Are Any of Your Relatives Blue?

When was the structure of DNA discovered?

1953

A karyotype is

A visual inspection of chromosomes

thymine and cytosine (T, C)

pyrimidines

Alternate forms of a gene for the same trait are called

alleles

Human Ox Wheat Germ E. coli Sea Urchin

% A % G % C % T 30.4 19.6 19.9 03.1 29.0 21.2 21.2 28.7 28.1 21.6 22.7 27.4 24.7 26.0 25.7 23.6 32.8 17.7 17.3 32.1

Base pairing is complementary

(A/T, G/C)

When true-breeding (pure) varieties were crossed,

, all offspring in the F1 generation showed one of the two original phenotypes for each trait

Chargaff's Rules indicated some regularity

- Amounts of each base vary among species - Percentage of all bases are not equal - G = C; A = T - G + C does not necessarily equal A + T

Enzymes lower the activation energy required to make the reaction go

- Bind and bring reactants (substrates) into close proximity - Put reactants into the necessary orientation - Exert thermodynamic strain on the bonds

3. Put the (now) two molecules back together

- Connect any loose ends along the new chain - Each new molecule consists of one original and one new strand - semiconservative replication

two sister chromatids

- Formed from DNA replication during the S phase - Will separate during Anaphase of Mitosis and Anaphase II of Meiosis

Self-replication

- Genetic information must be passed from one generation to the next; this requires that there be an inherent mechanism for accurate copying of the information

homologous chromosomes

- Inherited from different parents - Stay separate and assort independently during Mitosis - Come together as tetrads during Prophase I of Meiosis - Separate during Anaphase I of Meiosis

4 kinds of bases, 2 purines and 2 pyrimidines

- Purines: Adenine (A) and Guanine (G) - Pyrimidines: Thymine (T) and Cytosine (C) - Uracil (U) occurs in RNA instead of Thymine

1. Take the double-helix apart

- Separate the two strands - unzip the helix - DNA separates stands in the middle - Involves breaking the hydrogen bonds holding base pairs together

Functional complexity

- The genetic material must contain sufficient complexity to encode the huge variety of traits that exist in an individual

Mutability

- There must be some capacity for mutation, or change, in the genetic information. These changes, once they occur, must be faithfully copied and passed on

2. Make a copy of everything

- Use each strand as a template for making a copy of the other - Add new nucleotides to a growing chain - The energy comes from 2 phosphates and sugar and connects loose ends, end up with 2 DNA molecules

The chromatin packaging is hierarchical and dynamic

- only when it is most tightly packed is the chromatin visible as chromatids and chromosomes

DNA replication steps

1) Helicase- unwinds the parental double helix (origins of replication) 2) DNA topoisomerase - upstream of helices alleviating torsional strain. The enzyme complex expands the replication bubble in both directions. 3) Single-strand binding proteins (SSBP) stabilize unwound DNA, aided by DNA gyrase. 4) Primase synthesizes a short RNA primer for DNA polymerase to bind to in the 5' to 3' direction to start replication on each strand. 5) DNA polymerase synthesizes the leading strand in 5' to 3' direction while the lagging strand is made discontinuously by primase making short pieces and then DNA polymerase extending these to make Okazaki fragments. 6) DNA ligase joins the Okazaki fragments together

Meiosis II Phases

1. Begins with chromosomes without going another round of DNA replication 2. Centrioles duplicate and begin moving to opposite poles 3. Prophase II: sister chromatids condense while spindle starts to form, envelope disappears 4. Prometaphase II: sister chromatids attach to opposite spindle poles by kinetochore microtubules 5. Metaphase II: spindle aligns the sister chromatids along the metaphase plate 6. Anaphase II: sister chromatids separate and they move toward the poles 7. Telophase II: chromosomes decondense and envelope reforms 8. Cytokinesis II: Cleavage furrows separate two daughter cells into 4 haploid daughter cells

Cell cycle

1. Duplicate the genetic material and cell components (make enough for 2 cells) 2. Separate the two sets of genetic material (and any other cell components) 3. Divide the parent cell into two daughter cells Cell division in prokaryotes (as well as mtDNA and cpDNA) occurs through binary fission

Apoptosis steps

1. cell shrink/pull away from neighboring cells 2. the nucleus fragments, the plasma membrane develops blisters 3. the cell fragments are engulfed by white blood cells

Chances of FF, Ff, fF from the preceding list to arrive at 3/4or 75%. The chance of offspring without freckles (only the ff genotype is

1/4 or 25%

If a cell has 22 chromosomes the haploid number would be

11

If each codon were composed of only 1 nucleotide, for how many amino acids (out of the 20) would there NOT be a code for?

16

f each codon were composed of only 1 nucleotide, for how many amino acids (out of the 20) would there NOT be a code for?

16

What is the expected genotypic ratio of a Mendelian monohybrid cross involving individuals with the following genotypes (Tt X Tt)?

1:2:1

What is the expected genotypic ratio of a Mendelian dihybrid cross when both parents are heterozygous for both of their traits?

1:2:1:2:4:2:1:2:1

Each individual inherits

2 factors, one from each parent, from each trait

Each individual inherits

2 factors, one per percent

A typical eukaryotic cell contains over

2 m of DNA

Density studies suggested

2 or 3 chains

The X chromosome contains over

2000 genes

Normally, humans have _____ pairs of autosomes.

22

The normal number of autosomes for a human is_____________ pair(s) and the normal number of sex chromosomes is_____________ pair(s), for a total of 23 pairs of chromosomes.

22 1

Each base is rotated

36 degrees to the right

What is the expected phenotypic ratio of a Mendelian monohybrid cross involving individuals who have the following genotypes (Ww X Ww)?

3:1

If codons were composed of only 2 nucleotides each, how many amino acids (out of the 20) would there NOT be a code for?

4

The outcome of meiosis, which includes two nuclear divisions, is______________ (2 /4) daughter cells with the______________ (haploid / diploid) chromosome number.

4 haploid

The outcomes of meiosis.

4 daughter cells haploid daughter cells

in the second generation in a dihybrid cross there are

4 variations

Human cells contain ___ chromosomes

46

Nucleotides have

5 and 3 prime ends and are antiparallel

The chains have distinct

5' and 3' ends, and run antiparallel

Which of the following are components of a nucleotide?

5-carbon sugar Phosphate Nitrogen-containing base

How many phenotypes are possible for human blood type? How many genotypes are possible?

6

What is the expected phenotypic ratio of a Mendelian dihybrid cross when both parents are heterozygous for both of their traits?

9:3:3:1

Chromatid

A DNA molecule, each half of the chromosome

Eukaryote

A cell that contains a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

dihybrid cross

A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same gene

monohybrid cross

A cross between individuals that involves one pair of contrasting traits

tumor suppressor genes

A gene whose protein product inhibits cell division, thereby preventing the uncontrolled cell growth that contributes to cancer.

G0 phase of interphase

A nondividing state occupied by cells that have left the cell cycle, continue to perform everyday processes

poptosis

A programmed cell death, acts to decrease the number of cells, occurs when unwanted tissue develops.

Prokaryote

A unicellular organism that lacks a nucleus and membrane bound organelles

recessive allele

An allele that is masked when a dominant allele is present

GMOs

An organism whose genetic material has been precisely and specifically altered (engineered) using recombinant DNA technology and in a way that does not occur naturally. - Inserting genes from other species (often unrelated) - transgenic organisms - Altering the sequence of existing genes - gene editing, gene therapy - Enhancing expression or knock-out of existing genes

Allele

An particular form of a gene.

Choose ALL possible outcomes in a cell that cannot pass the G1 checkpoint because its DNA is damaged.

Apoptosis will occur if the DNA cannot be repaired. The cell may move into G0 if DNA repair is not possible. The p53 protein will attempt to initiate DNA repair.

Centromere

Area where the chromatids of a chromosome are attached

The concept of______________ illustrates how combinations of traits segregate when gametes are produced, and thus end up in offspring as a result of fertilization

Assortment

Prior to Mendel, most people believed in the theory of

Blended inheritance

RNA interference (iRNA)

Blocking gene expression by means of an miRNA silencing complex. first discovered in worms. Evolved from eukaryotic organisms as a protection against viruses.

1st step of spindle apparatus: Prophase

DNA condensed into visible chromosomes; spindle apparatus forms; the nuclear membrane breaks down.

Interphase

Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, G2, G0 phases

2nd step of binary fission prokaryote

Chromosome and DNA is replicated

Cytokinesis in animal cells

Cleavage furrow forms and deepens, and a contractile ring separates the contents into two cells

DNA length is measured in

Constant diameter

Mendel carried out hand pollination of individual plants to create

Controlled crosses

A chromatid, which is found in the cell at the beginning of the S phase, is composed of

DNA

A transgenic organism contains foreign

DNA

James Watson and Francis Crick contributed greatly to our knowledge of the structure of the molecule known as

DNA

The genetic material of all organism is called __________.

DNA

The purpose of mRNA is to carry information from______________ to the_______________

DNA Ribosomes

During the 1940s, scientists considered which two molecules most likely to be genetic material?

DNA protein

Chromatin is composed of

DNA and protein.

The enzyme responsible for unwinding and unzipping the DNA strands during DNA replication is

DNA helicase.

Prior to the 1950s, it was unclear whether

DNA or proteins carried the genetic information in the cell

The enzyme responsible for maintaining the complimentary natures of the DNA strands during DNA replication is

DNA polymerase.

The process of copying one DNA double helix is called

DNA replication

The synthesis of new DNA double helix molecules from a pre-existing parent molecule is called

DNA replication

Recombinant DNA (rDNA)

DNA that has been formed artificially by combining genetic material from different sources (often different species).

Who was unaware of Mendel's work?

Darwin

The following were direct contributions of the work of James Watson and Francis Crick

Determined that sugars and phosphates formed backbones in the DNA Determined that nucleotides were paired inside the double helix Discovered the double helix shape of deoxyribonucleic acid

In flamingos, coloration is a result of their

Diet

Mendel's first law: segregation

Diploid organisms inherit a pair of factors (alleles), one from each parent, and these segregate randomly during production of gametes such that each gamete has an equal chance of receiving either allele (but not both).

Mendel's 2 laws of inheritance apply to all generic traits in

Diploid, sexually-reproducing organisms

Linus Pauling

Discovered the alpha helix structure of proteins, thought DNA was triple stranded

The following were direct contributions of the work of James Watson and Francis Crick.

Discovered the double helix shape of deoxyribonucleic acid Determined that nucleotides were paired inside the double helix Determined that sugars and phosphates formed backbones in the DNA

Mendel showed that the genetic factors were_______ and _________ as they were passed from one generation to the next

Discrete maintained their identity

sources of generic variation:

During prophase 1, synapsis causes crossing-over and genetic recombination - each chromatid breaks into a mixture of material and paternal pieces During anaphase 1, one member of each homologous chromosome pair randomly ends up in a given daughter cell - independent assortment After Meiosis 2, each daughter cell contains only one copy of each chromosome/gene/factor -segregation Punnett Squares model the twin processes of meiosis and fertilization

Mendel's 2nd law: independent assortment

Each gene (pair of alleles) assorts into gametes independently of other genes at separate loci, such that a gamete can contain any combination of factors that occur in the parent.

restriction enzymes

Enzyme that cuts DNA or a virus at a specific sequence of nucleotides (the sticky ends)

5th step of binary fission prokaryote

Except for mutation, the daughter cells are identical

True or false: Most sex linked genes are located on the Y chromosome.

False. Reason: Incorrect. The Y chromosome has far fewer genes than the X chromosome. As such, most sex linked traits are X linked.

Damaged DNA in a cell can prevent the cell from passing which of the checkpoints?

G1

Many traits are controlled by more than one

Gene

Golden rice

Genetically modified rice that produces edible beta-carotene, which the body can turn into vitamin A for nutrient deficiencies

Meiosis 1: Anaphase 1

Homologous pairs of identical sister chromatids separate and move toward opposite poles of the cell

FF Ff ff

Homozygous dominant Heterozygous Homozygous recessive

Sister chromatids are those are produced through DNA replication

Identical except for mutation(identical)

translation steps

Initiation. mRNA in cytoplasm binds to a ribosome (mRNA) Start codon (AUG) Elongation. tRNAs anticodons bind to the codons on the mRNA sequence Termination. the amino acids on the RNA bind to each other to form a long chain, or protein

Mendel compared observed results to those predicted by the

Laws of probability

locus

Location of a gene on a chromosome

Mendel used ____ for his experiments

Mathematical models

Which of the following contributes least to genetic variety?

Mitosis

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

Mitosis: Prophase: No pairing of chromosomes Metaphase: Duplicated chromosomes at metaphase plate Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate, becoming daughter chromosomes that move to the poles Telophase/Cytokinesis: two diploid cells, identical to the parental cell occurs in somatic(body) cells during development, one round of the M phase; 1 diploid parent cell produces 2 diploid daughter cells, homologous chromosomes stay distinct; sister chromatids separate during anaphase, except for mutation, daughter cells are genetically-identical Meiosis: Prophase 1: pairing of homologous chromosomes Metapahse 1: Homologous duplicated chromosomes at metaphase plate Anaphase 1; sister chromatids separate in anaphase 2 Telophase 1: Two Haploid daughter cells occurs in germ cells and produces gametes, two rounds of the M phase with no DNA replication in-between; 1 diploid parent cell produces 4 haploid daughter cells, homologous chromosomes come together in Meiosis 1 to form tetrads; this reduces the number of chromosomes by half(diploid-to-haploid), homologous chromosomes separate during

All of the historical uses of biotechnology.

Modify bacteria to produce new drugs. Improve the nutritional value of crops. Produce plants that can withstand climate change.

One of the uses of CRISPR.

Modify the pig genome to make hearts for humans.

A certain gene has 5 possible alleles throughout a population. The trait controlled by this gene has/is ______.

Multiple alleles.

Inversions, translocation, deletions, and duplications are types of chromosomal

Mutations

Pea flowers are an example of

Non genetic influences and PH of soil

The short segments of DNA that are formed on the lagging strand during replication are called_______________ fragments.

Okazaki

Each trait examined was controlled by one pair of factors with

One allele dominant and one recessive (here, tall allele dominant over short)

Which of the following is true about a homologous chromosome pair?

One came from "mom" and one from "dad."

codominant alleles

Pairs of alleles that both affect and express the phenotype when present in the phenotype of a heterozygote

Mendel studied transmission(inheritance) of different traits in

Peas

Meiosis 1: Interkinesis

Period of time between Meiosis 1 and 2

Because Mendel was known about the actual "stuff" being passed from one generation to the next, he had to use

Phenotypes to infer something about the underlying genotypes. "Stuff" was genes.

Human genes are

Polygenic

cell division

Process by which a cell divides into two new daughter cells

1st step of binary fission prokaryote

Prokaryote is attached to the cell membrane

In eukaryotes, the DNA is packaged with

Proteins to form chromatin

The diagram used for estimating genetic probability is called a

Punnett Square

Centromeres

Region of a chromosome where the two sister chromatids attach

Which scientist's X-ray diffraction data helped to demonstrate the double helix structure of DNA?

Rosalind Franklin

Who took a picture of DNA?

Rosalind Franklin

Early examples of GMO's

Selective breeding in dogs, livestock and food domestication (horses, cows, corn, potatoes, wheat, rams, bananas)

The two traits were controlled by

Separate genetic factors, each following the mono hybrid model

Homologous chromosomes/chromatids are those that are inherited from two parents

Similar (same genes, different alleles)

Most alleles don't show

Simple dominant: recessive expression

Why did early molecular geneticists know that the genetic material needed to be a stable molecule?

So it could be passed from one generation to the next. So it could be replicated accurately.

3rd step of spindle apparatus: Metaphase

Spindle microtubules grow out and attach to the chromosomes; chromosomes jostle around until they are lined up along the metaphase plate

autosomal

all the other genes in the body that are not sex-linked.

cell separation

Technique used to separate transfused cells from autologous or patient cells

Adenine

The base that pairs with Thymine in DNA

G2 phase of interphase

The cell accumulates proteins necessary to divide the cell

G1 phase of interphase

The cell replicates it's organelles(mitochondria and ribosomes) and accumulates materials to replicate the chromosomes

What can also modify an expression of a trait?

The environment

Cell Duplication

The genetic material and cell components (make enough for 2 cells)

Meiosis 1: Metaphase 1

The homologous chromosome pair align at the metaphase plate, called independent assortment

The ploidy level

The number of centromeres

When F1 individuals were crossed with each other,

The original phenotypes appeared in the F2 generation in roughly a 3:1 ratio

When F1 individuals were backcrossed with a true breeding short,

The phenotypic ratio was roughly 1:1

gene cloning

The production of multiple copies of a gene. Scientists do it for a particular protein, alter genotypes, produce large quantities of a gene's protein product like insulin

2nd step of spindle apparatus: Prometaphase

The second stage of mitosis, in which the nuclear envelope fragments and the spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of the chromosomes.

3rd step of binary fission prokaryote

The two copies are pulled apart as the cell grows out from the midline

A and B blood types exits to show that

The types of alleles (proteins) you have

M phase of interphase (Mitotic)

This stage includes mitosis, the division of the nucleus and genetic material, and cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm(which doesn't happen in all cells) during mitosis the sister chromatids of each chromosome separate becoming daughter chromosomes that are distributed to two daughter nuclei, when cytokinesis is complete, two daughter cells are identical to the mother cell

Who continued Mendel's research

Thomas Hunt Morgan

It took one hundred years

To understand Inheritance

Mendel's laws describe the

Transmission of genotypes on sexually-reproducing organisms

True or false: All three major types of RNA are produced by transcription of DNA.

True

True or false: Environmental factors may influence the expression of some genes.

True

True or false: The development of cancer always involves gene mutation.

True

1. Substitution - single base exchange 2. Insertion - addition of one or more bases 3. Deletion - removal of one or more bases

Types of mutations include

Select all of the choices that apply to a gene carrier.

Typically has a heterozygous genotype. Possesses but does not express the allele in question.

All gametes are

Unique

Most sex-linked traits are genes only on the__________ chromosome.

X

Analysis of this pedigree indicates that the genetic trait in question is

X-linked recessive.

analysis of this pedigree indicates that the genetic trait in question is

X-linked recessive.

females have ____ chromosomes

XX

cytokinesis in plant cells

a cell plate forms, followed by a new cell membrane, and finally a new cell wall forms

Peter has a gene that encodes blue eyes, while Karin has a gene for green eyes. Alternate forms of genes such as blue versus green for one trait are called

allele

The haploid number of chromosomes is

a condition in which only one kind of each chromosome is present inside the cell.

Backcross

a cross between an F1 genotype and either of the parental genotypes

growth factors

a hormone that stimulates the growth and division of a cell or cells

The cell cycle is

a set of orderly stages that occur between one cell division and the next

During the final stage of translation, a release factor binds to

a stop codon

particulate theory of inheritance

a theory proposed by Mendel. it states that traits are inherited as discrete units that remain unchanged as they are passed from parent to offspring

Meiosis

a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores.

Gene

a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring.

Which of the following are genotypes of "true-breeding" organisms?

aabbcc AABBCC

The characteristics that researchers suspected the genetic material would have prior to the discovery that the genetic material was DNA.

ability to store information accurate replication passes from one generation to the next

Somatic cells are

able to undergo mitosis. body cells

The level of packaging can control whether certain regions of DNA are

active and genes are expressed

The_______________ of an enzyme are highly specific, and a function of their 3D shapes

active site

2 hydrogen bonds between

adenine and thymine, weaker

On a pedigree, a filled in square represents an

affected male.

When true breeding pure varieties were crossed,

all offspring of the F1 generation showed one of the two original phenotypes.

a given gene can have 2 or more forms known as

alleles , that result in the production of different versions of the protein that the gene encodes.

Dominant allele

an allele that is fully expressed in the phenotype of a heterozygote(Uppercase)

Avastin

an anti-angiogenic drug that is used to cut off the capillary networks to tumors and other cancers

cells that are green or isn't on proteins

aren't expressed on a chart

Mitosis is

asexual reproduction

During independent____________ , homologous chromosomes segregate in a random manner.

assortment

During independent______________ , homologous chromosomes segregate in a random manner.

assortment

A chromosome that is not associated with determining gender in an individual is called a(n)

autosome

Any chromosome other than sex chromosomes are called

autosome

Human chromosome 3 is classified as an

autosome.

Humans normally have 22 pairs of___________ and one pair of____________ chromosomes.

autosomes sex

A cell that contains a pair of each type of chromosome unique to the species is called _____.

diploid

All that apply or are associated with the term plasmid.

bacterial DNA vector

First GMO patent in 1980

bacterium with an appetite for crude oil, ready to gobble up spills.

The idea that crossing a plant with red flowers with one with white flowers would yield only plants with pink flowers is referred to as the ______ concept.

blending

Somatic cells

body cells

The repeating sequence of events in eukaryotes that involves cell growth and cell division is called the________________________.

cell cycle

At the beginning of the S phase, each chromosome is composed of a single, unreplicated DNA molecule called a

chromatid

Crossing-over sometimes occurs between nonsister___________ of a tetrad during meiosis.

chromatids

Chromosomes are made of

chromatids, when visible consist of two replicated chromatids

Eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of____________ , which is a mixture of DNA and protein.

chromatin

To fit within the cell, and prevent damage, DNA is packaged with proteins

chromatin

eukaryotic chromosomes are composed of

chromatin(combination of DNA and protein)

When the backbone of the DNA molecule breaks it is referred to as a

chromosomal mutation.

S phase of interphase

chromosome replication occurs, then each chromosome consists of two sister chromatids

Restriction enzymes are used to

cleave the vector DNA.

Proto-oncogenes

code that encodes proteins that promotes the cell cycle and prevents apoptosis

Q1 and Q2 are different alleles of a single gene and are both completely expressed in a heterozygous individual. This type of inheritance is termed

codominance

Jim has type AB blood. To have type AB blood he inherited an "A" allele from one parent and a "B" allele from the other parent. This is an example of

codominance.

A(n)____________ is a three-nucleotide sequence in mRNA that codes for a particular amino acid.

codon

Genotype

combination of alleles in a get Ben individual Ex: Aa, BB, AaBB

Hershey and Chase

concluded that the genetic material of the bacteriophage was DNA, not protein. Made the model of DNA

Which of these are removed from a mRNA during processing in the nucleus?

copies of introns

BT crops

crops that have been genetically modified to contain the Bt gene. This gene expresses a protein that is toxic to many crop-eating pests. The gene was transferred from a soil bacterium called Bacillus thuringiensis (hence Bt).

GMO examples

crops, animals, drugs, pest-resistant plants, useful bacteria. (bacterium to corn)

The further genes are apart from each other the more often they will_________ over.

cross

In meiosis,_____________________________ occurs during prophase I and results in new mixtures of genes; while during metaphase I________________________ results in new mixtures of chromosomes

crossing over independent assortment

The two events that are key to genetic variation are

crossing over. independent assortment.

What is division of cellular cytoplasm called?

cytokinesis

An individual of genotype QqBb bred with an individual of genotype QqBb. This is an example of a(n) cross.

dihybrid

A _____ is an experiment during which two individuals are bred that have two traits that have two variations for each trait

dihybrid cross

Select all of the chromosomal mutations that can occur.

deletion translocation inversion duplication

Coat color in Himalayan rabbits is influenced by the temperature at which the animal is reared. This is an example of a trait that is

determined by both genotype and environment.

A human body cell has 23 pairs of chromosomes, or 46 total chromosomes; thus, with regard to humans, 23 is the haploid (n) chromosome number and 46 is the______________ , or 2n, chromosome number.

diploid

In humans, mitosis produces cells that are

diploid.

The genetic units for underlying traits are passed as

discrete factors (I.e., not blended)

A__________ allele masks the expression of an alternate form of that same gene.

dominant

The term____________allele means that this allele will mask the recessive allele when they are together in the same organism.

dominant

DNA is a

double helix, with bases facing inward

during meiosis, crossing over sometimes occur between the nonsister chromatids of a tetard.

during crossing over, the chromatids exchange genetic material, and genes.

Treatments of certain cancers and genetic disorders are uses of genetic

engineering

ASE

enzyme

Sister chromatids contain

exactly the same genetic information.

Which contains instructions for the production of a polypeptide?

exon

The coding portions of a gene that are joined during mRNA processing are called

exons

Which of the following are spliced together to produce a mRNA transcript that will undergo translation?

exons

Signals that tell a cell to divide are more likely to be ______ signals.

external

The concept of segregation refers to how different alleles for a pair of traits are passed from parents to offspring.

false

True or false: Gene cloning refers to cloning of whole organisms.

false

Unlike what most people believed at the time, Mendel showed that blended inheritance was true.

false

The insertion or deletion of one or more bases, causing a change of the mRNA codon-reading sequence is called a(n)_____________ mutation.

frameshift

A mutation that results in a different reading frame for the codons is called a

frameshift mutation.

These factors must separate randomly when

gametes are produced, and combine randomly when fertilization occurs

The type of cloning through which identical copies of a functional unit of DNA are made is called___________ cloning.

gene

A certain gene excerpt has the sequence AAGGGTAACGA, then changes to CCGGGTAACGA. What just happened?

gene mutation

The expression of selected_____________ accounts for the specialization of cells like white blood cells, muscle fibers, and nerve cells.

genes

The expression of selected________________ accounts for the specialization of cells like white blood cells, muscle fibers, and nerve cells.

genes

Crossing over is most likely to occur between

genes that are far apart.

Oncogenes

genes that cause cancer

Producing large quantities of a gene product, such as insulin, and to learn how a cloned gene codes for a particular protein are examples of why biologists clone

genes, DNA

Genetic engineering involves manipulation of the)_____________ of organisms.

genes, genome

The ability to manipulate the genes of organisms is called

genetic engineering.

Inheritance patterns are studied in the field of

genetics

The science that helps to explain the process of inheritance patterns is called

genetics

The complete genetic makeup of any organism or virus is called its

genome

Chocolate Labrador retrievers have brown fur. The combination of alleles that produce the brown fur represents the dogs'

genotype

The alleles responsible for a trait are referred to as an organism's

genotype

Enzyme Less energy than reactants

go downhill

operon

group of genes operating together

Zmmap

grown in tobacco, cured healthcare workers in 2014 who had ebola

The enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix so that replication can occur is called DNA

helicase

If an organism has two different alleles for the same gene it is considered ______ for that gene.

heterozygous

Recessive genes are typically masked when an individual is__________ for the gene. When two members of an allelic pair are different. Ex: genotype Hh

heterozygous

The X and Y chromosome are not

homologous

A pair of chromosomes that are alike and come together in synapsis during prophase of the first meiotic division are

homologous.

An organism carrying two dominant alleles of a particular gene would be considered dominant for that trait.

homozygous

An individual with the genotype HH, would be considered ______ for that trait.

homozygous dominant

Genes that are active in most of the body's cells are called _____ genes.

housekeeping

Bases on opposite strands are connected by

hydrogen bonds (2 or 3)

During mitosis, sister chromatids are

identical to one another. the components of a replicated chromosome.

A characteristic______________ of dominance is that heterozygotes display an intermediate phenotype that is between that of the individuals homozygotic for both alleles.

incomplete

A heterozygote displaying a third variation of a trait - a phenotype in between that of individuals homozygotic for both alleles - is an example of

incomplete dominance.

double heterozygote

individual with two mutant alleles each at a different locus

During the binding of substrates, the 3D shape of the enzyme changes, which induces strain

induced-fit

So, the genetic material must be able to store the

information needed to run the cell, and be able to pass that information to the next generation

Polygenic____________ occurs when a trait is governed by two or more genes or sets of alleles.

inheritance

frameshift mutation examples

insertion and deletion

All of the following that describes the geneticist, Gregor Mendel.

integrated mathematics in his studies followed the scientific method closely careful, deliberate, note-taker

Epistasis

interaction between alleles in which one allele hides the effects of another allele

Signals that ensure that stages of the cell cycle follow one another in the normal sequence are more likely to be ______ signals.

internal

The noncoding portions of a gene that are removed from the mRNA copy during processing are called

introns

A female that is heterozygous for an X-linked recessive trait

is a carrier of the condition.

Three alleles for the same gene control the inheritance of ABO blood types, by determining which antigens will be expressed on the surface of red blood cells. The resulting four blood types are A, B, AB and O. Select all of the true statements about the inheritance of human blood types

is codominantly expressed. has multiple alleles.

A visual inspection of the chromosomes is called a

karyotype

The locus of an allele refers to its

location on a pair of chromosomes.

Alleles of a gene are typically located at the same____________ on homologous chromosomes.

locus

dedifferentiated

lose their specialized identity

Which structure carries genetic information from the DNA to the ribosome?

mRNA

During ______, crossing-over sometimes occurs between nonsister chromatids of a tetrad.

meiosis

The process that occurs within the reproductive organs of the human body in order to produce gametes is called

meiosis

Crossing over is an event that distinguishes

meiosis from mitosis.

The type of nuclear division that occurs as part of sexual reproduction, in which the daughter cells receive the haploid number of chromosomes in varied combinations is

meiosis.

During which phase of meiosis are you most likely to observe independent assortment?

metaphase I

The purpose of _______ is to produce two genetically identical daughter cells.

mitosis

Within most tissues of the human body, a process called_____________ occurs to produce new cells.

mitosis

nuclear division that stays constant

mitosis

Most traits result from a

mixture of genetic and non genetic influences

Males inherit their X chromosomes from ?

mom

An individual of genotype Qq is bred with an individual of genotype Qq is an example of a(n) cross.

monohybrid

An individual of genotype Qq is bred with an individual of genotype Qq is an example of a_____________ cross.

monohybrid

An experiment during which two heterozygous F1 individuals are bred and produce two different phenotypes for a single trait is termed a

monohybrid cross

The allele that causes Duchenne muscular dystrophy remains in the population because the allele is passed from a carrier_____________ to a carrier_____________

mother daughter

The recessive allele that causes Duchenne muscular dystrophy remains in the population because the allele is passed from carrier

mother to carrier daughter.

Some genes are controlled by genes on

mtDNA or cpDNA or are sex-linked

A chromosomal_____________ occurs when the backbone of the DNA molecule breaks.

mutation

A chromosomal___________occurs when the backbone of the DNA molecule breaks.

mutation

A gene___________ is a permanent change to the base sequence of DNA.

mutation

Cancer generally develops as a result of

mutation events in either proto oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes.

Meiosis 1: Telophase 1 and Cytokinesis

nuclear membranes reform, the cell separates into 2 daughter cells

At the lowest level, the DNA double helix is wrapped around a core of proteins to form a

nucleosome

DNA is composed of units called__________ , each of which contains a phosphate group, a 5-carbon sugar, and one of 4 nitrogen-containing bases.

nucleotides

A sugar-phosphate backbone links

nucleotides on the same chain

DNA was a long, thin polymer of

nucleotides, (deoxyribose sugar + phosphate group + base)

When proto-oncogenes mutate, they become cancer-causing genes, called ______.

oncogenes

Each trait examined was controlled by one pair of factors, with

one allele dominant and one recessive (here, tall allele dominant over short)

Homozygote

organism that inherits two alleles of the same type for a given gene ex: AA, aa

Heterozygote

organism that inherits two different alleles for a given gene ex: Aa

The idea developed by Mendel that proposed that inheritance involves the reshuffling of the same genes from generation to generation is called the____________ theory of inheritance.

particulate

A chart which depicts a family's history with regard to a particular genetic trait is called a

pedigree

A chart which depicts a family's history with regard to a particular genetic trait is called a(n)_________ chart.

pedigree

The bases are flat and stacked like coins

perpendicular to the sugar-phosphate backbone

cells get their energy from

phosphate groups

The blending concept of inheritance indicates that if a red flowered plant was crossed with a white flowered plant, all offspring of this cross would have___________ flowers

pink

An accessory ring of DNA in bacteria, often used as a vector in gene cloning, is a

plasmid

A mutation that results in a difference of one base from the original DNA sequence is called a point mutation.

point

A mutation that results in a difference of one base from the original DNA sequence is called a(n)___________ mutation.

point

A mutation that results in one base in the DNA being replaced by a different base is called a

point mutation.

A condition in which two or more sets of alleles control genetic patterns is controlled by _____ inheritance.

polygenic

The enzyme that assists with complementary base pairing and adding new nucleotides to the growing strand during DNA replication is DNA

polymerase

The technique that uses DNA polymerase with heating/cooling cycles to produce billions of copies of a particular piece of DNA is called

polymerase chain reaction

Two categories of DNA

purines (9-membered double rings with nitrogen at 1,3,7 and 9 positions) and pyrimidines (six membered rings with nitrogen at 1 and 3 positions).

In the 1940s, scientists had concluded that the genetic material was most likely either

protein or DNA.

Hershey and Chase used radioactive sulfur in order to label______________ during the experiments that demonstrated that DNA was the genetic material.

proteins

adenine and guanine (A, G)

purines

Erwin Chargaff determined that the number of___________ like guanine and adenine always equal the number of________________ like cytosine and thymine.

purines pyrimidines

The findings of Erwin Chargaff regarding DNA composition.

pyrimidines = purines G=C A = T

The result of the Hershey and Chase experiment that demonstrated DNA to be the genetic material.

radioactive DNA is taken up by bacteria

Alleles that are represented by a lower case letter are termed

recessive

Use the pedigree to answer the following question. This pedigree reflects a X-linked____________ condition.

recessive

Hereditary methemoglobinemia

recessive loss-of-function mutation in the gene for the enzyme diaphorase (blue skin)

A segment of DNA containing genes from both mice and humans would be called________ DNA

recombinant

The type of DNA that contains DNA from two or more different sources is called ______ DNA.

recombinant

X-ray diffraction suggested a

regular helix

During what cellular process do Okazaki fragments form?

replication

The production of two DNA copies from a single original DNA molecule is called DNA

replication

The particulate theory of inheritance involves

reshuffling of the genes from generation to generation.

The three events that distinguish meiosis from mitosis are

separation of homologous chromosomes. crossing over. homologous chromosomes synapse.

Enzymes are not part of the reaction - they contribute no atoms - so are

reusable

Gregor Mendel was a mathematician and also kept very detailed notes on his observations. These characteristics helped him be a

scientist, biologist

These combinations of factors must

segregate randomly when gametes are produced, so individuals can inherit any combination of alleles for the two factors

These factors must

separate randomly when gametes are produced, and combine randomly when fertilization occurs

Which nucleic acid is the physical carrier of individual amino acids?

tRNA

A coding portion of a DNA template strand has the sequence AGAACC. Assuming no modifications, what would be the sequence of the amino acids in the protein product? (Use the mRNA codon table.

serine - tryptophan

X and Y linked genes are generally referred to as_____________ linked genes.

sex

X and Y chromosomes are classified as

sex chromosomes.

Autosomes are any chromosomes other than___________chromosomes.

sex, allosome

traits controlled by genes located on an X or Y chromosome is said to be

sex-linked.

Meiosis is a type of nuclear division that occurs as a part of___________ reproduction, and the resulting daughter cells have the_____________ number of chromosomes, 23, in humans.

sexual haploid

Meiosis is

sexual reproduction

RNA

single-stranded nucleic acid that contains the sugar ribose

4th step of spindle apparatus: Anaphase

sister chromatids are separated and moved to opposite poles of the cell

Replicated chromosomes are composed of

sister chromatids.

Two chromosomes that are attached and have identical sequences of genes are called

sister chromatids.

mitochondria

site of genetic information

Body cells, which are cells that do not undergo meiosis to become sperm or oocytes, are also called___________ cells.

somatic

Body cells, which are cells that do not undergo meiosis to become sperm or oocytes, are also called____________ cells.

somatic

5th step of spindle apparatus: Telophase

spindle disappears and the nuclear envelope components reassemble around the daughter chromosomes, the polar spindles are still visible, after telophase the chromosomes decondense and a nucleolus appears in each daughter nucleus

The codon near which the small ribosomal subunit attaches to the mRNA molecule to be translated, which codes for methionine (AUG) is called the____________ codon.

start

During translation initiation, the small ribosomal subunit and initiator tRNA attach in the vicinity of the

start codon

The single-stranded but complementary ends of DNA, which are ready to bind foreign DNA to vector DNA in recombinant DNA production, are called " ____________ends".

sticky

Single-stranded, but complementary ends of two DNA molecules are called

sticky ends

Translation ends when a(n)__________ codon binds to a release factor.

stop

During meiosis I, occurs such that homologous chromosomes come together and line up side by side.

synapsis

The process by which homologous chromosomes come together and line up side by side is termed

synapsis

Meiosis 1: Prophase 1

synapsis occurs and spindle appears and the homologous chromosomes come together side by side and crossing over

The specific type of nucleic acid bearing anticodons for the amino acid sequence is abbreviated

tRNA

true-breeding

term used to describe organisms that produce offspring identical to themselves if allowed to self-pollinate(same phenotype)

If an individual showing a dominant phenotype, but an unknown genotype, is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual for that trait, this would be considered a

test cross

Mendel bred an unknown plant displaying a dominant phenotype with an individual showing the recessive phenotype; then, he analyzed the offspring to determine the unknown genotype, is crossed with a homozygous recessive individual. This experiment is called a

testcross

Mitosis is the portion of the cell cycle in which

the cell divides its DNA.

4th step of binary fission prokaryote

the cells divide in two at the midline

sum rule of probability

the chance of an event that can occur in more than one way is the sum of the individual chances

The genome is

the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes

Cytokinesis is the portion of the cell cycle during which

the cytoplasm and organelles of the cell are divided.

Humulin

the first intermediate-acting insulin that was genetically modified to be commercial medicine, grown form yeast.

Proto-oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes control

the movement of a cell through the cell cycle.

When F1 individuals were crossed with each other

the original phenotypes appeared in the F2 generation in roughly a 9:3:3:1 ratio

locus

the physical location of a gene on a chromosome

The phenotypic ratio is the same as you would predict by taking

the product of the 2 phenotypic ratios from the monohybrid crosses

Mitosis produces daughter cells that have

the same number of chromosomes as the parent cell.

Phenotype

the set of observable characteristics of an individual resulting from the interaction of its genotype with the environment. Ex: wrinkled seeds, pink flowers

A Punnett square is a diagram used

to estimate genetic probabilities in offspring.

All of the following that are reasons why a scientist may want to clone a gene.

to use the gene for gene therapy to learn how the gene codes for a protein to produce large quantities of the gene's protein product

Molecules of mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA are produced by the process of

transcription

The process by which an RNA strand is synthesized from a DNA template strand is called

transcription

The production of mRNA from a DNA template occurs during

transcription.

Genetically modified organisms that have had foreign DNA inserted into their genome are said to be___________ organisms.

transgenic

Organisms that have had a foreign gene inserted into their genome are called

transgenic organisms.

The process of_______________ uses mRNA, tRNA, and ribosomes to synthesize proteins.

translation

Polypeptides and proteins are produced during the process of

translation.

All of the uses of genetic engineering.

treatments of genetic disorders cancer treatments

The genetic code is said to be a(n) _______________code, because a set of three nucleotide bases codes for a particular amino acid.

triplet

The genetic code is said to be a(n)____________ code, because a set of three nucleotide bases codes for a particular amino acid.

triplet

In almost all cases, there is a 50:50 chance that a given allele in an individual is passed to a gamete.

true

Mendel's laws say the chance of inheriting certain pair of traits is the product of the chance of inheriting each one separately.

true

Sexually-reproducing organisms generally have two copies of each genetic factor (gene), one inherited from each parent.

true

When two pea plants with round, yellow seeds breed, they produce many offspring all with round, yellow seeds. This population is considered ________.

true breeding

The balance between what two types of genes determines if cell division does or does not occur.

tumor suppressor genes and proto-oncogenes

Crossing-over occurs between the

two non-sister chromatids of a homologous pair.

On a pedigree, an unfilled circle represents an

unaffected female.

Thomas Hunt Morgan

used Drosophila melangaster (fruit flies) to confirm the existence of sex-linked traits (chromosomes)

A piece of DNA that can be manipulated such that foreign DNA can be added to it is called a

vector

A plasmid is often used in biotechnology applications as a(n)____________ to transfer foreign genetic material.

vector

Rosalind Franklin's X-ray diffraction photograph demonstrated that DNA

was a double helix.

in 1986, a hepatitis B vaccine was grown in

yeast