Unit 1 Psychology Key Terms and Concepts

zero correlation

no relation, one variable not predictably related to other

coding

observational technique that involves systematic assesment and ____ of overt behavior, BASICALLY labeling type of behavior observed

evolutionary psychology

A type of psychology: attempts to explain mental traits as products of national selection memory, perception, and language are adaptions mind and experience of the brain are adaptions evolutionary changes occurred due to how ancestors responded to problems- survival and production BUT not all can, some behaviors are univesal( across culture) *GET CLASS DEFINITION*

mental process

All conscious and unconscious mental states Ex) how to learn bikes, remembering bday, process of learning language

humane genome

Definition:basic genetic code, blueprint of human body Helps scientists understand how certain genes affect thoughts, actions, feelings, and disorders psychological activities due to multiple actions of genes

Role of culture

Influence of cultures: affects one's world view, reason about world, beliefs, values

social level

One of the crosses levels of psychological analysis: groups influence way people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are similar or different across cultues *also can approach psych in an interdisciplinary way*

Biological level

One of the crosses levels of psychological analysis: how phsyical body contributes to mind and behavior

individual level

One of the crosses levels of psychological analysis: individual differences in personality and in mental processes affect worldview

What psychology investigates

People and we are diverse- vary across lifespans, vary due to influences, context

steps scientific method

Phases of ___: *hypotheses* *lit review* *design study:* figure out method Ex) survery, questionary, experiment, observation conduct study: collect data, get participants, measure responses *analyze data:* describe data, figure out conclusions using descriptive stats or inferential( analyze inferentially and ask if result is significant) *report results:* brief reports at scientific convention, scientific journals, eventually reach gen audience

biological explanation

Role of biology:different chemicals are involved in brain function, different chemicals relate to different emotions and play a role in memory

case study

Type of descriptive research:intensive examination of unusual person or organization goal: describe events/experiences that lead up to/result from exceptional aspect problem: results only apply to one case SO CANNOT generalize *class definition*: descriptive technique in which individual is studies in depth in hopes of revealing universal principles, can look at a few cases ex) iron stamp in head of Phineas Gage- did not kill him but affected his personality so could observe the effect on brain and how brain parts serve certain functions when incident occurs, can take advantage of it and learn from it BUT can't generalize and apply to greater world SO usually tied to larger research body Ex) one guy observed kids in order to generate ideas for his theory, used that as foundation to further investigate and went on to make further observations Ex) road rage: could do survey of registered voters and ask about road rage experience OR do case study of incarerated prisoners for violent road rage OR naturalistic observation in which looked at CCTV footage of road rage- probably would not give you enough

How to investigate psychology

Way to look into psychology: basic research: carried out to test a theory or emprical issue applied research: carried out to investigate a real world problem

operational definition

a definition that qualifies(describes) and quantifies(measure) variable so variable can be understood objectively , good for replication

participation selection

a part of experiments:key, need to be able to genralize beyond study(problem with case studies)

third variable problem

a problem that occurs when the reseracher cannot directly manipulate variables as a result the reseracher cannot be confident that another unmeasured variable is not hte actual cause of differences in the variables of interest

naturalisitic observation

a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is not involved in situation Ex) Jane Goodall with chimps, how kids of different races sit with another, really just looking, observing

naturalistic observation

a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is passive observer, separated from the situation and making no attempt to changer or alter ongoing behavior

experimenter expectancy effect

actual change in behavior of people or nonhuman animals being observed due to expectations of observer how to resolve: person running blind to or unaware of hypotheses Ex)students believe were experimenters in study but acutally particants, work with rats were subject of study not method SO students led to expect certain results so that the reserachers could determine whether the student's expectations affected the results of the rats' training *class notes*: want to make sure experimenter not affecting study Ex) college kids simply thinking they had superior rates(they did not) made rats did better because affected how kids treated rats/effort put in, expectations affected rat's perfromance, in genreal expectations affect people's behavior

law of parsimony

aka Occams razor, the idea that theories should be simple

socially desirable responding

aka faking good: answering in a way that is most socially acceptable, problem with interviews

selection bias

aka selection threat, in experiment, unintended diference between participants in different groups, could be caused by non random assignement to groups, *class notes*: do not want this, when groups are not equal because participants in group differ in unexpectated ways that affect the dependent variable

random error

aka unsystematic error: datat accuracy can be afected by this, differs each time

amicable skepticism

an open yet way response to scientific info and open to scientific findings yet wary if no good evidence and sound reasoning don't support them how you should approach science

interviews

another interactive method, good for groups that cannot be studied through questionaires, surveys, more in-depth BUT room for biased anwers- socially deseriable responding/faking good

behavior

any activity that can be observed, recorded, and measured Ex)different play styles, bystander effect, physical aggression totality of observable human/animal actions, includes (ab)normal mental states due to advanced tech consider how people grow as they get older(diversity over lifespan),

confound

anything that affects dependent variable and that may unintentionally vary between experiment's conditions. only independent variable varying so need control groups

genes

basic unit of hereditary transmission that determine characteristics, strands of DNA ___expression affects behavior

postive correlation

both variables increase or decrease at same time Ex) agression and exposure to violent tv

research

careful collection of data

ethics with animal reserach

concerns regarding animal reserach: threats to animals' health and well being, fair to study with animals in order to increase human condition

hawthorne effect

connected to reactivity: changes in behavior that occur when people know others are observing them, want to make positive impression

norms

cultural rules that are learnead

valid

data must accurately measure constructs(concepts) that you think they measure, accurately represent phenomena tha occurs outside lab, accurately reveal effects due to specifically and only to manipulate of indpendent variables

internal validity

degree to which effects observed in experiemtn are due to independent variable and not confoudnds- need controlled and well designed experiment where only the treatment is the difference between control and experiment group(want them to be as close as possible) *class notes*: extent to which data collected in study addres reserach hypothesis in way intended, does change in dependent variable due to manipulation of independent variable

external validity

degree to which findings of study can generalize to other data, situations, or settings 1) parts accurately represents intended population 2)variables manipulated and measured in ways similar to how occur in real world *class notes*extent to which observations can be generalized,

accuracy

degree to which measure is error free, so measure can be reliabel but NOT accurate

central tedency

descriptive stat: simplest measure that represents typical response/behavior of group as whole and its measures include: mean, median, mode

scientific method

empirical way of making observation, systematic procedure to conduct research, involves observing and measuring phenomenon, used to achieve goals of decrption, prediction, control and explanation. it involves interaction among reserach, theories, and hypotheses

systematic error

erros is consistent, more problematic than random error because does not average out over time and produce as accurate results

correlational studies

examine how variables naturally relate in real world with out altering them/assigning them causation- need experiment to determine causation used a lot and sometimes cannot test hypotheses for unethical issues *class notes*: usually for early stages when cannot manipulate variables for ethical reasons Ex) people experiencing sever stress are more prone to get physical illness than those who are not Ex)kids with schizophrenic parents more likely to develop it Ex) sales of ice cream and rates of drowning both increase due to summer time Ex)autism and vaccines: controversial issue and people claim vaccines cause autism BUT prof does not agree and points out- without vacciness undermining public health and exposing population to already controlled illneses. Autism symptoms tied to other things and manifested a little later in life. NO relationship between autism and vaccines and if believe so using*unsystematic observations* and anecdotal evidence. *correlation* between two because usually diagnosed when getting vaccines

theory

explanation/model of how phenomenon works. a model of interconnected idea that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events. based on empirical evidence NEEDS TO BE FALSIBLE(can prove incorrect) and have several testable hypotheses, simple

construct validity

extent to which variables measure what supposed to measure

raw values

first step to evaluating data, data that is as close as possible to form in which data is collected help reserachers find erros, see if response is unlikely. once satisfied with data move on to descriptive stats

Goals of scientific method

goals of____: *description*: decribing phenomenon *prediction*: predicting phenomenon might occur *control* controling conditions under which phenomenon occurs *explanation*: explaining phenomenon's causes

control

good experiment needs rigourous control, steps taken by reserachers to reduce possiblity that anything other than indpendent variable could be cause of difference between experimental and control groups

experimental method

good for goal of explaining phenomenon's causes, control conditions

deception

mislead participants about study's goals/not fully reveal what will take place because want to alter participans behavior so if know would make results meaningless (connect so hawthorne effect,reactivity) BUT need debriefing

population

group want to know about, all possible individuals making up group of study's interests Ex) all american kids for agression and tv study

institutional review board(IRBs)

guardians of guidlines that are common across all research places like college, university, and reserach institutes, include administrators, legal advisers, trained scholars, community members, have to be at least one scientist, *purpose*: review proposed reserach to ensure meet scientific and ethical standards to protect safety and welfare of participants

anonymity

info, responses can never be traced to any individual, helps make participants comfortable, have to decide if participants know if being observed- case by case decision

privacy

key issue for IRB: a term that is encompassed by confidentiality and anonymity

data

measurable outcomes of research studies

random assignment

mehtod used to assign participants to experiment/control groups equal chance to be assigned to any level of independent variable *helps average out difference in control group* tends to balance out (un)known factors necessary to determine causality and control pre-existing difference between groups *class notes:* minimizes pre-existing differences,

mind

mental activity, sights, smells, tastes, sounds, and touches, responsible for memories, thoughts and feeligns

random sampling

method that gives each member of population equal chance of being chosen to participate if sample is biased, often gives spurious(illegitimate) results

descriptive reserach

observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematicaly, cannot achieve goals of control and explanation because experiment does so Ex) case studies, observations, self-report methods and interviews *class defintion*: describes data, no causation, no manipulation more for explaratory purposes

control group

participants in experiment who receive no intervention/receive intervention that is unrelated to independent variable

experimental group

participants in experiment who receive treatment

localization

parts of the brain that are important for specific feelings, thoughts, and actions

convenience sample

people who are conveniently available for study, no random sampling, biased SO must acknowledge finding's limitations

confidentiality

personal, indentifying info about participates absolutely cannot be shared with others

reactivity

phenomenon that occurs when knowledge that you're being observed alters oberserved behvior connects to hawthorne effect

directionality problem

problem with correctional studies, reserachers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable *sidenote*: correlation indicates patterns NOT cause

sampling

process by which select people from population to be in sample- need random sampling

psychological reasoning

psychological reserach to examine how people typically think , understand when and why they are likely to draw erroneious conclusoins

noblity

relates to animal ethics: animales used respectfully in research

fairness

relates to animal ethics: species share similariteis with humans that make good models for particular human behaviors/conditions Ex) damagin/turning off rat's hippocampus good animal model: trangenic mouse: developed by manipulating genes in developing mouse embryos- so can see how genes effect behavior and diesease, have to figure out trade offs of animals lives and humans' future

replication

repreating study and getting same or similar results, study must be done several times to see if conclusion is meaningful, increseases confidence in the results *class notes*: allows for reliability- a reliable measure produces similar results when repeated measurments are made identical conditions, and ulimately have findings again ex) electric shock study has been done in diffent countries, relating to different topics, and in different generations goal: want to see if underlying phenomenon endures

experiment

research method that tests casual hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables *can't always use participants/conduct study for ehtical and practical reasons* *class notes*: trying to establish cause and effect unlike in desciptive method and correlational studies in which simply making observations for exploratory methods, in ___ trying to isolate extraneous variables and see if the independent variable is the cause of the dependent varable Ex) does exposure to violent tv affect kid's level of agression, would need to operationally define agression, have control group(no violent tv) and experiemental group(violent tv) Best way to get participants: use random number to randomly select family from database of all households, participation is voluntary and can stop at any point

well-supported evidence

research reports based on empirical data that are published in peer-reviewed journals(best kind of reserach)

participant observational study

researcher involved in observation

debriefing

reserachers inform participants about study's goals, explain reason for deception in order to eliminate/counteract negative effects produced by decption

literature review

review of scientific literature related to theory- help with the direction of research

purpose of scientific method

role of scientific method: need to question for critical thinking, need to think about definitions, need to evaluate info, need well supported evidence,

variables

something in world that can vary and that researcher can manipulate/evaluate or both

hypotheses

specific testable prediction, narrower than theory based on

reliability

stability and consistency of a measure over time, data would substantially not change over time

descriptive statistics

statistics that summarize the data collected in study

critical studies

studies that directly contrast theories to see which theory better explains data

sample

subset of population, small proportion of population. Want it to be representative of population so can generalize findings and make sure findings are valid

self reports methods

survery, questionaires can be used to gather data from large number of people for short time

observer bias

systematic errors in observation that occur because observer's expectations , especially problem if cultural norms favor inhibiting or expressing certain behavior, effect participant's actions and way observers pereceive this acions

critical thinking

systematically questionaing and evaluationg info with well-supported evidence

culturally sensitive research

takes into account significant role of culture in how people think, feel, and act, need to consider if one's cultures psycological concept applies to another

belmont report

the ethical principles by which US psychologists conduct studies and includes: participants cannot be forced to be studies participants can stop participation at any time, can skip questions participants legally and ethically entitled to know what's going on in study, get debriefed in study data is condifential BUT participants should respectfully engage in study (know reseracher's name, show up on time, ask questions, don't be distracting

informed consent

the need for participants to know risk before study, usually done in writing for observational studies: individuals remain annonymoust to reserachers for privacy so don't need____ for those less than 18 can't give consent so need legal guardian to, at times need *deception*

psychology

the scientific study of behavior(what we do) and mental proceses

independent variable

the variable that gets manipulated in study has levels, manipulated, researchers choose what study participants do/exposed to levles- treatment, comparison

dependent variable

the variable that gets meaured in study, outcome measured after manipulation

observational studies

type of descriptive reserach: and there are two types: participant and naturalistic

mean

type of descriptive stat, measure of central tendency: most intituative, arithmetic average of number set

median

type of descriptive stat, measure of central tendency: value of set of number that falls exactly between lowest and highest values, more robust

serendiptiy

unexpectedly finding things that are valuable/agreeable. finding something important. need to be replicated and elaborated

reasoning

using evidence to draw conclusions

negative correlation

variables move in opposite direction

access to data

what IRB take into consideration:consider who will access data, acurracy/quality of data depends on whether participants certain response are confidential,

risk/benefit ratio

when IRB evaluates trade offs of risk and benefits of study

relative risk of participation

when running experiment/study ______ participants' mental and physical health SO IRB must evaluate the trade offs of risk and benefits of study