Unit 1 Psychology Key Terms and Concepts
zero correlation
no relation, one variable not predictably related to other
coding
observational technique that involves systematic assesment and ____ of overt behavior, BASICALLY labeling type of behavior observed
evolutionary psychology
A type of psychology: attempts to explain mental traits as products of national selection memory, perception, and language are adaptions mind and experience of the brain are adaptions evolutionary changes occurred due to how ancestors responded to problems- survival and production BUT not all can, some behaviors are univesal( across culture) *GET CLASS DEFINITION*
mental process
All conscious and unconscious mental states Ex) how to learn bikes, remembering bday, process of learning language
humane genome
Definition:basic genetic code, blueprint of human body Helps scientists understand how certain genes affect thoughts, actions, feelings, and disorders psychological activities due to multiple actions of genes
Role of culture
Influence of cultures: affects one's world view, reason about world, beliefs, values
social level
One of the crosses levels of psychological analysis: groups influence way people's thoughts, feelings, and actions are similar or different across cultues *also can approach psych in an interdisciplinary way*
Biological level
One of the crosses levels of psychological analysis: how phsyical body contributes to mind and behavior
individual level
One of the crosses levels of psychological analysis: individual differences in personality and in mental processes affect worldview
What psychology investigates
People and we are diverse- vary across lifespans, vary due to influences, context
steps scientific method
Phases of ___: *hypotheses* *lit review* *design study:* figure out method Ex) survery, questionary, experiment, observation conduct study: collect data, get participants, measure responses *analyze data:* describe data, figure out conclusions using descriptive stats or inferential( analyze inferentially and ask if result is significant) *report results:* brief reports at scientific convention, scientific journals, eventually reach gen audience
biological explanation
Role of biology:different chemicals are involved in brain function, different chemicals relate to different emotions and play a role in memory
case study
Type of descriptive research:intensive examination of unusual person or organization goal: describe events/experiences that lead up to/result from exceptional aspect problem: results only apply to one case SO CANNOT generalize *class definition*: descriptive technique in which individual is studies in depth in hopes of revealing universal principles, can look at a few cases ex) iron stamp in head of Phineas Gage- did not kill him but affected his personality so could observe the effect on brain and how brain parts serve certain functions when incident occurs, can take advantage of it and learn from it BUT can't generalize and apply to greater world SO usually tied to larger research body Ex) one guy observed kids in order to generate ideas for his theory, used that as foundation to further investigate and went on to make further observations Ex) road rage: could do survey of registered voters and ask about road rage experience OR do case study of incarerated prisoners for violent road rage OR naturalistic observation in which looked at CCTV footage of road rage- probably would not give you enough
How to investigate psychology
Way to look into psychology: basic research: carried out to test a theory or emprical issue applied research: carried out to investigate a real world problem
operational definition
a definition that qualifies(describes) and quantifies(measure) variable so variable can be understood objectively , good for replication
participation selection
a part of experiments:key, need to be able to genralize beyond study(problem with case studies)
third variable problem
a problem that occurs when the reseracher cannot directly manipulate variables as a result the reseracher cannot be confident that another unmeasured variable is not hte actual cause of differences in the variables of interest
naturalisitic observation
a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is not involved in situation Ex) Jane Goodall with chimps, how kids of different races sit with another, really just looking, observing
naturalistic observation
a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is passive observer, separated from the situation and making no attempt to changer or alter ongoing behavior
experimenter expectancy effect
actual change in behavior of people or nonhuman animals being observed due to expectations of observer how to resolve: person running blind to or unaware of hypotheses Ex)students believe were experimenters in study but acutally particants, work with rats were subject of study not method SO students led to expect certain results so that the reserachers could determine whether the student's expectations affected the results of the rats' training *class notes*: want to make sure experimenter not affecting study Ex) college kids simply thinking they had superior rates(they did not) made rats did better because affected how kids treated rats/effort put in, expectations affected rat's perfromance, in genreal expectations affect people's behavior
law of parsimony
aka Occams razor, the idea that theories should be simple
socially desirable responding
aka faking good: answering in a way that is most socially acceptable, problem with interviews
selection bias
aka selection threat, in experiment, unintended diference between participants in different groups, could be caused by non random assignement to groups, *class notes*: do not want this, when groups are not equal because participants in group differ in unexpectated ways that affect the dependent variable
random error
aka unsystematic error: datat accuracy can be afected by this, differs each time
amicable skepticism
an open yet way response to scientific info and open to scientific findings yet wary if no good evidence and sound reasoning don't support them how you should approach science
interviews
another interactive method, good for groups that cannot be studied through questionaires, surveys, more in-depth BUT room for biased anwers- socially deseriable responding/faking good
behavior
any activity that can be observed, recorded, and measured Ex)different play styles, bystander effect, physical aggression totality of observable human/animal actions, includes (ab)normal mental states due to advanced tech consider how people grow as they get older(diversity over lifespan),
confound
anything that affects dependent variable and that may unintentionally vary between experiment's conditions. only independent variable varying so need control groups
genes
basic unit of hereditary transmission that determine characteristics, strands of DNA ___expression affects behavior
postive correlation
both variables increase or decrease at same time Ex) agression and exposure to violent tv
research
careful collection of data
ethics with animal reserach
concerns regarding animal reserach: threats to animals' health and well being, fair to study with animals in order to increase human condition
hawthorne effect
connected to reactivity: changes in behavior that occur when people know others are observing them, want to make positive impression
norms
cultural rules that are learnead
valid
data must accurately measure constructs(concepts) that you think they measure, accurately represent phenomena tha occurs outside lab, accurately reveal effects due to specifically and only to manipulate of indpendent variables
internal validity
degree to which effects observed in experiemtn are due to independent variable and not confoudnds- need controlled and well designed experiment where only the treatment is the difference between control and experiment group(want them to be as close as possible) *class notes*: extent to which data collected in study addres reserach hypothesis in way intended, does change in dependent variable due to manipulation of independent variable
external validity
degree to which findings of study can generalize to other data, situations, or settings 1) parts accurately represents intended population 2)variables manipulated and measured in ways similar to how occur in real world *class notes*extent to which observations can be generalized,
accuracy
degree to which measure is error free, so measure can be reliabel but NOT accurate
central tedency
descriptive stat: simplest measure that represents typical response/behavior of group as whole and its measures include: mean, median, mode
scientific method
empirical way of making observation, systematic procedure to conduct research, involves observing and measuring phenomenon, used to achieve goals of decrption, prediction, control and explanation. it involves interaction among reserach, theories, and hypotheses
systematic error
erros is consistent, more problematic than random error because does not average out over time and produce as accurate results
correlational studies
examine how variables naturally relate in real world with out altering them/assigning them causation- need experiment to determine causation used a lot and sometimes cannot test hypotheses for unethical issues *class notes*: usually for early stages when cannot manipulate variables for ethical reasons Ex) people experiencing sever stress are more prone to get physical illness than those who are not Ex)kids with schizophrenic parents more likely to develop it Ex) sales of ice cream and rates of drowning both increase due to summer time Ex)autism and vaccines: controversial issue and people claim vaccines cause autism BUT prof does not agree and points out- without vacciness undermining public health and exposing population to already controlled illneses. Autism symptoms tied to other things and manifested a little later in life. NO relationship between autism and vaccines and if believe so using*unsystematic observations* and anecdotal evidence. *correlation* between two because usually diagnosed when getting vaccines
theory
explanation/model of how phenomenon works. a model of interconnected idea that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future events. based on empirical evidence NEEDS TO BE FALSIBLE(can prove incorrect) and have several testable hypotheses, simple
construct validity
extent to which variables measure what supposed to measure
raw values
first step to evaluating data, data that is as close as possible to form in which data is collected help reserachers find erros, see if response is unlikely. once satisfied with data move on to descriptive stats
Goals of scientific method
goals of____: *description*: decribing phenomenon *prediction*: predicting phenomenon might occur *control* controling conditions under which phenomenon occurs *explanation*: explaining phenomenon's causes
control
good experiment needs rigourous control, steps taken by reserachers to reduce possiblity that anything other than indpendent variable could be cause of difference between experimental and control groups
experimental method
good for goal of explaining phenomenon's causes, control conditions
deception
mislead participants about study's goals/not fully reveal what will take place because want to alter participans behavior so if know would make results meaningless (connect so hawthorne effect,reactivity) BUT need debriefing
population
group want to know about, all possible individuals making up group of study's interests Ex) all american kids for agression and tv study
institutional review board(IRBs)
guardians of guidlines that are common across all research places like college, university, and reserach institutes, include administrators, legal advisers, trained scholars, community members, have to be at least one scientist, *purpose*: review proposed reserach to ensure meet scientific and ethical standards to protect safety and welfare of participants
anonymity
info, responses can never be traced to any individual, helps make participants comfortable, have to decide if participants know if being observed- case by case decision
privacy
key issue for IRB: a term that is encompassed by confidentiality and anonymity
data
measurable outcomes of research studies
random assignment
mehtod used to assign participants to experiment/control groups equal chance to be assigned to any level of independent variable *helps average out difference in control group* tends to balance out (un)known factors necessary to determine causality and control pre-existing difference between groups *class notes:* minimizes pre-existing differences,
mind
mental activity, sights, smells, tastes, sounds, and touches, responsible for memories, thoughts and feeligns
random sampling
method that gives each member of population equal chance of being chosen to participate if sample is biased, often gives spurious(illegitimate) results
descriptive reserach
observing behavior to describe that behavior objectively and systematicaly, cannot achieve goals of control and explanation because experiment does so Ex) case studies, observations, self-report methods and interviews *class defintion*: describes data, no causation, no manipulation more for explaratory purposes
control group
participants in experiment who receive no intervention/receive intervention that is unrelated to independent variable
experimental group
participants in experiment who receive treatment
localization
parts of the brain that are important for specific feelings, thoughts, and actions
convenience sample
people who are conveniently available for study, no random sampling, biased SO must acknowledge finding's limitations
confidentiality
personal, indentifying info about participates absolutely cannot be shared with others
reactivity
phenomenon that occurs when knowledge that you're being observed alters oberserved behvior connects to hawthorne effect
directionality problem
problem with correctional studies, reserachers find a relationship between two variables, but they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable *sidenote*: correlation indicates patterns NOT cause
sampling
process by which select people from population to be in sample- need random sampling
psychological reasoning
psychological reserach to examine how people typically think , understand when and why they are likely to draw erroneious conclusoins
noblity
relates to animal ethics: animales used respectfully in research
fairness
relates to animal ethics: species share similariteis with humans that make good models for particular human behaviors/conditions Ex) damagin/turning off rat's hippocampus good animal model: trangenic mouse: developed by manipulating genes in developing mouse embryos- so can see how genes effect behavior and diesease, have to figure out trade offs of animals lives and humans' future
replication
repreating study and getting same or similar results, study must be done several times to see if conclusion is meaningful, increseases confidence in the results *class notes*: allows for reliability- a reliable measure produces similar results when repeated measurments are made identical conditions, and ulimately have findings again ex) electric shock study has been done in diffent countries, relating to different topics, and in different generations goal: want to see if underlying phenomenon endures
experiment
research method that tests casual hypotheses by manipulating and measuring variables *can't always use participants/conduct study for ehtical and practical reasons* *class notes*: trying to establish cause and effect unlike in desciptive method and correlational studies in which simply making observations for exploratory methods, in ___ trying to isolate extraneous variables and see if the independent variable is the cause of the dependent varable Ex) does exposure to violent tv affect kid's level of agression, would need to operationally define agression, have control group(no violent tv) and experiemental group(violent tv) Best way to get participants: use random number to randomly select family from database of all households, participation is voluntary and can stop at any point
well-supported evidence
research reports based on empirical data that are published in peer-reviewed journals(best kind of reserach)
participant observational study
researcher involved in observation
debriefing
reserachers inform participants about study's goals, explain reason for deception in order to eliminate/counteract negative effects produced by decption
literature review
review of scientific literature related to theory- help with the direction of research
purpose of scientific method
role of scientific method: need to question for critical thinking, need to think about definitions, need to evaluate info, need well supported evidence,
variables
something in world that can vary and that researcher can manipulate/evaluate or both
hypotheses
specific testable prediction, narrower than theory based on
reliability
stability and consistency of a measure over time, data would substantially not change over time
descriptive statistics
statistics that summarize the data collected in study
critical studies
studies that directly contrast theories to see which theory better explains data
sample
subset of population, small proportion of population. Want it to be representative of population so can generalize findings and make sure findings are valid
self reports methods
survery, questionaires can be used to gather data from large number of people for short time
observer bias
systematic errors in observation that occur because observer's expectations , especially problem if cultural norms favor inhibiting or expressing certain behavior, effect participant's actions and way observers pereceive this acions
critical thinking
systematically questionaing and evaluationg info with well-supported evidence
culturally sensitive research
takes into account significant role of culture in how people think, feel, and act, need to consider if one's cultures psycological concept applies to another
belmont report
the ethical principles by which US psychologists conduct studies and includes: participants cannot be forced to be studies participants can stop participation at any time, can skip questions participants legally and ethically entitled to know what's going on in study, get debriefed in study data is condifential BUT participants should respectfully engage in study (know reseracher's name, show up on time, ask questions, don't be distracting
informed consent
the need for participants to know risk before study, usually done in writing for observational studies: individuals remain annonymoust to reserachers for privacy so don't need____ for those less than 18 can't give consent so need legal guardian to, at times need *deception*
psychology
the scientific study of behavior(what we do) and mental proceses
independent variable
the variable that gets manipulated in study has levels, manipulated, researchers choose what study participants do/exposed to levles- treatment, comparison
dependent variable
the variable that gets meaured in study, outcome measured after manipulation
observational studies
type of descriptive reserach: and there are two types: participant and naturalistic
mean
type of descriptive stat, measure of central tendency: most intituative, arithmetic average of number set
median
type of descriptive stat, measure of central tendency: value of set of number that falls exactly between lowest and highest values, more robust
serendiptiy
unexpectedly finding things that are valuable/agreeable. finding something important. need to be replicated and elaborated
reasoning
using evidence to draw conclusions
negative correlation
variables move in opposite direction
access to data
what IRB take into consideration:consider who will access data, acurracy/quality of data depends on whether participants certain response are confidential,
risk/benefit ratio
when IRB evaluates trade offs of risk and benefits of study
relative risk of participation
when running experiment/study ______ participants' mental and physical health SO IRB must evaluate the trade offs of risk and benefits of study