The Great War (WW1)
Declarations of War
-Russia declares war on Germany and A-H (Jul 29, 1914) -Germany declares war on Russia (Aug 1, 1914) -Germany declares war on France (Aug 3, 1914) -Great Britain declares war on Germany b/c of their invasion of neutral Belgium (Aug 4, 1914) -US declares war on Germany (Aug 2, 1917)*
Lusitania
A British passenger ship that was sunk by a German U-Boat on May 7, 1915. 128 Americans died. The sinking greatly turned American opinion against the Germans, helping the move towards entering the war. Wilson protested vigorously and germany was forced to relax its submarine warfare for 2 years. In 1917 Germany resumed unrestricted submarine warfare, b/c they believed that they could starve Britain into submission before the US could save them.
Second Balkan War
A conflict that broke out after the first Balkan war when Bulgaria, unsatisfied with its gained territory, attacked its neighbors, Serbia and Greece. They fought over the "spoils of war." Austria intervened and forced Serbia to give up Albania. During the conflict, Romania entered the conflict and the Ottoman Empire was able to regain some of their lost territory. Nationalism was destroying the Otto. Empire
Austrian-German Alliance (1879-1918)
A defensive military alliance including Germany and Austria against Russia, in 1879, caused by infuriated Russian nationalists during Bismarck's balancing efforts at the Congress of Berlin in 1878. Germany and Austria maintained a defensive military alliance until the end of the war 1918. "Blank Check" from Germany to A-H during the first Balkan wars.
Lost Generation
A group of American writers that rebelled against America's lack of cosmopolitan culture in the early 20th century. They shared the belief that they were lost in a greedy, materialistic world that lacked moral values and often choose to flee to Europe. They moved to cultural centers such as London and Paris in search for literary freedom. Prominent writers included T.S. Eliot, Ezra Pound, and Ernest Hemingway. *
Rationing
A limited portion or allowance of food or goods; limitation of use. All product was sent to front lines first. This was imposed by the gov. to make the greatest possible military effort.
Battle of Marne
A major French victory against the invading German army at the start of WWI. France attacked a gap in the German line. The Germans fell back and Paris and France were saved from Germany and their Schlieffen plan. Sept 6 1914
Fourteen Points
A peace program presented to the U.S. Congress by President Woodrow Wilson in January 1918. It called for Open diplomacy, Freedom of the seas, Free trade, Reduction of arms, Readjustment of colonial claims, Evacuation of Russia by all foreign powers, Restoration of neutral Belgium, Return of Alsace-Lorraine, Readjustment of Italian borders, Separation of A-H to ensure self determination, Balkan Peninsula=self determination, Free and independent Turkey, Free and independent Poland, Creation of a "league of nations." It was rejected by Germany, but it made Wilson the moral leader of the Allies in the last year of World War I.
Triple Entente (1914-1918)
A military alliance between Great Britain, France, and Russia in the years preceding World War I. (Aug 1914) German leaders lost control of the international system after Bismarck's resignation. Response to German aggression. The allies were checking Germany's vague, but real aspirations, and they were working to suppress A-H
Innovations
A new method, idea, product, etc./New way of doing things ***
All Quiet on the Western Front-Novel
A novel written by Erich Maria Remarque illustrating the horrors of World War I and the experiences of veterans and soldiers. It was extremely popular, but also caused a lot of political controversy. Trench warfare shattered an entire generation of young men. "Every yard there lies a dead man. The first bombardment showed us our mistake"
Zimmerman Telegram
A telegram Germany Sent to Mexico to convince Mexico to attack the U.S. Sent from German Foreign Secretary, addressed to German minister in Mexico City. Mexico should attack the US if US goes to war with Germany (needed that advantage due to Mexico's proximity to the US). In return, Germany would give back Tex, NM, Arizona etc to Mexico. The telegram was intercepted and decoded by the British, shocked the American public.
Total War
A war that involves the complete mobilization of resources and people, affecting the lives of all citizens in the warring countries, even those remote from the battlefields.*** effects/ consequences
League of Nations
A world organization established in 1920 to promote international cooperation and peace. It was first proposed in 1918 by President Woodrow Wilson. The US never joined the League. Essentially powerless, it was officially dissolved in 1946. One of Wilson's demands at the Paris Peace Conference/one of 14 points.
Three Emperors' League
Alliance created by OVB between Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia. Intended to reduce tensions between A-H and Russia. Bismarck played peacekeeper. The alliance linked the three monarchs together against radical movements. There was a threat that Germany would be dragged into a war between the two countries.
Stefan Zweig- "Golden Age of Security"
An Austria-Jewish writer who "loved earth more than ever before WW1, and he had extreme faith in its future." The cities had grown more beautiful and populous from year to year. Everything manifested the increase and spread of wealth. Progress everywhere. Europe was stronger, richer, and more beautiful than ever. He was confident in an even better future. People were handsomer, healthier, and happier with better conditions. People were closer with nature. Several new inventions were created one after the other, in an effort to help the universal good.
Triple Alliance (1882-1915)
An alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy in the years before WWI. After the Austrian-German alliance Italy joined. Motivated by tensions w/ France.
Franz Ferdinand (1863-1914)
Archduke of Austria Hungary who was assassinated at Sarajevo by a Serbian terrorist group called the Black Hand; his death was a main cause for World War I. Due to tensions between A-H and Serbia and rising nationalism.
Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918)
Became ruler of Germany in 1888 and dramatically changed Germany's foreign policy. He wanted to show the world how mighty Germany had become and did not want to share his power with anyone. He refused to renew the Russian-German reinsurance treaty. This allowed Russia to form a military alliance with France. Then, Wilhelm began to enlarge the Germany navy in order to make them equal to the British fleet. This pushed the Anglo-German Rivalry and led Britain to form an alliance with France.
Unconditional Submarine Warfare
At the beginning of the war Britain and France established a total naval blockade to strangle the central powers. Germany launched a counter-blockade using the muderously effective submarine. It violated international law. Germans sunk the Lusitania. They used this b/c they believed they could starve Britain into submission before the US came to Britain's rescue. US finally joined the war.
Battle of Verdun
Battle fought between French and German armies from Feb to Dec 1916; more than 700,000 people died - one of the most costly and longest battles of WWI. Example of trench warfare. Germany was unsuccessful.
Trench Warfare
Both armies (French and German) were stalled. They began to dig trenches to protect themselves. Stalemate on the western from. Fighting with trenches, mines, and barbed wire. Horrible living conditions. The cost in lives was staggering and the gains in territory minuscule. Ex: Battle of the Somme British vs. French
Balfour Declaration
British document that promised land in Palestine as homeland for Jews in exchange for Jews help in WWI. Made by the British foreign secretary, Arthur Balfour. It declared that Britain favored a "National Home for the Jewish People" in Palestine, but w/o prejudicing the civil and religious rights of the existing non-Jew communities. Some hoped that this would help Britain maintain control of the Suez Canal. The Palestinian Arabs were dismayed b/c they felt that a Jewish homeland would be incompatible w/ majority rule. National self determination remained a reality only for Europeans and their offspring in the self-governing colonies. Western imperialism replaced Turkish rule in the Middle East.
Gallopoli Campaign
British forces attempted to take the Dardanelles strait and Constantinople from the Ottomans. They did this in order to establish a supply line/trade route to Russia. Resulted in a bloody stalemate. British forces were badly defeated. Purpose of this was to open a trade route to Russia for supplies. British fought Ottomans.
Lawrence of Arabia
British military officer/colonel who incited the Arabs in Arabia to revolt against their Turkish lords. He helped lead the Arab revolt in early 1917. Gained support for allies in Africa and Asia (East). British armies from egypt smashed the otto. empire once and for all. War brought revolutionary change to the middle east.
War bonds
Certificates sold by the United States government to pay for the war. Part of a planned economy. Gov. regulation in order to fight a total war. **
General Ludendorff
Commander of German armies on the Western Front. Russian Steamroller in eastern Germany. Successfully defeated Russia at the Battles of Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes. Russia never threatened Germany again. In the spring of 1918, he launched an all-out offensive on the Allies, gambling everything. Germany helped Austria reverse Russian advances and forced them to retreat. Changing tides brought neutral countries into war.
Congress of Berlin (1878)
Conference to resolve problems w/ Greek independence and to reorganize the countries of the Balkans (partial division of Turkish possessions) - led to greater nationalism. Bismarck played peacekeeper, but his balancing efforts angered Russian nationalists and led to A-H/German alliance. Assembly of representatives from Germany, Russia, Hungary, Britain, France, Italy, and the Ottoman Empire. <A-H obtained the right to "occupy and administer" Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia & Romania won independence. The Ott. empire retained important Balkan holdings and A-H and Russia feared each other possible domination of independent states in the area.>
Censorship
Control of what people read or write or see or hear; efforts to prohibit free expression of ideas. Restricting access to ideas and information. Allowed gov. to maintain popular support, create strong hate toward enemy, and help control public opinion. *
Otto von Bismarck (1815-1898)
German Chancellor-"Iron and Blood" He made Germany the strongest European nation by 1871. He intended to: Isolate France diplomatically (w/o military allies), keep peace between Austria-Hungary & Russia (tensions were building over Balkan peninsula & declining power of Ottoman Empire), and maintain good relations with Great Britain (Splendid Isolation). No territorial ambitions; only peace.
Helmuth von Moltke (1848-1916)
German Chief of Staff after the retirement of Schlieffen; revised the Schlieffen Plan and put it into action; he is blamed for being indecisive and giving bad orders in the face of war with France, specifically at the Battle of Marne. He demanded that Belgium permit German armies to pass through its territory, but Belgium was neutral. Germany invaded anyways. This aggression led GB to join France. Start of WW1
Roland Doregeles
French writer; criticized the naïve mood of French patriots at the beginning of WWI. "That Fabulous day" Represents extreme nationalism, hubris and naive understanding of war. "What is Paris saying? It's singing sir! Then everything will be alright." "Satisfy a yearning to surrender oneself to a noble cause: the greatness of a nation." **
Heinrich von Treitschke
German historian in the 19th century who advocated German nationalism and militarism. He believed the German race was really awesome, that only strong and powerful nations should exist, that war is often necessary, and he also hated the English and Jews. He represents extreme nationalism, hubris and naive understanding of war. "War is for an afflicted people the only remedy." "The individual must forget his own ego and feel himself as a member of the whole. His life is irrelevant compared with the good of the whole." Violence is the only answer. "To banish war would be to banish all progress and becoming." "The Aryans are brave, strong, and intelligent."
Alfred von Schileffen (1833-1913)
German plan to win a two-front war. Decisive victory over the strongest power (France). Russia would be slow to mobilize. Quick strike strategy to get to France through neutral Belgium. Intentionally left Alsace-Lorraine open for invasion in an attempt to lure the French desired position. This caused GB to get involved in order to defend Belgium. Once France was defeated, they would turn their attention to Russia. Germany was blocked by the Battle of Marne which saved Paris and France from Germany.
Propaganda
Ideas spread to influence public opinion for or against a cause. Used to prevent uprising and conflict at home. Helps morale to keep people motivated. Allowed gov. to maintain popular support, create strong hate toward enemy, and help control public opinion. *
First Balkan War
In 1912 Serbia joined Greece and Bulgaria to attack the Ottoman Empire and then quarreled with Bulgaria over the spoils of victory-a dispute that led in 1913 to the Second Balkan War. Austria intervened in 1913 to force Serbia to give up Albania. Nationalism finally destroyed the Otto. Empire. Within this tense context Archduke Ferdinand and his wife (of Austria) were assassinated by Serbian revolutionaries in Sarajevo. Austria, severely angered, presented Serbia w/ an ultimatum that was impossible to except. Austria declared war on Serbia in July. Chose war as a last-ditch effort to save A-H. The 3rd Balkan war had begun.
"Splendid Isolation"
Period of isolation in GB, where they felt as though they do not need to get involved in the war; Neutrality. The traditional British policy of thinking of Britain as separate from the rest of Europe. It turned into insecurity when the European political atmosphere became menacing, esp. when Kaiser Wilhelm II was about to challenge British naval supremacy. *
Black Hand
Serbian nationalist/terrorist group responsible for the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Resulted in the start of World War I.
Georges Clemenceau (1841-1929)
The French representative at the Paris Peace Conference. Part of the Big 4. He was primarily concerned w/ punishing Germany. He also demanded lasting security for France. This included: the creation of a buffer state between France and Germany, permanent demilitarization of Germany, and vast German reparations to pay for the war. He eventually compromised b/c he knew he would need support against german aggression in the future. He gave up his demand for a buffer state in return for a formal defensive alliance w/ GB and USA.
David Lloyd George (1863-1945)
The GB representative at the Paris Peace Conference. Part of the Big 4. He was primarily concerned w/ punishing Germany. He was slightly inclined to make a moderate peace w/ Germany. He wanted a peace that would protect British trade w/ Germany. People of GB only wanted punishment for Germany. Won election using the promises to punish Germany.
Vittorio Orlando (1860-1952)
The Italian representative at the Paris Peace Conference. Part of the Big 4. His diplomatic/negotiations were limited by his lack of English. He wanted more territorial gains in the Austrian empire, like Fiume, Dalmatia, and other colonial gains. Most demands were refused and he left the conference in a rage. He wanted the territory which he was promised earlier in the Treaty of London. Promises broke.
Woodrow Wilson (1856-1924)
The US representative at the Paris Peace Conference. Part of the Big 4. He issued a peace proposal called the 14 points which stressed national self-determination and the rights of small countries. He was the spokesman for a new idealistic and democratic international cooperation called the League of Nations. He believed that only a permanent international organization could protect member states from aggression and avert future wars.
Gavrilo Princip
The assassin of Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria, a member of the Black Hand
Russian Mobilization
The first country to mobilize. Russia could not stand by and watch Serbia be crushed. Russia was large and took long to mobilize. Austrian armies attacked Belgrade, and Tsar Nicholas II ordered partial mobilization. This was impossible b/c plans were made to fight a two front war against both Austria and Germany. Eventually ordered full mobilization which declared general war. Proved the be the key to a wider war.
Balkan Crises
The spark that started WW1; Nationalism was destroying the Ottoman Empire and threatening to break up the A-H Empire. Greek fight for independence led to other rebellions. The congress of Berlin worked out the partial division of Turkish possessions. Some places achieved independence. Russia and A-H feared the other was going to dominate the newly independent states. Balkan nationalism was on the rise. Serbia led the way and looked to Russia for support but Austria formally annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina to block Serbian expansion and hurt Russia. Serbia could do nothing w/o Russian support. The assassination of Franz Ferdinand, the Archduke of Austria-Hungary, and his wife sparked WW1.
Belgium's Neutrality (1839)
This country declared itself neutral during WW1 and they were protected by GB. Germany disregarded their neutrality and tried to pass through the country to attack France. This was called the Schlieffen plan. GB came to Belgium's defense which was the end of their period of "Splendid Isolation." GB was now part of the war.
Austrian Ultimatum
This was a document written in 1914 in response to Ferdinand's assassination. In which Austria-Hungary demanded that the power of the Serbia state be given up to Austria. (end of all anti-Habsburg publications, the dissolution of Serb nationalist organizations) Serbia accepted all requests except one which would have compromised her sovereignty and as a result, Austria declared war on July 28. (3rd Balkan war) This "effectively nullified Serbia's sovereignty." Germany issued A-H a blank check which meant unlimited support. Almost impossible to accept.
Article 231
This was the "war-guilt clause" in the Treaty of Versailles that placed total responsibility for World War I on Germany. Germany fell apart after this and gov was later overthrown by Hitler.
Treaty of Versailles
Treaty imposed on Germany by the Allied powers after the end of World War I. Germany's colonies were given to France, Britain, and Japan (mandates). Alsace-Lorraine was returned to France. Ceded lands to Poland. Germany had to limit its army. No military fortifications in the Rhineland. War guilt cause Article 231. Forced to pay large reparations. Rejected by the US b/c it took away congress's power to declare war.
Reinsurance Treaty (1887-1890)
When Russia declined to renew the Alliance of the 3 emperors due to tensions in the Balkans. OVB substituted this secret treaty between Russia and Germany. Both powers promised neutrality if the other was attacked. Did not apply if Germany attacked France or Russia attacked A-H. Wilhelm fired Bismarck and refused to renew the treaty despite russian willingness. This led to the military alliance between Russia and France. France was no longer diplomatically isolated. Both countries were dealing w. public demonstrations. This was to remain in effect against the triple alliance. Europe was divided into 2 rival blocks.
Russian-French Alliance (1891-1917)
Wilhelm fired Bismarck and broke ties with Russia. He failed to continue Bismarck's goal of isolating France. By worsening relations with Russia, Wilhelm gave France the opportunity to create an alliance with Russia. The alliance was to remain in effect as long as the Triple Alliance of Austria, Germany, and Italy existed. As a result the continent divided into to two rival blocs.