TTU HDFS 3310 Final Exam
intrafamily differences in sibling conflict may depend on
Childs prior relationship/attachment to parents, sex similarity of pair and the temperament of the children
What statement is representative of having conceptual self?
"I'm not a baby!"
2 to 5 Months (emotions)
-negative emotions decrease over time, which positive emotions increase -improvements in emotional regulation but new challenges occur creating new sources of frustration
10 to 12 Months (emotions)
-new forms of expression of anger, fear, sadness and joy -mixed emotions
Infants Separate More Easily From Parent if:
-parents prepare the child and gives instruction for what to do during separation -if child is dropped off at a familiar setting -caregiver stays at a distance shortly before departure
corporal punishment in the early years is related to
-poor self control -poor relationship with parents throughout childhood -more criminal/antisocial behavior -abuse of children own children or spouse in adulthood
Effects of Newborn Marital Satisfaction
-problems make include less time spent together and perhaps jealousy of the baby for taking time away from marriage -decline in satisfaction over 1st year -interpersonal conflict increase and parents report less marital cohesion, less partner support and less ability to cope
older siblings sometimes diffuse conflict between mother and younger sibling by
-repeating the action that mother did not like -giving the younger child a similar object to the one the mom took away -prohibiting/scolding the mom for punishing the younger -comforting the sibling
children of authoritative parents
-show purposive, independent behavior -are cooperative with adults -show friendliness to peers -more likely to imitate their mother -likely to become upset after violating standards or conduct
in the 2nd year laughter
-takes on specific meaning within the mother-infant communication system -serves to get attention -mother infant dyads develop their own styles of laughing together
across different cultural and ethnic groups secure attachment at 12 months is related to
-the mothers responsiveness to infants needs -maternal tender style (patient, prompt soothing etc.) -reciprocal and mutually rewarding social interactions -coordinated joint attention
three possible causes of secure and insecure attachments at 12 months
-variations in parent's ability to create a warm/sensitive relationship with infant in first year -temperamental factors - issues that arise between the infant and parent that cannot be attributed directly to either one of them
What are causes of attachment security/insecurity?
-variations of parent's ability to create a warm, sensitive relationship with baby during first year -temperamental factors in child that no parent response can change -issues that arise in relationship between parent and infant that cannot attribute directly to either of them **neither mother or infant is a sole determinant of attachment quality**
when do pride and shame appear?
-when the toddler becomes aware of their emotions. - understands own success & failure
strange situation test
A parent-infant "separation and reunion" procedure that is staged in a laboratory to test the security of a child's attachment
permissive parenting
A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. parents take the role of friend rather than parent
authoritarian parenting
A parenting style in which the parents are demanding, expect unquestioned obedience, are not responsive to their children's desires, and communicate poorly with their children.
authoritative parenting
A parenting style that encourages the child to be independent but that still places limits and controls on behavior.
Measuring Temperament
Activity Level Rhythmicity Approach/withdrawal Adaptability Intensity of Reaction Quality of Mood
How is attachment quality assessed?
Ainsworth Strange Situation Test (ASST)
Successful Transition to Parenthood
DEPENDS ON: -adult's relationships with their own parents -prior experience with childcare -self-esteem and belief in their own self-efficacy as parents -their readiness for children -marital quality -family members -amount of social support available to parents
Concept: Situational constraint - recognize examples
Elements of the context of a stimulus or event that determines that child's response to that event Example: v. In one study, a novel toy was introduced into play between adults and infants & between peers 1. in the infant-adult interaction, the infant pointed to the toy and looked at the mother, requesting the toy's name & wanting to use it f. When mother and a peer are both present i. infants are more likely to initiate play with a peer ii. they are more likely to seek physical contact and show negative emotions like distress and anger with their mothers
sibling interactions
Emotional Support, Direct, Caregiving, Advice, Conflict
T/F Temperament is destiny?
False
2 or 3 day separation vs longer separations (12-18 months)
2 or 3 days: relatively few problems longer: more severe disturbances in routines and less positive engagement
fathers spend _____% as much time as mothers in direct infant care
20-35
breastfeeding was the general practice in the US until the beginning of the
20th century -by 1976 only 50% of mothers were breastfeeding at discharge from the hospital
By ____ months toddlers engage in conversation about their feelings, talk about the causes of their feelings and play games with siblings in which they pretend to have certain kinds of feelings
24
by ____ moths infants show multiple types of smiles that communicate different positive emotional experiences
3
By what age can infants show multiple kinds of smiles?
3 months
How many months does a baby have to be before they are more alert?
3 months
during the _____ year defiance and refusal gradually diminish
3rd
by ___months: the digestive system develops enzymes to digest more proteins, saliva production increases to lubricate swallowing and chewing, swallowing and teeth pushing up make it easier to handle the demands of eating solids
5
temperament: negativity and inhibition appear early in life and are persistent in _____-_____% of infants up until 5-7 years old
5-10%
between ___ & ___ months babies call attention to themselves in ways that did not exist previously
6 and 9 months
when does separation distress start to show?
6 months
around _____ months infants develop a wary look
6 months (raised brow furrowing above the nose and a relatively relaxed mouth)
When do babies smile for real the first time?
6-8 weeks
At what age do emotions become more complex, infants begin to take initiative and gender/temperament differences arise (infants begin to seem to have their own personalities)
6-9 months
When do babies begin to feel fear?
9 months
newborn imitation
Babies sometimes mimic gestures made by others who are within sight.
what is crucial for a baby to smile?
Interaction with someone who loves/ cares for them
Separation Anxiety Disorder
a childhood disorder marked by excessive anxiety, even panic, whenever the child is separated from home or parent
relational pattern
a cycle in which the parents avoid confronting the child and the child is deprived of opportunities to become more competent
Duchenne smile
a genuine smile that includes the muscles around the eyes
defiance, negativism and aggression are feelings related to anger due to (18-24 months)
a growing sense of independence and a feeling that the self is separate from others
if it is a first born the married couple must adjust to becoming a three-person system
a new baby creates disequilibrium and necessitates an adjustment by each of the other family members
insecure-avoidant attachment
a pattern of attachment in which an infant avoids connection with the caregiver, as when the infant seems not to care about the caregiver's presence, departure, or return
temperament
a persistent pattern of emotion and emotion regulation in the infant's relationship to people and things in the environment
pain cry
a sudden, initial loud cry followed by breath holding
what kind of attachment: interested in objects and in the stranger, will get acquainted with the unfamiliar setting using the caregiver as a secure base from which to explore and such infants will feel comfortable and secure in most situations
secure attachment
Poverty and social class factors that influence child development outcomes
single stressful incident can have long term effects such as behavioral and emotional disorders; socio-emotional deprivation has more long-term effects than physical deprivation
6 month old boys in the still-face experiment were more likely than girls to
smile and vocalize as well as show anger or distress during still face -and during normal face-to-face have more positive interactions with mother
between 6 and 9 months babies seem more capable of recognizing _____ than other expressions
smiles (their ability to distinguish between other expressions is relatively poor)
the early parent-infant relationship is crucial for the infant's
social and emotional development
Father's involvement is based on what?
social factors
mens involvement in infant care depends primarily on
social factors such as marriage, job and social acceptability of parenting
In the visual cliff experiment, a baby was less likely to approach the cliff is the baby saw a fearful look on the mothers face. This is an example of:
social referencing
more sensitive and involved fathers have children who are more
socially competent and less defiant
is temperament inherited?
some aspects are partly inherited
in one study after a brief separation 11 month olds
sought physical contact with their mothers immediately
father-infant and mother-infant interactions can be enhanced by
specific interventions to orient parents to their newborn -ex: fathers who had been trained in bathing and massage were more likely to have their infant interact with them and the fathers were more likely to be involved with their infants than non-trained parents
What are the two kinds of non-distress?
speech like and non-speech like
referential speech
speech that is object oriented and contains a few, but clearly articulated, words per utterance -object names (nouns), single words
expressive speech
speech that is socially oriented and uses more, but less well articulated, words per utterance -social routines, pronouns, phrases "I don't want it" "Don't do it" "i'll get it"
after 2 months two kinds of non-distress vocalizations appear
speech-like sounds non-speechlike sounds
is it more likely that the father and infant will share a secure attachment if the father
spends more time with the infant, is more extroverted and has greater marital and work satisfaction
speech-like sounds
such as cooing, produced in the front of the mouth and have a more resonant quality (increase between 2-5 months)
What are the basic emotions?
surprise, frustration, anger, joy
1 month olds show a range of expressions between alertness and drowsiness but have difficulty
switching attention
sibling conflict
tattling, older siblings start conflict, aggressive
____ and ______ are used to self-comfort in stressful situations and when parents are not around (18-24 months)
teddy bears, favorite blankets -toddlers can become attached to these objects
low-reactive infants (uninhibited)
tend to be calmer, and bolder. Sociable rather than shy. Infants are more likely to show interest than fear when exposed to new people, experiences, and objects.
Infants born to mothers who smoked prenatally:
tend to have more difficulty calming themselves than other infants
Insecure-Avoidant Attachment
tend to not be upset when left with an unfamiliar person or a strange setting. -reunion may avoid approaching caregiver for comfort and may actively resist any attempts to be comforted -infants show a pattern of physiological arousal indicative of masked anger and they can be observed self-soothing rather than reliant on mother
how does the mothers behaviors change toward the first born when a new baby comes along?
tends to spend less time with the older child and confrontation with the first born increases and positive involvement decreases
both sibling interaction and peer competence are related to
the Childs security of attachment
emotional regulation
the ability to control when and how emotions are expressed (starts around 4 months)
pragmatics
the appropriate use of language in different contexts
displacement
the capability of all human languages to describe things not happening in the present or about things that are not immediately in the present
quality of attachment
the ease with which a distressed infant feels comforted by a caregiver
attachment theory
the idea that early attachments with parents and other caregivers can shape relationships for a person's whole life
predictors of success in the transition into parenthood: concurrent factors
the marital relationship, other family members, the amount of social support available to the parents and non family factors such as income and job satisfaction
attachment system
the network of feelings and cognition related to the object of attachment
Reactive Attachment Disorder (RAD)
a trauma-related disorder characterized by inhibited, avoidant social behaviors and reluctance to seek or respond to attention or nurturing. -disinhibitions: overly familiar with strangers, show seductive, manipulative or other inappropriate behaviors.
disorganized/disoriented attachment
a type of insecure attachment in which infants or young children have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation. Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented
the emergence of the subjective self is the beginning of (10-12 months)
a uniquely human consciousness, aware of itself thinking, feelings and doing
Concept: separation distress: when and why it occurs and what contributes to it and what are ways to help infants cope
after 6 months, infants respond to parental separation with some anger. Especially if the parent is a part of the infants activity when he or she leaves
terotogens
agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
infants who show insecure-resistant attachment show
ambivalent response during the reunions first approaching the mother than pushing her away
Which emotion is most frequently elicited in infants when their goals have been disrupted?
anger
working mothers who left their newborns with fathers vs other infant care reported less
anger, depression and anxiety
around 2 months infants become more complex and
animated and better coordinated with events in the environment
parental proactive behavior
any action that has the goal of a positive outcome for the child -ex: talking and giving the child something to eat while shopping to avoid tantrums
when do babies feel fear?
around 9 months
features that make up a sense of differentiated ecological self (6-9 months)
asking for help, taking initiative, clowning and showing off, demanding and hiding/escaping
after 2 months babies also develop new expressions of
attention and enjoyment
infants between 6 and 9 months prefer to look at faces judged by adults to be _____
attractive -apparently attractiveness can be inferred from global features of the face that do not involve specific expression
parenting styles
authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, uninvolved
Erik Erikson says two emotional poles of this phase are (self-conscious emotions 18-24 months)
autonomy (pride, defiance) and shame (doubt, dissapointment)
infants who show insecure- avoidant attachment
avoid caregiver during reunion
To prepare their two year olds for a brief separation, it is helpful for the parent to:
avoid close contact just before leaving
in North America and Northern Europe which type of attachment is more frequent?
avoidant
by 3 1/2 months
babies begin to watch their hands moving and feel their arms and hands at the same time
in one study after a brief separation by 19 months
babies were content merely to look at their mothers before resuming play
what role do fathers take on in infancy?
babysitter/helper
Impact of child care on children younger vs older than 12 months
before 12 months: lower school readiness the more hours in childcare; more sensitive to effects of child care quality and availability of attachment figures in child care setting after 12 months: child care is beneficial rather than harmful; more school readiness
Typically Autism is diagnosed
between ages 4 and 5
a ____ seems to be an effective substitute for the mother at least for brief periods (18-24 months)
blanket -they are soft and cuddly -carry familiar smells that may remind child of home and impart a sense of security
how do 4 month olds show "wary" or hesitant expressions?
by turning or looking away from unpleasant or confusing situations
attachment (can/cannot) change as relationships improve or worsen
can
infants (can/cannot) be just as securely attached to adoptive parents
can
semanticity
capacity of a language to carry meaning for both speaker and listener
Parenting is influenced by
child's temperament
during the 3rd year parents introduce a wide variety of controls
children are told when/when not to do things and they are asked to control their future emotions
insecure-resistant attachment
classification of parent-child attachment in which the child shows little exploratory behavior when the parent is present, great distress when the parent leaves the room, and ambivalence upon the parent's return
1 month olds cry generally with their eyes
closed
behaviors like _______ and ______ reveal that there is a sense of "I" that wants to be recognized (10-12 months)
clowning and showing off -this is the subjective self
affective sharing (10-12 months)
communicating feelings to another person or confirming feelings with another person
6-9 months positive emotions become more
complex
mothers and fathers in "troubled families" were more likely to use _____ instead of guidance and authoritative approaches
control
speech like
cooing, front of mouth, more resonant
authoritative parental discipline is related to
cooperation and compliance
predicted by prenatal marital quality
couples who have the most conflicts prenatally also have the most postnatally
anger is more intense when infant _____ (10-12 months)
cries -more activity in the right frontal brain region
after the birth of a new baby older children become somewhat more
dependent -tend to seek help more, seek proximity to their mothers more and cry more
How is shame demonstrated, and what plays a role on how it appears?
depends on children's temperament
24 to 36 Months (emotions)
descriptions of emotional states of the self and other become more elaborate
Affects of heredity are not what?
determinism
mothers who rate infant cries as more aversive are more likely to rate their infants as
difficult
older sibling
directive, supportive, tease, protective
what kind of attachment: may smile broadly and then abruptly turn away from mother, may approach by crawling backward toward the mother with gaze adverted and may have frozen postures during reunion, sitting and staring at wall or sucking their thumbs
disorganized- disoriented attachment
Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment
display contradictory behavior during ASST: -infant may give a broad smile and then abruptly turn away from mother -other may have frozen posture, sitting and staring at wall or sucking thumb **a sign of disassociate response
first emotions (0-2 months)
distress (stiffen their body) contentment disgust interest surprise
newborns can feel
distress, contentment, disgust, interest and surprise
Newborn (emotions)
distress, contentment, disgust, interest, surprise
intergenerational transmission
disturbed behavior of mothers of disorganized-disoriented infants can be explained by trauma, harsh punishment, and or sexual abuse in mother's early history
dreams can be a source of fears but nightmares... (18-24 months)
do not appear until after the second birthday
preparing a first child for the birth of the second child (does/does not) seem to affect the amount of sibling rivalry
does not
temperament most likely (does/ does not) contribute to long-term cognitive defect or enhancement
does not -parental behavior may attenuate the long-term effects of early temperamental characteristics
Infant Defiance
during the 3rd year, defiance refusals gradually diminish (continued discipline) -children start to use negotiation strategies
family systems theory
each member of the family is a part of a feedback system with every other family member
Unintentional Injuries
each year about 3,500 children under the age of 4 in the US from unintentional injuries -leading cause of death (about 35%) of all deaths at this age -for every death, there are 1,120 emergency rooms visits causes: -motor vehicle collisions (32%) -fire (19%) -drowning (18%) -choking(7%) -falls (3%) -poisoning (2%) -other (18%)
between 12-18 months the sense of self is _____
elaborated -exaggerate facial expressions and other social actions as if to explore their own subjectivity in relation to another person -communicate more intentionally and persist gestures/words that are not understood -they discover they have emotion regulation skills -they look toward someone after an achievement and may smile jump and celebrate for themselves
toddlers recognize themselves in a mirror and tend to show ________ when they do (18-24 months)
embarrassment -which is a self-conscious emotion
authoritative parents combine
empathy and firmness
attachment disturbances lead to
experience-dependent pathologies in brain development -particularly in the right limbic and pre-frontal areas responsible for emotion regulation and feelings of safety
some suggest that occasional spanking may be used in serious offense especially if the spanking is later accompanied by
explanations, recognition of the Childs feelings and expression of love
fear (10-12 months)
expressed by raised and furrowed brow while the mouth corners are retracted straight back -may appear briefly and then change to anger or sadness -more likely to be expressed by behavioral inhibition rather than facial expression
Emotions are regulated by what two things?
external distraction and coping strategies
The emotions of infants can be regulated by?
external distractions and various distinct coping skills of their own
play smile
extremely wide-open mouth and dropping of the jaw (enjoyment with elements of excitement/surprise) -observed when infants are held closer to the mother, kissed or tickled
In a Duchenne smile, the cheek muscles are pulled back, and the muscles around the _____ also contract.
eyes
7 month olds ability to distinguish between emotions improves when
facial expression are combined with voices expressing the same emotions and when faces are presented dynamically
non-duchenne smile
fake smile
Extended family is important in the reduction of?
family stress -especially for low income, teenage and single mothers
are teasing games found more in mother-infant play or father-infant play?
father-infant play
was a play smile experienced more during mother-infant play or father-infant play? (10-12 months)
father-infant play
by 10 months _____ begin to use other people more effectively to regulate themselves than ____ do
girls, boys
older siblings
give more directions -orient the attention of the younger -command/prohibit -support/tease -motherese when addressing younger
between 6 and 9 months there is a _____ ability to communicate with others about emotions
growing -around 8 months infants who smile when looking at an object will turn to smile at a nearby adult
what other self-conscious emotions emerge around the 2nd birthday?
guilt, jealousy and pride
Secure Attachment
infant seeks comfort from caregiver during reunion and once comforted, returns to independent play. -show interest in objects and in the stranger will get acquainted with unfamiliar setting -infant always returns to adult's side and uses caregiver as a secure base from which to explore
social referencing (10-12 months)
infants look to another person's expression to help decide what to do in an uncertain situation
emergent self
the perception/ sense of self- sameness over time in behavior, feelings, and states of arousal
attachment
the positive emotional bond that develops between a child and a particular individual
high reactive (Inhibited)
infants who have a dour mood, signs of anxiety, and an overactive sympathetic nervous system response
what kind of attachment: be upset during the ASSt, temperamentally vulnerable to stress, have limited independent exploration and have mothers who are inconsistently available
insecure- resistant attachment
what kind of attachment: may actively resist attempts to be comforted and seem natural in their emotions regarding the mother but show physiological arousal indicative of masked anger
insecure-avoidant
cross modal perception
integrating information across sensory modalities (aka using more than one sense)
when grandma spends much time with the baby mothers and grandmothers are nearly _________ as attachment figures
interchangeable
younger sibling
intimate, follows directions, compliant, older sibling to guide adventures
co-regulation
the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his or her distress
Infant-mother attachment (is/is not) seriously altered by maternal employment?
is not
pride (18-24 months)
the result of meeting your own standards, awareness of having accomplished a personal goal in the eyes of another person
self-history
the sense of enduring, of having a past, of going on even through changes, as when one acts and feels similar ways with familiar people or in familiar situations
self-affectivity
the sense of having inner emotional feelings that routinely go together with specific experiences
infants respond more positively to separation from their mothers if ... (10-12 months)
they are left with another (familiar) person, they are left with toys of any kind, can see/hear mother in an adjoining room or if they are left with their own pacifier
after 18 months infants are likely to smile when
they experience periods of affective sharing, during joint activity and attention with their mothers and to initiate positive emotions in their communications with parent
determinism
things determined for you by specifiable cause or interlocking causes
by 6 months babies will laugh at
jokes, very abrupt and highly arguing stimuli and things that once made them cry (loud noises or loss of balance)
Overregulaztion
just after acquiring the past tense of regular verbs children apply the -ed rule to all verbs -plurals -usually occurs ages 2 through elementary
non-speech like
lack of projection, back of mouth (2-5 months)
when adults participate in children's spontaneous actions children can achieve higher levels of
language, play and cognitive development
women who have children _____ in life show higher caregiving responsibility and more satisfaction with parenthood
later
acquired fears (10-12 months)
learned through conditioned association -ex: far of a particular people, doctor's office or certain kinds of sounds
What part of the brain is more active in intense temperament infants?
left frontal lobe
early introduction of solid foods has been associated with
less consumption of milk, tendency to distend/overtax the stomach and the development of food allergies, kidney malfunction, iron deficiency and increased likelihood of developing strong food dislikes
inhibited children who showed more positive emotions were (less likely/ more likely) to be inhibited at age 3 than inhibited children who tended to be more negative
less likely
It appears that within motor development there are still ________ with early practice and improvement in motor development later on
little continuity
by 9 or 10 months sadness accompanies a feeling of ____
loss -infants can connect their memory of absent objects with some concrete action on the objects and may become sad if an object disappears and they cannot find it
______________ is more critical than being born premature.
low birth weight
benefits of breastfeeding for infant
lower risk of infections, cancer and possibly other diseases, allergies and obesity -breast fed infants get talked to, smiled at, touched, looked at and rocked more
avoidant attachment at 12 months is related to
lower sociability and preference for playing with toys over playing with people at 3 months
infants who become easily distressed have more
marked differences between eft and right brain activity in the frontal area
success in transition to parenthood depends on a good relationship with their own fathers and personality traits traditionally associated with femininity (warmth, nurturance) (men or women?)
men
contrary to the predictions of learning theory
monkeys became attached to the soft object and not to the object that gave them positive reinforcement
differential rooting
touched by someone else than by touching self
At what age are children more sensitive to child care quality?
under 1 year
authoritative parents
use firm demands, express their own anger or distress appropriately and do not use power to control child
appraisal
using cognition to decide what to feel (starts between 6-9 months) using cognitive comparisons of alternate interpretations to regulate ones emotions (10-12 months)
corporal punishment
using physical force that causes pain to the child but not injury
After 12 months, gestures and words become:
more conventional -they represent an action or object using a ritualized manner of expression -infants learn about 1-3 words/month, first for: objects (car, shoes, teddy) social (hi, no, yes, bye-bye) simple concepts (gone, more, there)
families where the fathers are more involved have wives who show
more interest and affection toward the neonate
conflict between the mother and first child predicts
more interfering behavior of the first child with the new baby
infants who are temperamentally inhibited and have insecure attachment are (less likely/ more likely) to show distress at even minor stresses
more likely
in one study after a brief separation 14 month olds
more likely to use some form of signaling from a distance: crying, whining, or raising their arms as if to ask to be picked up
10-12 months: anger
most frequently elicited the infants' goals have been disrupted -mouth is open, squaring and angled down - brows are lowered - eyes are opened and intense -typically the jaw is braces
infants can be adequately comforted in a stressful situation by either parent but if both are present in a stressful situation infants are likely to choose the
mother
Who takes on primary role in infancy?
mothers
children develop higher levels of symbolic play when
mothers give more options that stimulate creativity
in order to meet the criteria for diagnosis of separation anxiety
must be intense and last at least 1 month and be inappropriate for the child's age
between 6 and 9 months _____ emotions start to develop
negative
7 month olds whose mothers show a lot of positive emotions are more likely to respond to
negative facial expressions
during the 3rd year children start to use ______ strategies
negotiation
is treatment of RAD easy?
no its difficult
is temperament easy to measure?
no, temperament is difficult to measure in a reliable and valid manner -when mothers an fathers are asked to rate the same child their reports agree only 1/2 the time
indeterminism
not all natural phenomena can be predicted form known laws or principles
is temperament continuous?
not necessarily -inhibited children may with sedative child rearing eventually lose their extreme sensitivity -normal children may become more inhibited in extremely stressful environments
Concept: self-awareness - when does it occur and how it impacts emotional development
occurs eighteen to twenty four months. Begins to create a whole picture of themselves as someone who can be recognized and distinguished
Social Referrencing
occurs when infants face an uncertain situation ex: infant play with noisy toy, they may look around to see how adults are responding
Affective Sharing
occurs when infants wish to communicate feelings to another person or to confirm their feelings with another person. ex: baby discovers how a lid goes on a pot, smiles and then looks at caregiver --infant expects a smile in return to confirm their feelings of accomplishment
siblings tattle primarily on
physical aggression and property damage/disputes -older siblings do not why away from causing conflict with younger child
contrary to the predictions of psychoanalytic theory
physical contact with the mother was more important than food in the formation of attachments
How is a father's ability to parent determined?
positive attitude toward parenting and time spent with child
for fathers marital satisfaction is associated with more
positive attitudes toward the parenting tole and with more time spent with the infant
children who are more positive with their siblings show more
positive peer play, fewer peer conflicts, more extended peer pretend play and more lasting peer friendships
______ & ______ develop within the context of communication about success or failure in meeting standards, rules and achievements (18-24 months)
pride, shame
non-speech-like sounds
produced in the back of the mouth, lack projection and have a more nasal quality (decline between 2 and 5 months)
Breast feeding
recommended until the baby is at least 12 months -the rate of breast feeding in the US is highest: --among higher-income -college-educated women who are more than 30 years old Benefits for Mothers: -risk of breast cancer decreases -returns to pre-birth weight -attachmeny Benefits of Infants: -weight gain -boosts immune systems -lowers risks of allergies, cancers and asthma
Attachment
refers to a lasting emotional tie between people such that individuals strive to maintain closeness to the object of attachment an acts to ensure that the relationship continues
In the first month of a baby's life, a smile is just a ______
reflex
How is shame demonstrated, and what plays a role in how it appears?
refuse failure, embarrassment -no eye contact and downcast expressions
What are the predictors of success for fathers?
relationship with own fathers and personality traits
elation (12-18 months)
remaining happy over a long period without the continuation of the stimulating event
in Japan, Indonesia and Israel which type of attachment is more frequent?
resistant
securely attached older siblings are more likely to
respond to the needs and distress of the younger sibling in the mothers. absence
basic cry
rhythmic cry brief silence in-breath whistle brief rest
What part of the brain is more active in easy temperament infants?
right frontal lobe
the _______ becomes damaged so that normal pathways of emotion regulation are not available (attachment disturbances)
right prefrontal cortex
syntax (grammar)
rules for combining words to form sentences and larger units of expression
separation distress
sadness at separation from caregiver (10-12 months)
What kind of siblings have more positive interactions?
same-sex siblings
overextension
a child uses a single word to label multiple different things in a manner that is inconsistent with adult usage ex: all vehicles are "cars" -reflects an attempt to categorize objects
infant mortality due to unintentional injuries
-motor vehicle collisions (32%) -fire (19%) -drowning (18%) -choking (7%) -falls (3%) -poisoning (2%) -other causes (19%)
role of parents in temperament
- infants who are more inhibited are more likely to have parents who are introverted and anxious -infant inhibition and negativity are elated to lower scores on maternal adaptation to pregnancy, sensitivity to the infant after birth and self-esteem
maternal characteristics associated with disorganized- disoriented attachment
- psychopathology and contradictory, frightened or frightening behavior - abuse and seductive/sexual behavior toward the infant - emotional distance
separation anxiety disorder
- refusal to be separated from the parent, even to go to bed and has excessive distress when not home with parents - more likely if the child is temperamentally inhibited or if one parent or close relative has panic disorder or another form of severe anxiety
self-agency
- the sense that one is capable of generating ones own actions and expecting that these self-generated actions will have consequences - the self controls its own thoughts and actions
jealousy at 10-12 months
-12 month olds were observed while their mothers and a strange adult played with a picture book or a child-sized doll -infants showed more protest and negative vocalization in the mother with doll situation than with the book -infants were not upset by the book
temperament assessed between 2 and 4 years of age tends to show long-term stability
-2 year olds rated as more difficult has more attention problems and aggressive behaviors at age 12 - 3 year olds who were rated low on self-control had more adjustment problems and interpersonal conflicts as adults
inhibited temperament
-4 months: distressed, cry, right hemisphere activity -14-21 months: high fear to unfamiliar events -14-17 years: higher risk for developing anxiety disorders
uninhibited temperament
-4 months: relaxed, left hemisphere activity -4-21 months: minimal fear to unfamiliar events -14-17 years: lower risk for developing anxiety disorders
guided participation
-A child's performance, with guidance and support, of activity in the adult world. - a role that children take in observing and participating in the organized activities of the family and society
6-9 months emotional development
-anger -separation distress -wariness -self-awareness
6 to 9 Months (emotions)
-anger and wariness (negative) -laughter emerges (positive)
parents who are more willing to expose infants to potentially stressful events
-are less likely to intervene when the infant has an everyday problem -more likely to leave the infant with a babysitter or in child care and they are more likely to take trips without the infant
emotional expression and experience (2-5 months)
-attention (focus for longer periods of time) -enjoyment -smile during face to face interaction -emotional regulation
children with RAD
-can be unpredictable and unresponsive/ violent with caregivers, animals or other children -can appear to "look right through you" as if they do not have an awareness of other people's emotions -can be prone to lying/stealing - may show sexually inappropriate behavior
Effects of Maternal Stress and Anxiety on Infant
-contribute to poor mother-infant communication -anxious mothers show excessive worry of child care, health and work -take infants self-regulatory behavior as a sign of rejection *if left untreated, these dyads go onto develop an insecure attachment relationship
siblings have a special relationship that is different than with their parents
-discuss emotions together -share jokes about bugs or gender -express feelings of like and dislike -form attachments to each other and would rather be together than with an unfamiliar peer
Parents help in the development of gender role identity by:
-dressing children according to their gender -encouraging girls to share, cooperate and be caring -encouraging boys to be responsible
Adoptive vs Non-Adoptive Parents and Attachment
-enter parenthood with much higher expectations for success than biological parents -they thrust into parenting role without prior stage of pregnancy during which most new parent's adjust to that role -may worry about how their parents will feel about having a grandchild who is not their kin *few differences between adoptive and non-adoptive family*
predictors of success in the transition into parenthood: marital quality
-equality of role relationships before childbirth predicts marital satisfaction after birth -positive and warm relationships with one's own parents -a post birth experience that is not more difficult than anticipated
Different effects infants have on adult (behavior)
-exaggeration -slowing down and simplification ( each action is held longer, particular syllables are prolonged and speech is slowed) -rhythm and repetition (infant-directed speech) -matching and attunement (adult behavior is similar to babies but not exact) - turn taking (conversation like) -frames (regularly occurring communication routines) -maternal touch
10-12 months emotional development
-fear -sadness -enjoyment -affection -mixed emotions
18 to 24 Months (emotions)
-fears originate in mental and symbolic images and some dreaming begins -defiance, embarrassment and pride -smiling and laughter develop as important forms of communication about positive emotions
Which of the following factors have NOT been found related to temperamental characteristics?
-genes -physiology -parent-child relationships -parental personality *research has found that all are related to temperament
Infantile Autism has been found related to:
-heredity -advanced fathers age -low birth weight -deficiency in maternal folic acid -exposure to pesticides & any pollution during pregnancy -obesity -genetic/chromosomal abnormalities *diagnosed between ages 4 and 5
younger siblings
-imitate older siblings/other people more -more likely to follow older siblings directions suggestions -more compliant in taking designated roles in games -advantage of having an older guide to help explore environment
Characteristics of Temperament
-inhibited personality trait that appears early in life -temperament assessed b/w ages 2&4 years old tend to show long-term stability --difficult 2 year old= attention problems and aggressive behavior at 12 years old --low self control 3 year old = more adjustment problems and interpersonal conflicts as adults **early family stress: may prolong child's inhibition
10 month olds look more at adults who are
-looking at them -whose actions seem intentionally directed toward an object
temperament: infants who were the most inhibited
-more likely to be subdued in unfamiliar situations, have a dour mood, report anxiety, have an overactive sympathetic nervous response as a teenager, show a higher activation in the amygdala (part of limbic system responsive to fear) when viewing pictures of unfamiliar faces as adults
during sadness (10-12 months)
1. brows are raised at the center and drop at the sides 2. the mouth corners are drawn back and down
to regulate emotions, 12 month olds may
1. combine distress with biting or stiffening the lip 2. alternate between distress and enjoyment 3. look at the caregiver when crying
during first 4 months increase in emotion regulation are shown by
1. decrease in crying 2. ability to easily shift gaze from one thing to another 3. mastery of continuous and repeated bouts of smiling
fear of strangers takes two forms (10-12 months)
1. general wariness of the unfamiliar in most infants in every culture beginning about 8 months 2. acquired fear of particular people
Reactive attachment disorder (RAD) begins before age 5 and is marked by one of the two patters
1. inhibitions 2. disinhibitions
evidence of early self awareness comes from studies that show
1. newborn imitation (distinguishing own movements from the movements of others) 2. differential rooting (more when touched by someone else than by touching self) 3. differential crying (more when they hear tape recording of other infants cries)
four basic patterns of quality of attachment
1. securely attached 2. insecurely attached- resistant 3. insecurely attached- avoidant 4. disorganized- disoriented
sense of ecological self (2-5 months) is characterized by
1. self-agency 2. self-coherence 3. self-affectivity 4. self-history
contributors to emotion regulation (2-5 months)
1. sensorimotor skills (calm down by putting hand in mouth or reaching for an object) 2. caregivers
by 20 months about 1/3 of all children will talk about one or more of the following states
1. sleep ("tired") 2. plain ("ouch") 3. distress ("sad") 4. disgust ("yuck") 5. affection ("love mommy") 6. value ('good")
inhibitions (RAD)
1. the child is excessively inhibited, hyper vigilant or ambivalent and contradictory 2. child may for example respond to caregivers with frozen vigilance, mixed approach-avoidance and resistance to comforting
new parents must address four types of problems
1. the energy demands associated with infant care (loss of sleep, extra work, fatigue) 2. new parenthood places stress on marital relationships 3. the responsibility of caring for and rearing a child 4. parents must cope with additional costs of raising a child (food, nothing, education)
infants show less fear of strangers if (10-12 months)
1. they are with mother or familiar caregiver 2. they are in an unfamiliar setting 3.if the stranger -approaches slowly/ keeps distance -is a little person/child/ does not tower over them -is sensitive to infants signals and allows approach to be regulated by the infant
ASST and Four Type of Attachment Quality
1.) secure attachment 2.) insecure-resistant attachment 3.) insecure-avoidant attachment 4.) disorganized attachment
Basic Properties of Language
1.) semanticity 2.) productivity 3.) displacement
___ month olds begin to perceive adults intentions
10
at ____ months infants have deeper and more lasting positive feelings called affection
10 -expression is similar to a simple smile, with widening of the eyes
between ____ & ____ months anger becomes more purposeful and directed
10 & 12 months -infants stomp, hit, or slap and kick
Be familiar with the cliff experiment: what it is and what the findings were
10 month old's begin to perceive adults intentions. They look at adults that look at them. And look at adults whose actions seem intentionally directed toward an object. They will act more frustrated if an adult tease them with a toy that when the adult tries to give the toy.
By how many months can babies use parent's emotional expression for guidance?
10 months
by what month can infants distinguish more emotional aspersions, begin to use emotional information in a meaningful manner and begin to understand that others may have different feelings of their own?
10 months
true fear expressions first appear around the age of
10 months, but they are rare in infancy
at what age do infants become upset when their goals are blocked, pleased when they achieve intended goal and develop new emotions regarding their relationships with other people?
10-12 months
____ month olds feel fear for unexpected or threatening events such as heights and uncredited objects and movements
12
after _____ months infants still seek help from adults regulating their emotions, but also will attempt to control their own emotions
12
breastfeeding is recommended until the baby is at least _____ months
12
after ____ months infants fight back tears and use other self-comforting behaviors (ex: lip biting)
12 -babies who successfully fight back tears during separation almost certainly will burst into tears when mom returns
At what age can babies understand the emotions of others?
12 months
Production and Comprehension
12 to 18 months -COMPREHENSION COMES BEFORE PRODUCTION
between ____ and ____ months babies continue to show affection but more from a distance such as a smile or wave
12-18
between _____-_____ months infants show elation, are active in producing and maintaining happy situations and show delight in their own achievements, they also become aware of their own abilities to act on the environment to create new means and to experiment
12-18
At what age can babies understand emotions of others?
12-18 weeks, depending on gender
_____% of smiling between 2-5 months is followed immediately by looking away from the social partner
15
after ____ months fear can be evoked by a symbolic mental image
18 -children develop fears of the dark and of things that might lurk behind doors/unseen places
When can children recognize themselves in the mirror?
18 months
At what age do children acquire consciousness of self?
18 months - 2 years
vocabulary spurt
18 to 24 months -dramatic increase in vocab -acquire more words per week -use single words in more complex ways -multi-word sentences begin
Concept: transitional objects
18 to 24 months, toddlers can become attached to these objects. They constantly want them close and show signs of anxiety and distress when separated from them. Bridge between childs total reliance on the mother and the development of individuation
What emotional milestones occur in development at 6-months?
Anger arises when infants cannot succeed at being and effective causal agent Anger can be adaptive and useful Babies will laugh
By 24 months toddlers have developed coping skills that regulate what emotion?
Fear
Concept: Cognitive appraisal -
Infants are beginning to use cognition to decide what to feel; there is a growing relationship between infant emotion and attention to emotion related events and processes
secure attachment
Infants use the mother as a home base from which to explore when all is well, but seek physical comfort and consolation from her if frightened or threatened
Participating in motor development activity: someone tells you " I'm not participating in any sort of momy and me class because I read that the activity has no lasting effect." You would tell them that -
It may be true for typically developing children from birth to age three, it is not true for older children or children who have special needs.
Effects of Maternal Depression on Infant
NON-RESPONSIVENESS -serious consequence for infants brain and psychological development -infants are more likely to be fussy, show more negative facial expressions, low levels of physical activity and to be withdrawn --effects are more likely if: depression lasts long and if infants have few opportunities to interact with non-depressed adults
How infants respond to stimulation depends on what?
Nature
When are children most creative in play situations?
No-toy situation
Common behavioral reactions in an older sibling in response to a newborn sibling
Older siblings are more likely to: i. give directives ii. to orient the attention of the younger children iii. to command and prohibit iv. to support and to tease v. address infants in a form of motherese, except they rarely ask questions vi. Older siblings who had experienced more discussion of internal states & emotions with their mothers were more likely to be sensitive to the emotional states of their younger siblings
How do older siblings commonly respond during parent-younger sibling conflicts?
Older siblings sometimes diffuse conflict between mother and younger sibling by: iv. repeating the sibling's action that the mother did not like v. giving the younger child a similar object to the one the mother had just taken away vi. prohibiting or scolding the mother for her punishment of the sibling vii. comforting the sibling
______ first time mothers may have HIGHER care giving and satisfaction than ______ first time mothers
Older, younger
How is temperament best measured?
Parental reports Direct observation Physiological measures (such as cortisol and sympathetic nervous system) Made at repeated intervals in the child's life
general guidelines for how parents can best intervene in sibling conflicts
Parents typically intervene as third-party mediators f. parents tend to favor younger siblings & to discipline the older sibling g. if both parents pick on the older sibling, that child is more likely to show behavior problems in preschool h. better developmental outcomes are likely when parents expect the older sibling to be the more responsible person and when the younger sibling is sometime disciplined by at least one parent i. parental involvement in sibling disputes decreases over age j. children develop, primarily from their parents, new ways to negotiate peaceful settlements however, there are interfamily differences
Know the 4 attachment styles and how to recognize indicators of each in situational questions
Secure, resistant, avoidant, and disorganized
productivity
Speakers express many different meanings with a relatively smell # of words (using grammar rules) -begins after 18 months
uninvolved parenting
Style of parenting that provides neither warmth nor control and that minimizes the amount of time parents spend with children
Symbolic thought and it impact on the emotion of fear
Symbolic though = the ability to from mental images and great symbols Fear can be evoked by a symbolic mental image
when does smiling during face-to-face interactions develop?
after 2 months
behavior ecology theory
adults' caregiving responses are triggered in the presence of infants and young children and infants are innately drawn to caregivers
T/F A baby's cry is a distress signal?
True
T/F is the fetus self aware?
True
What statement about autism is FALSE?
a.) autism is difficult to treat B*) children with autism sometimes show intense interaction and children w/o autism do not c.) children with autism tend to have more difficulty imitating actions than children w/o autism d.) autistic children can develop secure attachments to their mothers
12 month-old infants may show all emotions EXCEPT:
a.) jealousy b.) fear c.) joy ** infants this age show all of these emotions
Which of the following does NOT affect an infants response to strangers?
a.) strangers speed of approach b.) parents location with respect to the baby c.) height of stranger **all affect infant's response to strangers
Conceptual Self
ability to have a self-concept that includes awareness of an autobiographical history -the ability to distinguish one's own mind from those of other's and to identify one's membership in conceptual categories "I am a boy" "I am a brother" "I am not a baby"
anger without crying is accompanied by more .... (10-12 months)
activity in the left front region, a sign of orientation toward the environment
how guided participation works
adult establishes coordinated joint attention based on the Childs initiatives, adult must also constrain the Childs participation (ex: for safety) and the adult transfers responsibility for larger segments of the task to the child
predictors of success in the transition into parenthood: adult developmental factors
adults relationships with their own parents, prior experience with child care, self-esteem and belief in self-efficiency as a parent and readiness to have a child
Concept: Role overload: what is it and how it impacts parents
fatigued because role overload j. Role overload increases if the child has a difficult (age 1) or hostile aggressive (age 3) temperament i. in this case, mothers a more likely to perceive themselves as less competent in both the parenting and work roles, and are more likely to feel depressed ii. When women work, fathers can also experience a form of role overload iii. such fathers show more negative behavior with their infants during the first year iv. after the first year, they are just as sensitive to their infants as other husbands v. When women remain at home, fathers can choose when & how to become involved with their infants
Parents tend to ______ younger siblings and _____ the older sibling
favor, discipline
By 24 months toddlers have developed coping skills to regulate?
fear
wariness is related to the emotion of
fear -both involve an inhibition of action and may reflect a tendency for the individual to withdraw from the situation
more fearful and withdrawn infants are more likely to become
fearful or sad under stress
resistant behavior in the ASST is related to
fearfulness
10-12 month olds act more _____ if an adult teases them with a toy than when the adult tries to give the toy
frustrated
anger in 7 months old is also seen when they are
frustrated
At three months what emotions are present?
frustration, anger, surprise, delight
extreme business at birth predicts later emotionality in ______ infants but not in ____________ infants
full-term, premature
6 month old girls in the still-face experiment were more likely than boys to
gaze more a object and show more interest
12 to 18 Months (emotions)
getting better at making good feelings last and controlling negative feelings
Insecure-Resistant Attachment
have more difficulty feeling comfortable in a strange situation. -resistant infant is more wary of strangers and tends to get more upset whenever the mother leaves in the room -tend to be temperamentally vulnerable to stress, have limited coping skilled other than mother
Buffering
having a protective layer
benefits of breastfeeding for mother
helps with recovery from birth, faster weight loss and lower breast cancer risk
mothers ability to parent and cope with child rearing is predicted by
high level of marital satisfaction and the amount of father involvement
adoptive parents enter parenthood with much ______ expectations than biological parents
higher
infant's abilities to remain attentive to the situation may contribute to
higher levels of regulation of fear
What are the predictors of success for mothers?
higher self-esteem, less egocentric, and being an older mom
the rate of breastfeeding in the US is highest among
higher-income, college-educated women over the age of 30 and live in mountain and pacific regions
factors that best predict recovery from perinatal complications before or by the age of 2.
income.
A mother's ability to parent _______ when her marital satisfaction is good and the father is involved
increases
children with disorganized-disoriented attachment are more
hostile, aggressive and other maladaptive behaviors in preschool and are at risk for later psychopathology
Temperament can involve and grow based on what?
how those around them react to one's temperament
processes of attachment disturbance
hypothalamus generates stress hormones though the HPA axis -> overproduction of cortisol -> changes in receptors for stress and fear in the right hippocampus and amygdala which becomes hypersensitive to fearfulness
What are the primary contributor's to an infant's development of emotion regulation?
i) caregivers ii) sensorimotor skills (1) infants can calm themselves when they can get their hand into their mouth & keep it there (2) movements such as reaching for an object can calm them down b) Emotion regulation is the result of both infant and adult contributions and the unfolding of the parent-infant relationship around regulatory issues
How is emotion regulation demonstrated during the first 4 months?
i) decrease in crying ii) ability to easily shift gaze from one thing to another iii) mastery of continuous and repeated bouts of smiling iv) Infants can now handle a wider variety of stimulation with more abrupt changes
What contributes to intrafamily differences in sibling conflict?
i. the children's prior relationships and attachments to parents. ii. the sex similarity of the pair iii. the temperament of the children.
Mothers and employment: what factors contribute to positive maternal adjustment and how does parental leave factors impact mothers who work
if mother wants to work, she will have a more positive adjustment; role overload in both mothers and fathers
Concept: stranger anxiety: what is it and ways to minimize it -
if they are with mother of familiar caregivers if stranger approaches slowly and keep appropriate distance if littler person of a child does not tower over them is sensitive to the infants signals and allows the approach to be regulated
prenatal stress
impact children play and development
teratogens
impact growth/development
wariness allows the infant to (6-9 months)
observe what is happening and is more adaptive reaction to strange situations than the withdrawal of infantile fussing and crying
Child Care: what does the research tell us about child benefits, risks, outcomes, and quality of child care?
on average 33 hours of nonmaternal care per week ii. most infants placed into care prior to 4 months iii. when they first entered care, half of the infants were with the father or grandparent, 20% were in child care homes, and 8% were in a child care center iv. mothers with higher incomes and those who had an economic need to work were most likely to place their children in child care v. after the first year, there are an increasing number of children in center care vi. The effects of child care depend on 1. the quality of care 2. the quality of the family environment
stress responses to frustration are present at an early age for some inhibited infants and may persist for periods up to (temperament 6-9 months)
one year
by 4 months infants can still show distress and cry with their eyes
opened, looking at their parent which is interpreted as anger
attachment behaviors
overt signals such as crying and following that bring parent and child into close proximity
the best research strategy to measuring temperament is a combination of
parental reports, direct observations, physiological measures (cortisol levels & sympathetic nervous system activity) and made at repeated intervals in the child's life
sibling de-identifiction
parents try to differentiate between siblings by seeing them as different individuals
an infant who shows secure attachment will
seek comfort from the caregiver during the reunion and once comforted will return to independent play
Embarrassment, pride, and shame are what kinds of emptions?
self conscious
after 12 months infants gain a new sense of
self-awareness and control over emotional expressions
Embarrassment, pride, and shame are called ____________ emotions?
self-conscious emotions
Gender Identity
sense of affiliation as being either male or female
Gender Identity refers to:
sense of affiliation as being male or female
self-coherence
sense of being a physical whole with boundaries and limitations separate from the rest of the world
secure attachment to either mom or father helps the baby be
significantly less wary of strangers
anger cry
similar to basic cry, with more excess air forced through vocal cords
why is the sense of a subjective self crucial to mental health? (10-12 months)
we need to know who we are in relation to other people, what we need and how to ask appropriately for it, and how to communicate about those things with other people
infants and children who are rated as highly reactive, emotional, inattentive or inhibited have different patterns of activity in the prefrontal correct compared to
well-regulated infants
security at 12 months was more likely in infants who
were attending to their mothers more and who were better co-regulated with them at 3 months
When does embarrassment appear?
when children can recognize themselves in a mirror
Gender Label
when the child can identify self or others verbally as male or female -begins at 18 months
differential crying
when they hear tape recordings of another baby's cry vs hearing their own cry
success in transition to parenthood depends on higher self-esteem and less egocentric orientation (men or women?)
women
can infants derive benefits from a secure attachment to any person?
yes
can infants distinguish between faces of children and adults? (6-9 months)
yes
can parental and child factors interact to influence the stability of temperament over time?
yes
do fathers play an important role even in the newborn period?
yes
do teasing games help infants understand and cope with emotional changes?
yes -a tease takes something that has a serious emotional tone and alters it into a more positive tone -contradictory messages provide opportunities to learn how to regulate emotions, how to affect other people and how to have fun
is a fetus aware of itself?
yes -late term fetuses will open their mouth in anticipating of meeting their own hand
can anger be adaptive and useful? (6-9 months)
yes in a study where infants get angry they become interested again while those that got sad reacted with less enjoyment