrists, social workers, psychiatric nurses and pastoral counsellors). They deal with the same illnesses but their scope of practise differs

phases of counselling encounters g) Checking out =>

involves summarising and taking stock. A sense of closure or containment should be facilitated. Next appointment is made and interim measures are addressed (like referral). After the end of the session the counsellor should make notes, summarise the process, any issues that came up, personal impact and reminder for the next session

a) Empathy =>

key route towards quality helping and building a relationship. Rogers defines it as the ability to sense the client's private world as if it was your own. Requires listening and repeating what the clients have said. Empathy is a tool allowing clients to see themselves and their problems more clearly in order to manage them more effectively. Sympathetic counsellor => feeling sorry for the person, being concerned but remaining at a distance without establishing a meaningful relationship

Gender, race, class and citizenship

play roles in our interactions with others.

Certificate Programme in Mental health 2 year course =>

provide support and care for mental health to individuals, families and groups, contributing to the prevention of serious mental illness through health promotion, early mental screening (excluding psychometric tests), psychological support and care and referral to mental health professionals

MacLeod => counselling has been organised around the following 3 approaches -

psychodynamic, cognitive behavioural and humanistic

* TCE Definition of counselling =

purposeful encounter that reflects meaningful engagement between counsellors and clients that in the end leads to qualitative shift of a transformative nature; happens within a recursive process and comes to an end when a specific point is reached.

Relatedness =>

relating old and new in a new context

termination phase: 5. Conclude on a high note =>

thank them and wish them good luck; remind them you are available. Patterson

Counselling is interdisciplinary activity

that contains different traditions and schools of thought and spreads across theory, research and practice.

phases of counselling encounters h) Exit =>

the final session where things are brought to completion. A key outcome will be that the client is not dependent on the counsellor but is empowered to solve problems and finds a context of appropriate support and assistance. The session deals with loss of counselling relationship, referral and maintaining the learning that has taken place

Counselling alliance =

the relationship between a counsellor and a client which depends on an ongoing interpersonal synergy. The human interpersonal relationship is the prime counselling agent of change

3 aspects in ethics =>

the self, other people and the good

2. Social complexity =

there are many different and usually conflicting points of view/assumptions about an issue and the problem isn't owned by a single entity, demands a participative approach

A sense of community and belonging is essential

to feel loved and stimulates the desire to love

Selective re - statement =>

you guide the client to explore and develop one particular part of what they've said

Counselling ethics and values:

1. Acknowledge that clients are unique 2. Allow clients to freely express feelings = 3. Be aware of client - counsellor relationship 4. Show clients acceptance 5. Show non - judgemental attitude 6. Acknowledge that clients are responsible for themselves 7. Be aware of your own limitations as a counsellor 8. Ensure that confidentiality is maintained

According to Da Rocha Kustner we use paraphrase to:

1. Check perception => make sure you know what the client is saying and if it's correct 2. Clarify what the client has said => accurate paraphrasing helps the client to clarify for them what they are feeling and thinking or act as a prompt for new feelings and thoughts for further discussions 3. Give accurate empathy => demonstrates to the client you are listening and understanding, "I'm with you"

Kahane points out that tough problems are characterised by three types of complexity:

1. Dynamic complexity 2. Social complexity 3. Generative complexity

Themes of relevance to termination:

1. In counselling termination is a motivator => client and counsellors know that counselling is lime 2. Termination is means to maintain already achieved changes and generalising problem - solving skills acquired in counselling. Termination provides an opportunity to practice changes in real world 3. Serves as a reminder that the client has matured. Appropriately terminated counselling marks a time in the clients' lives where they are less absorbed with personal problems and more able to deal with other people and outside events

MacLeod, the potential outcomes of counselling fall into 3 broad categories:

1. Resolution of the original problem in living => understanding the problem, personal acceptance of the problem and taking action to change the situation in which the problem arose 2. Learning => client may acquire new understandings, skills and strategies during counselling which will assist him to handle similar problems in the future 3. Social inclusion => counselling stimulates the energy and capacity of the person as someone who can contribute to the well - being of others and the social good

Initiating the termination phase:

1. Summarise the sessions 2. Review/remind about the action plan after the treatment 3. Emphasise achievements 4. Normalise mixed feelings 5. Conclude on a high note 6. Don't avoid challenges or gaps

Process notes can briefly address the following:

1. The date, place and venue of counselling 2. Names of the client 3. How entry was negotiated 4. Assessing the risk and scope of the client

Three styles of communication:

1. Visual - sight, look, picture, bright, outlook, focus, vision, perspective: "I see"; "Let's see what we can do"; "We need to focus on what's ahead"; "I'm clear about what we discussed" 2. Auditory - sounds, say, accent, question click, rhythm, language, speech: "I hear"; "I hear what you're saying"; "That sounds good to me"; "That really strikes a chord" 3. Kinaesthetically - feelings, touch, move, pressure, handle, loose, insensitive, rough: "I feel"; "I sense"; "That feels right"; "I feel this is going to work"; "That's a real weight off my shoulders"

Presentation => how client and counsellor present themselves. Aspects to look out for are:

1. What's the clients' general mood - are they positive, pessimistic, angry and confused or defensive and wary 2. What body language is the client using - are they open, use appropriate eye contact and physical distance, ate they tense and withdrawn? Body posture, gestures and movements? Are there observable physiological response like quick breathing, sweating, rash or blushing paleness and pupil dilation? 3. Physical characteristics like BMI (thin, average, stocky, obese) and complexion 4. Is the client neat and appropriately dressed => leads to assessment of the client's general mood and wellbeing. Poor hygiene may indicate physical or mental illness. 5. How does the client use language? Rate and tone of speech, pitch and volume => can affect understanding of the client and suggest mood and mental state 6. Counsellor should be appropriately dressed => neat and tidy and convey professionalism 7. The counsellors should be aware how they use language and attempt to modify vocal skills to improve comprehension and communication. Taping and then listening to own voice

Social workers:

= A discipline involving the application of social theory and research to study and improve the lives of people, groups and societies; promotes social change, problem - solving in relationships and empowerment and liberation of people to enhance wellbeing. It seeks to simultaneously resolve social issues especially among the poor and sick = intervene at the points people interact with the environment (human rights and social justice) = Work with individuals, families, groups, organisations and communities; may assess, treat, develop treatment plans and provide case management/rights advocacy to people with mental health problems; can work independently or within clinic, collaborating with other professionals = To qualify one needs to study 4 years; professional body is SA Council for Social Services Professions

External preparation:

= Arriving earlier before a session = Have all the necessary aids and materials before the session - watch, tape recorder, pen and paper and a box of tissues, calendar and diary to set follow - up sessions = Basic criteria during counselling: = Comfort => environment as comfortable s possible = Minimal distractions => control heat/cold, sounds or other interferences = Privacy => not comfortable if clients fear they might be overheard or recognised = Physical security for both client and counsellor

Finding your own story:

= As a counsellor one never cease to grow. One is required to alter attitudes, thoughts, assumptions, concepts, heuristics, approach and actions as situations change.

Clarifying:

= Asking the client to make clear of what they have just said, paraphrasing will make it clearer and they might expand in their response on words and ideas = If not sure what clients are saying ask questions and probe (probing, advanced skill, gets better with practice) = Clarifying is a form of gentle probing => doesn't introduce any new information to the counselling = Through probing, counsellors should show genuine interest rather than voyeurism or curiosity = If clients believe they are the experts of their own lives => will be willing to tell you more about themselves => counsellors truly understand where they are coming from

When to use a summary:

= At the beginning and the end of the session = When the client appears to be stuck = When the client has spoken for a long time in a confusing or rambling way = When shifting modes - after you explore and define the problem, it's useful to summarise and move on to exploring options

Influencing skills involve:

= Giving directives = Expression of content

Metaphors and stories as tools of communication:

= Metaphors and stories help people to relate = Becoming a counsellor is a challenging and exciting process = Multiple realities => people's experiences comprised of multiple layers, truths and voices

Any other steps that need to be taken, e. g. obtaining information or contacting the authorities or reporting back to a referral agent

= Process notes support and deepen the process of counselling whereas counselling report is a relatively standardised and limited way of communicating client background for referral and on request by other professional agencies = Process notes should be stored under lock and key

Meta - communication

= communicating about communication => is a reflection of process (e.g. your voice gets much lower when talking about your sister..."

Change => can't be forced or imposed.

He change implied is helping clients achieve their realistic goals as defined by them. Connection building, self - reflection, group discussions is encouraged through personalised "experiential learning" and exploration process. Power is shared and the decision making and problem solving is in client's hands.

Verbal attending - hosting a counselling conversation:

Listening is integral in building trust and gives the client space to open up. We listen for and observe: a) Our own feelings (self - awareness) b) The clients' experiences and what happened to them (content) c) The clients' behaviours - what they did/didn't do d) The clients' feelings - in relation to their experiences and behaviour (feelings) e) The client's mood, appearance and speech patterns (non - verbal) f) We show clients we're listening to them by using the SOLAR MAP TC framework

The potential phases of counselling encounters (based on Egan's and Da Rocha Kustner) are:

a) Checking in b) Contexts of engagement c) Presence d) Listening and Sensing e) Co - exploration and dancing f) Shift, positive adaptive change or transformative movement g) Checking out h) Exit

Presence => starts with the tone of engagement and includes ethical qualities such as:

a) Empathy b) Congruence, c) Non - possessive warmth and acceptance

Working alliance =

agreement over the goals of the counselling, mutual understanding of the tasks and a good relationship between counsellor and client => contract

termination phase: 4. Normalise mixed feelings =>

client may be excited and relieved to end counselling and sad about ending a relationship; remind the client these feelings are normal and appropriate

Nelson and Prilleltensky suggest that clinical and counselling psychologists need to take into account more than just the "traditional values" of personal growth, protection of health and caring and compassion. They suggest attention to group and collective wellbeing =>

diversity, collaboration, support for community infrastructures and social justice. This can be done by emphasising personal, relational and collective values to avoid disempowerment by blaming an individual, a family or a group.

Stagnancy/non - change =>

implies no risk and little movement, inevitable to come to a standstill, become more trapped in a status quo problems/interactions, stagnant boredom, depression, hopelessness, illness and fatalism. No change => people ask nothing of life => complacent and dull

phases of counselling encounters c) Presence =>

includes empathy, congruence, realness, genuineness, non - possessive warmth and acceptance and should be present during all the phases

Recursivity

indicates that the meaning - making that people formulate about their lives evolve from basic social processes

Influencing skills: Giving directives =>

instructing the client what to do. Can be used during interview or working with a client shortly after a traumatic event. Clients feel unsafe and out of control and need to be given directions. They can also be susceptive to suggestions, the counsellor should be careful with the instructions.

Stevens on Sharing our story=>

people have the ability to reflect on experiences (to be conscious of being conscious) and calls it the capacity for reflexive awareness or reflexivity. People can be aware of thinking and what they are thinking, acting and their actions.

Buscaglia =>

people who risk nothing, do nothing and have nothing are nothing and become nothing => may avoid suffering but can't learn, feel, change, grow, love or live. Only the person who risks is truly free. Proactive change => makes up one's mind, stretch beyond comfort zone.

Assessing the risk and scope of the client:

= Describe their general appearance, mood, self presentation and personal hygiene = What was the presenting problem = Describe their non - verbal communication = How did the clients speak about themselves and others = How did the clients speak about the problem (was it in a blaming manner) = How did they allocate or assume responsibility = To what extend did clients provide evidence of self - contracting (willingness and commitment to counselling and their stated aims) = Were there any discrepancies between verbal content and non - verbal behaviours = Were there repeat patterns of emotions, cognitions, behaviours or reactions from a previous session = Was there a critical incident where there was a big change in the encounter and what happened = What important obvious things did the client not speak about = Are there any smokescreens hiding real issues = Did any significant insight emerged during the session = Is this a high - risk client and what immediate steps were taken/are required or the need to be referred = Is follow - up necessary regarding previous questions, by who and when it should be done = Was a follow - up appointment set, for when

Taking note of contradictions:

= Discrepancies in what is said and done by the client = Don't engage with contradictions but allow clients to unpack their story and lead the process of engagement => the time for deeper exploration and challenging will come later = Don't be concerned the topic won't come back again => if it's important to clients it will = Main aim=. To maintain trust, openness and unconditional positive regard and listen

Risk assessment and scope of practice are critical during assessment

= Don't fall into stereotypical thinking, don't make assumptions about your clients and their contexts = Create the space in which the clients can tell their stories from their frame of reference, sharing their values, beliefs, needs and desires

The intake: Dealing with risk and scope:

= During intake one of the first priorities is to ascertain whether you are in a position to accept working with a prospective client(s) or should refer them to another counsellor or service. = Intake procedures may differ from counselling service to counselling service. In some cases and contexts the counsellor is not the one who continues with the client in others it's mandatory (age, gender, language and sexual orientation).

Areas of concern when considering termination of counselling:

= Examine if initial problems/symptoms have been reduced or eliminated = Determine if the stress which motivated the client to seek counselling has dissipated = Assessing increased coping ability = Assessing increased understanding and valuing of self and others = Determining increased levels of relating to others and of loving and being loved = Examining increased abilities to plan and work productively = Evaluate if the client can enjoy life better

Goals achieved through reflection of feelings:

= Facilitate the relationship between client and counsellor, may communicate to the client that the counsellor is listening attentively = The person may feel understood = Reflection of feelings helps clients to feel valuable and allows them to own feelings and explore them = When clients can't cope with their feelings, if counsellor accurately reflects them gives the client the opportunity to own them and even explore feelings they weren't aware of = Might make the real problem/issue clear = Exploring/finding new feelings may lead to emotional catharsis

Counsellor creates a space where people experience the following options:

= Gain a sense of personal ownership toward their mental and emotional care in the context of problems and solutions = Explore their accountability for their health and positive change = Find safe emotional expression in a context of an impartial witness = Explore meaning by giving words to uncomfortable thoughts = Gain an orientation of growth rather than deficit, illness and dysfunction

Factors to consider when referring a client:

= Get clarity about the problem before referring = Know your limitations and don't get out of your depth of competence = Choose your words carefully ("you might find it helpful to", "you might like yo talk with") = Be honest with the client why another person will be more helpful than you = Don't feel overwhelmed or guilty if you can't help = Reflect the client's feelings around being referred empathically

Choosing a theoretical perspective:

= Having a reference point from which one can ground understanding/interpretations; = frames of reference are markers for our professional identity. Frame of reference is a domain from which you can understand any situation or event; = helps us make interpretations about things and draw conclusions based on how we see and understand things; differs from one person to another and depends on focus area and range of expertise.

The purpose of counselling:

= MacLeod, overview of ideas common to counselling: = Insight into the origins and development of emotional difficulties = Relating to others in order to form more meaningful and satisfying relationships = Self - awareness of thoughts/feelings, develop sense how self is perceived by others = Self - acceptance and a positive sense of self = Self - actualisation /individuation, fulfilling one's potential or integrating previously conflicting parts = A state of higher personal or spiritual awareness = Problem - solving = Psychological education to understand/control behaviour more positively = Acquisition of social and interpersonal skills (anger management and assertiveness) = Cognitive change of irrational beliefs or maladaptive and self - destructive thought patterns = Introducing systemic change to parents, families, work teams or neighbourhoods = Empowering via skills, awareness or knowledge = Restitution and making amends = Generativity in the sense of caring for others; social action contributing to collective good through communal engagement and community work (activism, advocacy or political engagement)

Psychiatrists:

= Medical doctor who has specialised in psychiatry and is trained to assess, diagnose, treat or prevent mental disease; use biomedical approach and can prescribe medications = Psychiatrist must first complete medical degree, 8 years to be registered + 4 years to specialise

Walk - in clients:

= Most aspects as above apply = In emergency cases you need to attend/refer the client and in not urgent cases - make an appointment = Note that there are statutory and other limitations when taking on a client

Reflection of meaning/deep empathy:

= Occurs through linking feelings to content, based in observing clients' values, beliefs and attitudes towards problems or people = People's personal goals and values can be explored using this skill (e.g. "What does it mean to you?"... "Why is it important to you?"..."What was your intention when you did it?") = By associating the clients' feelings with a situation => counsellors help clients to see why they responded in a certain way (e.g. "so your partner's departure has raised a lot of feelings in you: perhaps anxiety, fear, anger...") => clients agree/disagree with counsellor's statement = Many manuals suggest counsellors use the "you feel...because..." formula since it links feeling to content, changes clients from being in "feeling mode" to "thinking mode" => enhances empathy because it brings depth, meaning and texture to the counselling encounter = Important to observe clients non - verbal language since it can confirm, deny, strengthen or emphasise verbal message, can regulate and control the flow of counselling conversation.

The "cracked landscape"

= Our social world is not a neutral background or context for human behaviour but richly engraved with complexity and diversity. = To understand people's life words we must consider the "life" of the context of which they are a part = We live in a society in crisis => violence, discrimination, poverty and hunger, personal and communal suffering and pain => we realise how fragmented and chaotic our society is. part = Human capacity to generate alternatives despite the fragmented landscape indicates that meaningful life is possible

The counsellor provides the clients with time and space with the following characteristics:

= Permission to speak => clients are encouraged to speak and express feelings and emotions = Respect for difference => counsellors sets aside their position on the issue and their needs in order to focus as completely as possible on helping the clients to articulate and act on their personal values and desires = Confidentiality => anything discussed is confidential = Affirmation => the counsellor enacts a relationship based on a set of core values => honesty, integrity, care, belief in the worth/value of the person, commitment to dialogue and collaboration, reflexivity, interdependence of persons and a sense of the common good

Occupational therapists:

= Profession which assists the disabled, elderly, newborn, school - aged kids and anyone with permanent/temporary impairment in their physical/mental functioning = Helps people to achieve independence = Qualification - Bachelors Degree in Occupational Therapy

Six professions are registered under the auspices of the Board for Psychology:

= Psychologists = Intern psychologists = Student psychologists = Registered counsellors = Psychometrists = Psychotechnicians

Intersectoral collaboration:

= integrating contributions from different sectors (health, welfare, education, professionals and non - professionals) = VEP (Victim Empowerment Programme) aims to make the criminal justice system more victim - friendly and the National Department for Social Development leads the programme; other key participants are SAPS, Department of Health, Education, Correctional Services and Justice and Constitutional Development and the NPA = VEP's approach is based on collaboration with CSOs, volunteers, businesses, academics and research institutions = VEP deals with crime prevention, psychosocial consequences of crime and violence and the CJS

Mentoring

= involves either a single counsellor discussing issues with more skilled mentor, group of counsellors discussing issues with each other or group of counsellors discussing issues under the guidance of a mentor. = encourages self - awareness in a counsellor, provides ongoing training, education and emotional support = Record - keeping is important for debriefing during mentoring sessions = It's crucial for counsellors to receive mentoring in organisation/private capacity => provides emotional support for counsellors and help them deal with personal issues that impact on their work = Regular mentoring tends to encourage ongoing learning and skills development

Counselling encounters =>

= may involve the skilful assistance to people who have placed too much emphases on conservation/on keeping things the same and in other areas may be too open and flexible. = Clients will need to return to a more balanced lifestyle and understanding of their being in terms of change and continuity. = Often one part of their lives is overly attended/ optimised (money, possessions, work, status, image, family, community, body, mind, souls, spirit, romance) at the expense of other areas of their lives (glamorous life, status and image and be draining in debt, over optimise work at the cost of the family/health).

Co - explore and dance with the client: By helping clients to more deeply explore their story =>

= we attempt to get deeper understanding of their experience; help the clients make sense of their world by exploring, asking questions focusing on their thoughts, probing and identifying themes and absences = Done by using the skills of focusing, using 1st and 2nd present tense descriptions, clarifying, reflection of meaning or deep empathy, reflection of process or immediacy, advanced open - ended questioning and gentle challenging => motivate clients for positive transformation

To uphold a perspective that values both conservation and transformation =>

= we need to appreciate, value and conserve what is useful and functional = let go of what doesn't serve. = we need to renew our knowledge, expand repertoire of engagement and continuously invent new ways of being and relating.

Clinical Psychologists

Access, diagnose and intervene to alleviate/contain relatively serious forms of psychological distress and psychopathology = abnormal behaviour

Research Psychologists

Address any of the above professional categories, not to render services to the public in that field, but to apply research methods and techniques to contribute to the knowledge base of that field

Industrial Psychologists

Apply the principles of psychology to work related issues of relatively well - adjusted adults to optimise individual, group and organisational well - being and effectiveness

Counsellors create context in which the desired outcome, change in behaviour, is a logical response.

Feedback loops allow for constant fluctuations and change no matter how stuck a sequence may be, small fluctuation lead to leap in transformation through encouraging feedback from the system participants making it more open to change, promoting newness and growth.

Counselling facilitation as a way of "being":

Individuals are members of particular society and society are composed of individuals.

people have an inherent desire to solve their own problems.

When universal responses are imported they meet resistance and often fail. That happens because they are inappropriate in a given context or there's lack of ownership from people who haven't participated or been consulted in the decision - making. The success of implementing interventions on social issues often depends more on the ownership and motivation of those involved than on the cleverness of the idea.

Paraphrasing =>

a brief tentative statement that reflects the essence of clients' words, counsellor listens selectively to the content of discussion and restates the main words/thought of the client. Counsellors use it to clarify, bring together recent comments or threads of discussion and concisely present ideas, thoughts and issues the client expressed.

Psychological crisis =

a perception of intolerable difficulty that exceeds the limits of a person's normal coping recourses and abilities. Crises represents severely stressful events which challenge person's coping resources, jeopardise the individual's sense of emotional homeostasis, create psychological distress and cause individuals to perceive themselves as unable to manage effectively the problems they are facing. It's subjective interpretation of stressful life events which cause the psychological crisis not the events themselves.

Johnson (def. of counselling) =

a structured conversation aimed at facilitating a client's quality of life in the face of adversity

Multiple realities => Anderson, Goolishian and Hoffman =>

as we encounter and explore newness, we are free to create a new perception of reality allowing us to experiment with alternative meanings of that new experience. The unfamiliar generates feelings of loss of certainty and predictability and the normal flow of life we know is disrupted

termination phase: 1. Summarise the sessions =>

ask the client to summarise the main points from the sessions. You can refer to the overall goals of the counselling discussed in the contract or the specific goals of the session if established

Being solution - focused =>

ask what the client wants to change and how; opens space for possibilities, looks at exceptions and resources; assumes client is competent, resilient and resourceful; gives preference to client's voice and experience; considers good counselling to be time - effective, hopeful and enjoyable; by thinking positively about the client and his actions, counsellor reflects it back on them; clients need to feel they are taken seriously and their feelings are acknowledged without being blamed (e.g. "You've been through a lot, what has kept you going?"

Hosting a counselling conversation =>

assisted by listening and accurately reflecting the feelings and content of what the client is sharing. By doing that we show the client we're willing to understand the world as they experience it => builds trust and encourages the clients' self - reflection

Capacity analysis =>

assists in establishing the profile/describing the community where one wants to establish a referral system (ask questions about socio - economics of the community) => list the community organisations' information and what they do => describe what kind of resources are and aren't available => describe the strengths, weaknesses and opportunities for services that exist in the community and what kind of difficulties/threats these organisations are likely to be facing

b) Congruence, realness and genuineness =>

be human, be real and be yourself. When you interact you mean what you say. Genuineness is about listening to oneself as a counsellor and have self - knowledge

Closed questions =>

begin with "is, are, do or did". Used to get information, give clarity, gain focus and narrow the area of discussion. May help to direct the client back to the conversation. Closed questions can become a deterrent to the discussion - prevent the client from elaborating.

New opportunities =>

being able to negotiate new meanings and find new words representing the changing reality; requires skills, flexibility and being present in the moment

Micro - skills: Listening and sensing =>

by hosting a conversation that evokes listening to the client's story in more depth. Those skills implemented from the onset of counselling. Clients become aware where they are and explore more strongly their motivation for change. Active and effective listening includes listening to the clients' thoughts, pattern of thinking, emotions and feelings, non - verbal messages and modifiers. Listening done through verbal and non - verbal attending.

Humans are never alone and are shaped

by their personal and social histories; past memories, emotions and vibrations

Shift, positive adaptive change/transformative movement =>

can involve acceptance, adaptation, problem solving, reframing or transformation

phases of counselling encounters f) Shift, positive adaptive change or transformative movement =>

can involve acceptance, adaptation, problem solving, reframing or transformation. By facilitating the clients to engage with the problem and its story, that problem can potentially be defined, re - defined, collapsed, externalised, interrogated, danced, presenced, reviewed and re - imagined in ongoing spirals. If the client chooses not to engage the counsellor is still engaged but not over - involved. On occasions there may be a release, letting go, becoming by unbecoming, releasing definition, pain, anger, tears. This may become the "a ha" moment. The new is made conscious and prototyped in new behaviour; the client finds new definitions, scripts or narratives. Implementing the new way may disturb clients' intimate relationships, family and communal relationships and requires adjustments

1. Dynamic complexity =

cause and effect are distant in time and space; to address it you need a systemic approach to the problem and the solution.

phases of counselling encounters d) Listening and Sensing =>

characterised by hosting a conversation that evokes listening to the client's story, facilitated by verbal (reflecting feelings, empathy and paraphrasing) and non - verbal attending. Clients find out where they are and explore their motivation to change. The aim is for clients to open up and tell their stories and move deeper. Possibilities for change and transformation open up in this and next phase

reflection of process or immediacy

commenting on what's happening during the session and focuses on the "here and now" of the counselling setting (e.g. "you feel embarrassed talking to me about personal things")

phases of counselling encounters e) Co - exploration and dancing =>

deeper exploration of the story through summaries and questions engaging blind spots or contradictions. There may be some resilience, defensiveness, judgement, fear of change and of "losing it". This can potentially lead clients to see their way of relating and question and explore the way they look at people, relationships and problems

Diversity =>

difference from our preconceived ideas and standards of believing

termination phase: 2. Review/remind about the action plan after the treatment =>

discuss the way forward. Is there a need for more counselling, if so for what issues; does the client need referral or can you help

Frederic Vester =>

disturbance is important and creative and one must open up to it (not easy).

Summarising =>

done after a longer period of talking and encapsulates clients' verbalisation, behaviours and feelings and presenting them to the person in summarised form. Summary reviews the content of the discussion, brings together common elements and clarifies. This is often used as a transition to gathering more specific information and focusing on a specific problem. Summaries are paraphrases of client's issues, provide order and focus and sorts out relevant information.

Interconnectedness =

everything connects to everything else. Counselling has a history

Living organisms need firm sense of self, as well as to allow new information and ways of relating to be able to adapt to forever changing circumstances =>

evident in systems which are flexible, adaptive and resilient during large changes

Frames of reference may be explicit or covert

explicit: (businessmen seeing an opportunity where no one else does) or covert (psychologist selectively ignoring complicating info and thus having a self - serving frame of reference)

Reciprocity

governs relations between people and communities and people. Reciprocity teaches us that in any social encounter people contribute towards the relationships process whose quality is always changing with every new encounter. We can choose what fits best

How we affect and in turn influenced by our interactions with others

has the potential to increase the quality of our encounters with other people and enhance future practice. Hertz says that reflexivity implies a shift in people's ways of knowing and being in the world. Achieved by constant scrutiny of "what I know" and "how I know it".

termination phase: 6. Don't avoid challenges or gaps =>

if not or sessions are successful, acknowledge challenges. During the process of terminating no new information should be introduced

termination phase: 3. Emphasise achievements =>

if the client has made good progress offer acknowledgement and encouragement; invite the client to mention the highlight of the session

Counselling as a discursive space =>

in counselling - interrelationship between context and text; also called the "talking cure" through use of language; healing can also happen in the form of art expression, music, song, dance and poetry

Silence =>

in counselling sitting with a client in well timed silence communicates deep, empathic understanding. Difference between "stuck silence" and "reflective silence".

At other times counselling involves facilitating people, who experienced change in their external circumstances => (loss of income, illness, suicide, death, disability, accident)

it'll require an adaptive response by the system (person, family or community) to find new balance. When people face disruptive change, they mourn the loss, often experience shock, denial, anger, withdrawal, depression, self - destruction, loss of meaning, grief and sometimes come to terms with the change and adapt. Counselling can be helpful in the process of adaptation and reorganisation as a safe space to find meaning and nurture healthy relationships and resilient lifestyles. The counsellor doesn't do the change to the client but creates a context where clients can take ownership of their lives and explore meanings and options.

Open - ended questions =>

lead to further explanation and begin with "who, what, when, where, why and how". Used to assist clients to explore feelings and thoughts. Effective in gathering information and continuing the conversation: "What" => solicit facts and gather information "Why" => produce reasons and intellectual history but they may sound judgemental "Could/Would" => allow for further clients' exploration "How" => typically associated with sequences of events, processes or emotions

Too much transformation and openness to change =>

leads to loss of self - identity (family, group or community ID), discomfort and too much flexibility. Occurs when the stability of all/ lots of the old and known ways, concepts and actions are rejected. The self/family/group become too flexible and pliable and has no "backbone" or consolidating structure and vision. Other people/circumstances may be taken into so much consideration that the self is neglected. There may be too many options, lack of clarity and ambivalence about what action to take.

phases of counselling encounters a) Checking in =>

making an appointment and beginning of counselling encounter

phases of counselling encounters b) Contexts of engagement =>

negotiating expectations, setting an interactional style and the rules of engagement; determining a goal and setting a psychological contract. First time rapport is established and forms the basis of trust in the counselling encounter. Risk assessment performed and the client is referred to other service providers if necessary

Counsellors role in crisis =>

offer support, calm reassurance, concerned objectivity, provide information assistance with practical matters and decision - making processes. If many people are affected, a command centre will be set up.

Registered counsellors =>

one have to complete a 4 year education and obtain Honours Degree in Psychology and approved min 6 months max 12 months practicum under supervision of a registered psychologist.

When interacting with others

people bring parts of themselves into the context of relating and create new realities and ways of being characteristic to the interactional space.

Burnout

physical and/or emotional exhaustion after long - term of intense stress having a discrepancy in one's experience. = Psychological symptoms => nervousness, automatic mental block, body aches and pains, lack of appetite, insomnia and helplessness = Behavioural symptoms => getting weary, feeling fatigued, inability to concentrate and inability to empathise and is also linked to diminished spirituality and religious involvement = leads to disinterest in work, postponement and disconnection = Fully functioning person is opened to experience, not very defensive, aware of and sensitive to self and external world and has fairly harmonious relationship = Gachutha's study on counsellors => burnout was associated with feeling helpless, inadequate, blurred boundaries, sadness, self - pity, self - blame, confusion, feelings of guilt and frustration

Registered Psychologist =>

requires a Master's Degree in Psychology, minimum of 6 years study. Clinical and Counselling Psychologists do 1 year community service in SA

To help clients solve problems =>

requires an understanding of how problems are created and maintained. By changing our perception about the problem, new behavioural alternatives become possible with different response from the client.

Defining the problem => most important step in problem - solving =>

requires most time in counselling, involves gathering and clarifying information; involves breaking the big problem into manageable parts (partialising) Explore all possible options solving the problem => client should brainstorm as many solutions as possible till ideas are exhausted Consequences and alternatives of each idea are considered => clients asked to look at the pros and the cons => the best solution is the one with the most advantages

*TCE =>

sees counselling as a negotiation of possibilities for growth to happen between individuals Unconditional love = unconditional positive regard in counselling Respectfulness (self - love and love for others) Paulo Freire's vision of love => characterised by active commitment, honesty and integrity and tolerance for differences

Reflection of feeling =>

similar to paraphrasing, but it's focused on emotions and affect within the person. Important to focus on emotions of the client because it clarifies client's decisions, thoughts and attitudes. Affective communication done more often non - verbally.

MAP =>

the acronym for Minimal encouragers Attentive Silence and Presentation: "M" = Minimal Encouragers => encourages the client to keep talking and shows that you are listening. They can be verbal and non - verbal. 'A" = Attentive => shows non - verbally that the counsellor is listening. While tempted to interrupt a client, the counsellor should wait for an appropriate pause in the conversation to ask. Attentive silence conveys interest and respect. "P" = Presentation => how client and counsellor present themselves.

Influencing skills: Expression of content =>

the counsellor may provide the client with basic coping strategies after a trauma, giving opinions, making suggestions and supplying feedbacks. Note, advice giving is not suitable for counselling in general, but during crisis intervention or psycho - educational interactions it has its place. Client will be referred to in - depth counselling once the crisis is dealt with.

Contracting =

the explicit discussion and agreement on certain matters pertinent to counselling, including the "presenting problem"; setting the terms of engagement (ground rules) in the interest of clarity and fairness and to set the tone for a counselling encounter that will assist in keeping the session on track. = clients' expectations may be verified during contracting; explain what the counselling service entails to save yourself awkwardness; provide minimal professional information to avoid creating false hopes = Much of the contracting takes place between client and counsellor = Clients need to engage on self - contracting (willingness and commitment to counselling, = ongoing process = Defining boundaries and honouring them contributes to safety and trust => allows for healing and growth

3. Generative complexity =

the old solutions are no longer working; the problem is constantly changing and is unpredictable, requiring a creative approach.

Practice framework =

the practise guidelines for professionals as determined by their professional boards/regulatory bodies and the National Qualification Framework, including SAQA

The ways in which counselling takes place needs to acknowledge

the wider societal arrangements contributing to personal, familial and collective suffering/oppression. Support networks in communities should ideally be run in the community and by the community.

The main aim of counselling =>

to create emotionally safe space and an accepting, caring relationship in which the client can explore, discover and clarify ways of living more satisfyingly and resourcefully. The responsibility for growth and change remains with the client. It's about helping others to help themselves and grow in the way they choose.

Reflexivity enables people

to question the meaningfulness of their life experiences, review their values and search for new, more satisfactory forms.

Our interactions with others, the world and ourselves have the qualities of "open system", characterised by randomness, absurdity and paradox =>

we need sense of continuity of our identity, values and relations (conservation) and on the other hand we need to continually transform, update our interactions and values and adapt to new life circumstances (transformation)

Examples for poor empathy:

x- No response x- Distracting questions: "Why did you go to the restaurant?" x- Repeating client's sentences word for word x- Clichés x- Interpretations and assumptions: "What's wrong with you is..."; "You need a good ..." x- Lecturing: "Now let me give you some facts..."; "Older people like you forget" x- Telling and imposing advice: "You know what you should do?"; "If I were you..."; "I ought to..." x- Making fun or ridiculing: "I can't believe you did that..."; "You must be really stupid to...." x- Trivialising: "1000s of people have this problem but they don't worry about it..." x- Not staying in the here and now: "No need to dwell on the past, think about your kids..." x- Not staying in the client's frame of reference, inappropriate self - disclosure: "My partner also cheated on me last year, so I understand"; "If I were in your shoes..."

Sections of a counselling report: according to Dunbar - Krige and Fritz, it should include:

= Reason for referral => why is the report written and what issue is addressed = Client demographic data => client's name, gender, date of birth, language spoken and education = Socio - economic data => occupational status, monthly income, transportation status and economic stressors = Sources of information => GP, school report etc. contributing on supplied = Presenting problem => include information relevant to the presenting report; description of the problem according to the client = History of presenting problem => events, precipitating factors and incidents leading to counselling = Current family and significant relationships => current family status and structure = Testing (past and present if available) => methods and instruments, evaluator, location, dates, reasons for testing and results = Observations during assessment => record the impressions of your client - manner, dress, physical appearance, general self - presentation, speech, mood and behaviour towards counsellor = Summary/Conclusion => brief, integrated summary of the relevant findings about how these affect the client in question = Recommendations => appropriate action to assist the client in the present and future

Internal preparation:

= Self - knowledge (likes/dislikes, strengths, values, vulnerabilities, fears and insecurities) is non - negotiable for a counsellor = Be prepared in relation to a client, session and a context. Be prepared on emotional level = Work out your personal issues beforehand to the best of your ability = Be fully there for the client.

Ending the session:

= Start preparing the client 10 - 15min before the time's up and you can use this time to summarise = You can't assume there will be a follow up session. Directly enquire about next appointment and outline the directions for the next session = Should the client introduce new issue at the end of the session, bring it to a close in a way that the client doesn't feel rejected or that you are e not interested to listen = Don't pressurise the client if she doesn't want to come back or leaves in the middle of the session

Shift and transformation:

= The "a, ha moment", letting go with the old and letting come with the new, connecting the dots => involves acceptance, transformation, problem solving or reframing = The new is made conscious and prototyped in new behavioural patterns. The client catches up with the inner knowing, finds new definitions, scripts or narratives = Implementing the new may require adjustments in intimate, family. Work and communal relations = The most important in counselling is building the relationship between clients and counsellors; clients must make their own choices; solution - focused questions => help clients to think about problems differently = Clients' support structure and social relations should be acknowledged during counselling

Things to attempt in terms of vocal skills and language:

= Tone of speech and voice volume => should convey warmth and empathy or bring formality into a particular encounter = Rate of speech => slower rate with a client unfamiliar with one's accent, not patronising = Rhythm of speech => counsellor should try to modify rhythm to be more clear and interesting = Range of inflections => stressing words and varying emphasis prevents boredom = Modifying accent/pronunciation => adapt certain words pronunciation to accommodate local style and usage to improve comprehension = Appropriate words and language => counsellor needs to understand the context to be able to use language clients use and understand

Guidelines for use of empathy:

= Use empathy at every stage of the helping process but no need to respond to every sentence = Respond selectively to "core messages" = Use non - verbal cues and context to guide your judgement = Respond to context not just to the words = Find out what is going on in the client's life right now = Use empathy to stimulate movement in the counselling process = Recover from inaccurate understanding and don't pretend to understand

Advanced open - ended questioning:

= Using hypothetical questions which prompt lateral thinking in clients (e.g. "What would you do if") = You can ask reflecting questions => help clients to summarise/reflect on a particular discussion => effective in a session where a number of issues have come up (e.g. "What are some of the reasons you think why you and your partner don't have a good relationship?") = You may return to recurring issues/themes of presence/absence and inquire as to their status

Referral to a Psychologist =

= client's behaviour/emotions lead to significant dysfunction in two or more contexts of the client's life (home or work) and following problems manifest: = Depression and/or suicidal thought = Extreme stress, anxiety or panic = Substance abuse = Serious medical problems = Eating disorders = Legal problems = Family difficulties

Hosting a space where clients can help themselves:

= At the heart of personal and relational counselling is for clients to tell and re - tell their story/history to a listener who is curious, sensitive and accepting. = People are motivated to change when the cost of staying the same and getting the same results become too much. = Sometimes people change because they are forced by circumstances and necessity. They night find that they can't attain desired results. = Counselling is an appointment the client has with himself. Counsellor facilitates the client's quest for self - determination, self - actualisation, wellbeing and appropriate interpersonal relationships. To achieve this counsellor aims to create and maintain emotionally safe space and an accepting, caring relationship, in which the client can explore, discover and clarify ways of living more satisfyingly. = Counsellors help clients to help themselves and grow in the way they choose. To counsel = to encourage people to make sense of their life experiences and create meaningful aspirations. = From a non - directive perspective, counselling is a space where a person/group cans adjust/adapt/heal itself using its own metaphors or meanings. The counsellor is embodiment of acceptance, hope and opportunity, counselling requires commitment to truth, honesty and connection. = Counselling working alliance depends on an ongoing interpersonal synergy between counsellor and client, the interpersonal relationship is what's important.

Micro skills:

= Attending (physically, intellectually and emotionally present); counsellor is listening and ready to interact = Minimal encouragers = Reflections of thoughts and feelings = Paraphrasing and clarification = Open and closed questions

guidelines to end counselling relationship in a positive way:

= Be aware of the client's wants and needs => a client may want to talk about the impending termination which might require a few sessions = Be aware of your wants and needs => counsellors need to take care of themselves to avoid experiencing difficulty terminating relationships = Be aware of your previous experiences with separation & reaction to them => counsellors should be emotionally self - aware to avoid counter - transference and be genuine in the relationship = Invite clients to share how they feel about the termination => focuses on the emotion and not the thoughts of clients = Share with the client how you feel about the counselling experience => another aspect of the counsellor being real and reveal what you have learnt from the experience = Supportively acknowledge the changes the client has made => counsellors acknowledge the progress made by clients and actively encourages them to maintain it

Care for the caregiver:

= Caregivers need to focus- caring to protect themselves against some of the hazards of work = Caregiver's appreciation of clients needs is directly linked to counsellors degree of insight on self

Where do civil society organisations and the counselling services they render fit in?

= Civil Society Organisations => NGOs, NPOs, CBOs = Counselling services provided through government structures to vulnerable/desperate people = Childline SA is a NPO => to protects kids from all forms of violence and create a culture of kids' rights; provides educative services relating to variety of problems = FAMSA is a NPO => 26 centres, aims to empower people to build, reconstruct and maintain sound relationships = Life Line SA (LLSA) => SA Development Community - Based NPO, 19 centres; volunteer based with supervision = National Institute for Crime Prevention and Reintegration of offenders (NICRO), NPO => people - centred development and services to victims, offenders and communities strengthens the human - rights culture in SA = OUT LGBT Wellbeing (Pta) => helpline for lesbians, gays, bisexual and transgender

List of ethics by Da Rocha Kustner:

= Clients are unique, allow clients to freely express feelings = Be aware of the client/counsellor relationship = Show clients acceptance and non - judgemental attitude = Acknowledge that clients are responsible for themselves (if you act like a "rescuer" the client feels helpless, may become dependent or blames you at a later stage if solutions don't work) = Be aware of your own limitations as a counsellor and ensure confidentiality

Focusing skills include: Using 1st and 2nd person singular rather than 3rd person:

= Clients tend to discuss problems as if they belong to someone else, frequently use 1st or 2nd person when presenting the problem (e.g. "You know how it is, you get busy and the time just disappears") => clients avoid ownership of the problem. By using 1st or 2nd person counsellors direct responsibility back to the client = Using 1st and 2nd person responses focuses directly on clients and their experiences at the moment, helps them assume responsibility for coping/solving their problems within the helping relationship

According to the NSW Disaster Mental Health Response Handbook, disaster support includes:

= Comforting and consoling distressed person = Protection from threat and disaster as far as possible = Immediate care for physical necessities = Providing goal orientation and support for reality - based tasks = Facilitating reunions with loved ones = Linking the person to support systems and sources for ongoing help = Facilitating the beginning of some sense of mastery

What is counselling?

= Counselling aims to help people achieve degrees of freedom and possibility which weren't there before = Counsellor is trained to listen and respond to people in emotional distress and empower them to deal with their difficulties

Ethics in action:

= Counselling is an activity that requires knowledge and skills and must be practised with care = Bartering with clients for counselling not a good idea => further complications = Self - disclosure always poses ethical problems in counselling, considered boundary crossing = Counsellors shouldn't take responsibility for client's situation

Counsellor self - assessment:

= Counsellor's feelings, emotions and body sensation; thoughts, cognition and perceptions = How adequate was the counsellor's internal preparedness = What do the counsellors appreciate about their clients and were there any of the following aspects touched on and revealed during session - preferences, judgements, stereotypes, memories, defensiveness, need to rescue a person, need to fix/cure a condition or lack of trust = What personal red flags (emotional issues or baggage) of the counsellor were raised in the session

The problem of seeing counselling as a biomedical application:

= Counsellors provide context where they encourage people to participate more actively in the treatment and the healing processes = It is a social and relational approach to life circumstances/difficulties rather than advice giving = Counselling not being a "quick fix" for passive clients should be clarified at the beginning

Process and content - thoughts and feelings:

Reflect on the thoughts and feelings from the session and how the process unfolded (how and what happened during the session)

Report writing:

Report needs to be clear (as clear as possible for the potential reader), concise (use only what is relevant) and comprehensive (find balance between being concise and clear and comprehensive)

c) Non - possessive warmth and acceptance =>

Rogers' meaning of acceptance is to be non - judgemental and have an "unconditional positive regard" towards the clients and view them as worthy to make their own decisions. Counsellors who show acceptance don't indicate approval/disapproval - they try to accept the clients as they are; acceptance facilitates trust and growth. Non - possessive warmth and caring are demonstrated by speech and tone of voice. Warmth is the non - verbal expression of understanding and caring through facial expressions, tone of voice, body posture and gestures.

Nelson and Prilleltensky dichotomy of ameliorative versus transformative interventions =>

SA psychology continues to be mainly ameliorative (assisting individuals, groups and communities in dealing with difficult circumstances) rather than transformative (helping to bring about structural change in society that addresses the causes of personal suffering and oppression)

Non - verbal attending: the "SOLER MAP TC" framework (Egan)

Squarely Open Leaning Eye Relaxed: "S" = Sitting squarely => facing the client so they can see you and communicate openly "O" = Open Posture => not crossing arms, holding a folder; not having barriers between client and counsellor such as desk or couch "L" = Leaning Forward => leaning towards he client at appropriate times to convey interest and concern. Face the client in an open and relaxed position. Counsellors should be mindful of intimidating the clients, body space differences in people from different backgrounds "E" = Eye Contact => keep natural eye contact with few breaks, don't stare. "R" = Relaxed Posture => not fidgeting or being tense