Greece, Tuscany, and Rome

Peplos Kore

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Archaic Greek Date: 530 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Athens Material: Marble (painted) Technique/ Style: Subtractive, sculpted in the round, idealized, stylized, archaic smile Subject: A young woman or goddess Historical Context: A kore is a clothed female figure in ancient Greece (means young woman). Kore and Kouros figures were extremely common during the archaic period. Her clothing, however, has led some art historians to believe that she might actually be a goddess. The name of this piece is based off of the garment worn by the woman-a peplos. This dress is stiff, but shows some shape of her body. Her hair is more natural than previous archaic statues, but still stylized. Its reddish/purple color represents her divinity. Her hand is extended, exhibiting a break from the Archaic model. Her archaic smile represents a sense of well-being and the fact that she transcends the world of emotional difficulty.

Dying Gaul

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Date: 220 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Marble Technique/Style: Subtractive, sculpted in the round, idealized, naturalistic, realistic Subject: Gaul (an enemy of Greece) Historical Context/Analysis: Dying Gaul is an enemy who is breathing his last breath. Dying Gaul has a wound in his side and lays next to a broken sword. He is presented as a heroic although he is conquered. His face is filled with pain and agony, making him a sympathetic figure. He represents a contrast in both the beauty and destruction of his body. While most figures associated with battle at the time were presented as strong and victorious, Gaul gives us insight on the defeated. The Greeks portray him as being heroic to demonstrate that their victory was that much more meaningful.

Trajan's Column (in Trajan's Forum)

Artist: Apollodorus of Damascus Period/Style: Imperial Rome Date: 113 CE Patron: Trajan Original Location: Rome Material: Marble Technique/Style: Spiral low relief, frieze Subject: Trajan and his military campaigns Historical Context/Analysis: The Column of Trajan is part of Trajan's forum, which was devoted to Trajan's career. The column was constructed using marble from all over the empire, displaying Rome's wealth. It is composed of 22 layers that go around in a spiral and narrate two main campaigns against the Dacians. It is 100 feet tall, which is the height of the hill that was previously there, demonstrating the Romans interest in proving that they can control nature. The column displays a spiralling relief telling the story of Trajan's invasion of Dacia and his involvement in every aspect of the campaign, which is militaristic propaganda. The figures are carved in a very classical way.

Trajan's Forum

Artist: Apollodorus of Damascus Period/Style: Imperial Rome Date:106-112 CE Patron: Trajan Original Location: Rome Material: Marble and brick Technique/Style: Double colonnade, aisle, clerestory, post and lintel Subject: Forum Historical Context/Analysis: Trajan was the first in a line of adoptive emperors who were chosen for the job based not on bloodlines, but on their suitability for rule. This period is often regarded as the height of the Roman empire's prosperity and stability. Emperors increasingly competed in creating the best forums and this structure was devoted to Trajan's career and, in particular, his great military successes in his wars against Dacia. There is a great deal of exotic, imported marble and many statues, including gilded examples. The main structure at the center of the forum complex is the massive Basilica Ulpia (the two altars are located in the apses of the Basilica), which was a place of public assembly, hall of justice, and location where laws were made. The nave is where formal processions would happen. There are also two multi-story libraries, one with Greek works and one with Latin works. The forum was built into the side of a hill because the Romans wanted to prove that they could control nature. Additionally, for the average city dwellers accustomed to dim, crowded streets, the gleaming open space of the forum would have had a powerful psychological effect. The fact that the monuments glorified a revered leader also served to create and reinforce important ideological messages among the Romans. Overall the role of public architecture in the Roman city, and the Roman consciousness, is an important reminder of the ways in which Romans used built space to establish and perpetuate messages about identity and ideology.

Achilles Killing Penthesilia

Artist: Exekias Period/Style: Archaic Greek Date: 540 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Clay Technique/ Style: Black figure, stylized, idealized, twisted perspective, movement and narrative Subject: Achilles and Penthesilia Historical Context/Analysis: This amphora depicts Achilles simultaneously killing the Amazon queen and falling in love with her. She had courage beyond her sex and fought like a man. Achilles' face is covered, so only the intensity of the gaze can be seen.

Ajax and Achilles Playing a Game

Artist: Exekias Period/Style: Archaic Greek Date: 540 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Clay Technique/Style: Black figure, stylized, abstracted, in profile, silhouette, naturalistic posture, narrative, restricting and reintroduction of oxygen Subject: Ajax and Achilles playing a game Historical Context: Achilles and Ajax are two of the great Greek heroes.The two warriors are taking a break from war to play a game. In the story, Achilles wins the game, but later dies in battle. Afterwards, there is a contest over who would get Achilles' armor, and Ajax loses. Tragedy lies ahead for these two men. Achilles' spears are crossing one another, indicating that he is holding them loosely and is relaxed. Ajax's spears, however, are parallel, indicating that he is clenching his fist. Ajax's foot is even raised slightly off the ground showing that his leg is tense. Greeks prized physical strength, so the two men are stylized with curvilinear muscles. They are in a neutral position with naturalistic posture. Exekias has represented them with so much nobility and fine detail. his image humanizes heroes, portraying them just like any greek man. However, Achilles still has on his helmet, and he is always prepared to fight.

Laocoon (and his sons)

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Date: 100 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Ancient Greece Material: Marble Technique/Style: Subtractive, sculpted in the round, naturalistic, realistic, idealized, twisted, movement Subject: A trojan priest and his sons being killed by a serpent sent by Athena Historical Context/Analysis: Laocoon was a Trojan priest who knew that the gift that had arrived outside the gates of the city of Troy from the Greeks, their enemies, was a trick, and tried to warn the city. The gift was a wooden horse filled with Greek soldiers. A goddess, who was a protector of the Greeks, did not like this and sent serpents to strangle him and his sons. This sculpture is full of emotion and dynamism, perfectly encapsulating the hellenistic period. This piece is highly dramatic and even theatrical, as well as extremely diagonal. Laocoon's body is writhing and full of agony. Even the serpents are depicted as strong and muscular.

The Parthenon

Artist: Iktinos and Kallikrates Period/Style: Date: 447 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens, Greece Material: Marble Technique/Style: Doric (with Ionic elements), entasis, no right angles, Golden ratio (1:1.618), ratio of 4:9, pediment, tympanum, triglyphs, horizontal drums Subject: Temple Historical Context/Analysis: The Parthenon was constructed under the leadership of Pericles after the Persian sack of Athens destroyed the original Acropolis. Pericles used the extra funds in the Persian war treasury to build the Acropolis. The Greeks designed their temples to be earthly homes of the gods. The Greeks also preferred limited access to the deity, which is why grand temples had doors that were removed from public view. The Parthenon housed the treasury and thus served more of a civic than religious purpose. It was visible from far away and was a visual focal point of city. It was a symbol of ritual power and political power. The Parthenon features perfect proportions and harmony, exemplifying how Greeks found beauty in math (golden ratio). This is demonstrated by the columns that were created with entasis which had the effect of visual perfection by tricking the imperfect human eye. Additionally, parts can be expressed as x = 2y + 1, so there are 17 columns on the side and 8 on the front and the ratio of the length to the width are 9:4. The interior was unusually light and had two windows in the cella. The floor curves upward in the center to drain off rain water. Although the temple is Doric, it also contains Ionic elements, such as the Ionic capitals in one of the rooms, as well as the frieze on the interior. The interior was built to house a massive statue of Athena, to whom the building was dedicated.

Erechtheion

Artist: Iktinos and Kallikrates Period/Style: Classical Date: 420 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens, Greece Material: Marble Technique/Style: Non-symmetrical, caryatids in contrapposto, ionic columns Subject: A temple Historical Context/Analysis: This temple is meant to commemorate Athens' patron goddess, Athena. The Greeks believe that Poseidon struck the ground and salt water appeared and that Athena gave them an olive tree. They enjoyed the olives more, so they dedicated the Erechtheion to Athena by naming it for Erichthonius, Athena's son. The Erechtheion is an axis mundi and dedicated to the graves of legendary kinds. It is not symmetrical to signify that the land itself is sacred. It houses the most sacred statue of Athena, a wooden statue given directly to the people by Athena. The porch of maidens features caryatids standing in contraposto and presented as strong figures because it was believed that Athena would protect them. One of the rooms housed live serpents that would be fed honey cakes by priestesses because Erichthonius was thought to be a serpent.

Temple of Athena Nike

Artist: Kallikrates Period/Style: Classical Date: 425 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens, Greece Material: Marble Technique/Style: Amphiprostyle Subject: Temple Historical Context/Analysis: For 40-50,000 years, women were best known for fertility. Athena, however, came out of Zeus's head, taking away from the one major power that women had. The temple of Athena Nike (Athena as a goddess of victory) is the smallest temple at the Acropolis in Athens, placed at its southwest corner, at the edge of a high cliff. It is built in Ionic order and has columns at the front and back but not on the sides of the cella (amphiprostyle floorplan). Because of the small size of the structure, there are only four columns on each side and they are monolithic (made of a single block of stone). The believers would simply perform rituals in front of the temple, where a small altar was placed, and could take a glimpse of the sculpted figure of the goddess through the space between the columns. The privilege of entering the temple was reserved for the priestesses, who held a respected position in Greek society. As the name suggests, the temple housed the statue of Athena Nike, a symbol of victory. The temple of Athena Nike featured beautiful sculptural decoration, including a typical continuous Ionic frieze, which on the eastern side represented a gathering of gods.

Nike Adjusting Her Sandal

Artist: Kallikrates Period/Style: Classical Greece Date: 420 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens Material: Marble and paint Technique/Style: Wet drapery technique, deeply incised lines, high relief Subject: Nike Historical Context/Analysis: Athena here is associated with victory and battle (nike means victory). She is removing her sandal because she is about to walk on sacred ground. Most figures at this time appear calm and balanced, so it is interesting that she should be portrayed as off-balance. The relief portrays Nike after the Athenian victory of the Persian war. She is unstable and relaxed now that the war is over. The wet drapery pushes the boundaries of what is provocative, as you can see her body, but it is not considered offensive. It is still one of the most erotic works found at the Acropolis. She, above all, represents the importance of military victories.

Grave Stele of Hegeso

Artist: Kallimachos Period/Style: Classical Date: 410 BCE Patron: Father of Hegeso Original Location: Athens Material: Marble and paint Technique/Style: Low relief, high relief, done in profile, hierarchy of scale, overlapping perspective Subject: Hegeso and her servant Historical Context/Analysis: There was a brief period called the high classical movement that included a resurgence of funerary sculpture in Athens. This represents a difference from the archaic period in that this piece was commissioned by an elite Greek family, not the state. This is a domestic scene in the public. It was not made for the dead Hegeso, but instead to show the wealth of her family. She is much larger than her servant and her feet don't touch the floor, portraying her high status. The Greeks cared more about life on earth than about the afterlife, and this piece exhibits that. Additionally, it portrays women's lives in Athens. They were not allowed to be citizens and were generally defined by their relationships with men.

Diskobolos (Discus Thrower)

Artist: Myron Period/Style: Classical Date: 450 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: N/A Material: Marble (copy of Greek bronze) Technique/Style: naturalistic, realistic, idealized, controlled, stoic, subtractive, sculpted in the round Subject: A discus thrower Historical ContextAnalysis: The Discobolos is an exemplar of action statuary of the Classical period. The athlete is poised at the moment of highest tension, when he has swung his arm back and is about to fling the discus. The musculature of his body is beautifully incised and he looks like a coiled spring. His face, however, does not reflect this tension, but rather is expressionless. In the typical severe style, the facial features are simplified and emotionless. The statue is therefore exemplary of both Severe and High Classical attributes.

Anavysos Kouros

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Archaic Greek Date: 530 BCE Patron: Fallen soldier's father Original Location: Athens Material: Marble (painted) & other Kouri Technique/Style: Stylized posture and hair, archaic smile, idealized, sculpted in the round, subtractive, Egyptian-inspired Subject: Male youth Historical Context/Analysis: Kouros means youth. These sculptures could be used as grave markers or offerings in sanctuaries. This particular sculpture was, in fact, created as a grave marker for the son of an aristocratic family who died in war. Before the Greeks obtained their own artistic style, they were deeply inspired by the Egyptians. Thus, their statues were stylized, idealized, muscular, and stiff. His hair is textured, representing braids or dreads, and showing nobility. His stance is aggressive and masculine, but his sexuality is not stressed. The Greeks believed that masculinity was in one's ability to protect the community (not sexuality). This statue is also funerary, but not meant for the dead. The Greeks stressed life on earth, as this object is meant to show how amazing this man was while he was alive and how wealthy his family is. The archaic smile represents a figure that transcends this world (sense of aristocratic nobility).

Athenian Agora Plan

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Archaic-Hellenistic Greek Date: 600 BCE-150 CE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens Material: Stone Technique/Style: Stoas, ionic and doric columns Subject: Marketplace Historical Context/Analysis: It was a religious and ceremonial center dedicated primarily to Athena. An Agora is an open marketplace found in Greek city-states where people would shop for goods from merchants. The Athenian Agora is a plaza at the base of the Acropolis in Athens that contained commercial, civic, religious, and social buildings. Ceremonies took place here and it was the location of public discourse. It represents the heart of the Athenian experiment of democracy. The Panathenaic Way cuts through the plaza from the northwest to the southwest corners. The plaza was surrounded by important buildings, such as the Stoa, where people would have conducted business.

Venus de Milo

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Classical/Hellenistic Date: 150 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Marble Technique/Style: Subtractive, sculpted in the round, idealized, standing in contrapposto, naturalistic, realistic Subject: Venus Historical Context/Analysis: Hellenistic Art was much more dramatized than classical art because Alexander's Empire brought in so much change and anxiety. The empire was vast and syncretized many cultures. With this sculpture, the audience is incorporated, as we are supposed to be excited to see her fully nude. Her eyes are averted, however, so she is not seducing us. The female nude is being controlled and regulated. Even though she is not showing much emotion, it is the view that is supposed to be emotional and excited.

Temple of Minerva

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Etruscan Date: 510 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Italy Material: Mud brick and wood Technique/Style: Tuscan columns, triple cella Subject: Etruscan temple plan and model and elevation Historical Context/Analysis: Around 600 B.C.E., the desire to create monumental structures for the gods spread throughout Etruria, most likely as a result of Greek influence. While the desire to create temples for the gods may have been inspired by contact with Greek culture, Etruscan religious architecture was markedly different in material and design. These colorful and ornate structures typically had stone foundations but their wood, mud-brick and terracotta superstructures suffered far more from exposure to the elements. Although the structure itself no longer exists, a drawing by Vitruvius, a Roman architect, does. The temple is roughly divided into two parts—a deep front porch with widely-spaced Tuscan columns and a back portion divided into three separate rooms. Known as a triple cella, this three room configuration seems to reflect a divine triad associated with the temple, perhaps Menrva as well as Tinia (Jupiter/Zeus) and Uni (Juno/Hera). Additionally, this temple was constructed high off the ground with a single, defined entrance.

Sarcophagus of the Spouses

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Etruscan Date: 520 BCE Patron: A wealthy Etruscan couple Original Location: Italy Material: Terra cotta Technique/Style: Some parts naturalistic, some parts stylized, sculpted in the round Subject: A couple reclining and enjoying some appetizers Historical Context/Analysis: The Sarcophagus of the Spouses is an anthropoid (human-shaped), painted terracotta sarcophagus. The Sarcophagus of the Spouses is a masterwork of terracotta sculpture. Painted terracotta sculpture played a key role in the visual culture of archaic Etruria. Terracotta artwork was the standard for decorating the superstructure of Etruscan temples and the coroplastic (terracotta) workshops producing these sculptures often displayed a high level of technical achievement. The sarcophagus depicts a reclining man and woman on its lid. The pair rests on highly stylized cushions, just as they would have done at an actual banquet. The body of the sarcophagus is styled so as to resemble a kline (dining couch). Both figures have highly stylized hair, in each case plaited with the stylized braids hanging rather stiffly at the sides of the neck. In the female's case the plaits are arranged so as to hang down in front of each shoulder. The female wears a soft cap atop her head; she also wears shoes with pointed toes that are characteristically Etruscan. The male's braids hang neatly at the back, splayed across the upper back and shoulders. The male's beard and the hair atop his head is quite abstracted without any interior detail. Both figures have elongated proportions that are at home in the archaic period in the Mediterranean. The Etruscans were focused more on their afterlife than their life on earth. Due to this, their funerary objects were extremely important. These two are enjoying themselves to represent their good afterlife. Additionally, The woman is in front of the man, representing how the Etruscans valued women. While they were not equal to men, they were still invited to the parties.

Alexander Mosaic

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Date: 100 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Material: Stone, shells Technique/Style: Mosaic, modeling (shading), foreshortening, overlapping perspective, idealized, morevent Subject: Alexander the Great battling Darius and the Persians Historical Context/Analysis: Hellenistic Art was much more dramatized than classical art because Alexander's Empire brought in so much change and anxiety. The empire was so vast and syncretized many cultures. This particular mosaic shows the moment when the ruler of Persia flees under the onslaught of Alexander the Great and has just ordered his troops to retreat. This image is able to show the emotions of a fallen soldier in the reflection of his shield. One can also see Darius' emotions, as he looks back at a charging Alexander. Even the horses have emotion. Overall, this image shows Hellenistic emotion, and the Roman value of Greek Art, as someone commissioned this for their private home. It also shows a great deal of movement, as seen in the chariot is being swung around and the momentum from the Persians facing the Greeks. Additionally, Alexander looks confident as he heads towards Darius.

Barberini Faun

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Date: 230 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Marble Technique/ Style: Naturalistic, realistic, idealized, sculpted in the round, subtractive Subject: A sleeping satyr Historical Context/Analysis: Dionysus, the god of wine, did not like to be lonely and was often surrounded by satyrs. Sometimes, after drinking too much, the satyrs would become tired. Satyrs were considered subhuman and, although he may appear human, he actually has a tail and pointy ears. Satyrs were considered half civilized and half wild. The figure is somewhat erotic, with his legs spread. He is half sleeping and half awake; he is both exhausted and restless. He is not symmetrical, as seen in his face and how gravity is pulling on his cheek. This highlights the intense naturalism of the sculpture and elastic qualities of the human body. Additionally, in the hellenistic period, artists are expanding on their subject matter.

Seated Boxer

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Greece Date: 100 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Bronze, copper used for wounds Technique/Style: Lost wax casting, chasing, idealized, sculpted in the round, naturalistic, realistic Subject: A boxer Historical Context/Analysis: Although most "Greek" art is actually Roman copies (marble) of Greek statues (bronze), the Seated Boxer is a true original. This is the last piece of ancient Greek art because the Hellenistic period ends when the Romans conquer Greece. The Seated Boxer is an athletic figure, but is not young and beautiful as seen in idealized art. He is muscular and powerful but defeated. The artist calls upon the viewers' pathos by creating a vulnerable and sympathetic figure. Copper is used for his wounds to make them appear as though they are bleeding. His face and wrapped hands ground him in a sense of reality. His torso is collapsing and he looks exhausted. His body is beaten and he has a broken nose. Even being seated, by nature, contrasts many heroic, standing Greek sculptures.

Great Altar of Zeus and Athena at Pergamon

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Greece Date: 175 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Turkey Material: Marble Technique/Style: High relief, naturalistic, realistic, idealized, dramatized, frieze, Ionic columns Subject: Frieze depicting the battle between the gods and the titans Historical Context/Analysis: Hellenistic Art was much more dramatized than classical art because Alexander's Empire brought in so much change and anxiety. The empire was huge and syncretized many cultures. This temple in particular depicts a story from Greek culture, but is located in Turkey, exhibiting the culture exchange that occurred. The artist of this temple incorporated the art into the space and made a conscious effort to have it be in dialogue with the Panathenaic Frieze on the Parthenon. The altar is placed on an elevated platform up a dramatic flight of stairs. This frieze depicts a battle between the giants and the gods and goddesses of Mount Olympus. The gods are dragging the titans up the stairs to the eternal flame so they can worship Zeus. Athena, at the center, is graceful and beautiful, even as she fights. On either side of her are passionate wild figures: Alcyoneus and his mother. There are series of figures coming from behind and below, which creates a lot of movement and drama, characteristic of hellenistic art.

Winged Victory

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Greece Date: 190 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece (Temple of Samothrace) Material: Marble and paint Technique/Style: Wet drapery, subtractive, sculpted in the round Subject: The goddess Nike Historical Context/Analysis: The altar was placed on the coast of the sea to celebrate a naval victory. She was a messenger goddess who spreads the news of victory. She represents how hellenistic art is far more voluptuous, energetic, and emotional than reserved classical art. Texturally, the marble is made to do many things. The wind from the sea dampens her dress and makes it cling to her. The drapery has many creases and folds that play against the light and the different texture of her wings. Athena is responding to the natural forces of the environment. This sculpture celebrates the body and is willing to use it as a tremendous expressive force.

Augustus Primaporta

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Imperial Roman Date: 20 AD Patron: Augustus Original Location: Rome, Italy Material: Marble Technique/Style: Sculpted in the round, free standing Subject: Augustus Historical Context/Analysis: Roman art was closely intertwined with politics and propaganda. This is especially true with portraits of Augustus, the first emperor of the Roman Empire; Augustus invoked the power of imagery to communicate his ideology. High cheekbones indicate that he is strong and healthy. His face suggests a kind of immortality, including eternal youth and health. His arm indicates that he commanding people. His chest plate (cuirass) is modeled after Doryphoros (chest canon). It tells us the story of a battle in which the gods help Augustus win, showing his military power. The toga is intended to demonstrate political authority by reminding us that he is the first consul and head of the senate. The baby represents Venus (born out of seafoam) because Aeneas, one of the founders of Rome, is descended from her. He is barefoot to demonstrate his divinity because gods don't wear shoes.

House of the Vettii

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Imperial Roman Date: First built 2nd c BCE, rebuilt 62-79 CE Patron: Vettii Brothers Original Location: Pompeii, Italy Material: Cut stone and fresco Technique/Style: Schema, peristyle garden, atria, deep vista, portico Subject: House Historical Context/Analysis: Many wealthy families of Pompeii fled to other Roman cities after Earthquake of Pompeii in 62 CE. This created a vacuum of wealthy families and a new upper class emerged. This house was owned by brothers who were new to wealth. It is believed that the brothers got their wealth from being wine merchants and effectively bought their elite status. Domestic art (wall painting and sculpture) after the Earthquake became increasingly sexual. Newly rich homes had art with mythological and cult paintings to impress their guests and pronounce their status. The house covers over 1000 square meters. The layout demonstrates the relatively public nature of Roman houses. There are large entertainment rooms that also served as places of commerce and business. The wall paintings, called decorative schema, were generally expansive and imitated higher art (turned rooms into galleries). There are two large, central halls (atria). The largest of the rooms, opening on the peristyle, contains wall paintings in red and black and features detailed puttis (mythical winged god of love). The impluvium (water basin) lies at the center of the atrium for collecting rain. The increasingly sexual nature of the paintings and artwork marks a decline in Pompeii's moral standards and decency (ex: phallic figures and rape). The wall paintings depict Cupids collecting grapes and it was later discovered that Pompeii was home to great vineyards. The two lockboxes for storing valuables were displayed proudly in the vestibulum. The smaller atrium functioned as a service area. The peristyle (columned porch/open colonnade) and its rooms functioned for dining and entertainment. The home was mostly intended to display the wealth and status of the Vettii brothers.

Pantheon

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Imperial Rome Date: 118-125 CE Patron: Hadrian Original Location: Rome Material: Concrete and marble Technique/Style: Rotunda, pediments, portico (Corinthian capital porch), coffers, oculus, barrel vaults, circular plan Subject: N/A Historical Context/Analysis: The word Pantheon translates to all the gods and was dedicated to the gods of the Olympus. The interior represented the orb of earth and the vault of heaven. The Pantheon demonstrates the Romans love of geometry. A solid base of walls (about 20 feet thick) acted as a foundation for the ceiling and buttressed the dome itself. Barrel vaults hidden in the walls distribute the weight of the dome. The builders mixed in lighter materials as the ceiling rose towards its apex and poured a progressively thinner layer of it. The coffers made the ceiling lighter by molding recessed panels that were aesthetically pleasing (allowed the dome to be decorated) and reduced the amount of concrete that was necessary for the dome itself. The oculus is a thirty foot wide hole in the ceiling that eliminates the stress of heavy concrete at the dome's weakest point and lights up the Pantheon. It allows the natural elements in, but the floor was bowed so that the rain water would run off to the outside. The walls have seven niches for statues of the gods. The Pantheon's exterior features Corinthian and Tuscan columns, which form a portico.

Colosseum (Flavian Amphitheater)

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Imperial Rome Date: 70-80 CE Patron: Vespasian Original Location: Rome Material: Travertine, brick, tufa, iron clamps Technique/Style: Velarium, engaged columns, barrel vaults, groin vaults, arches, hypogeum Subject: Amphitheater Historical Context/Analysis: The colosseum received its name from a colossal statue of Nero as the sun god. It is composed of two Greek amphitheaters (exemplifying Greek influence) put together to make a giant, in the round stadium. Aspasian decided to take a space held for the private use of a bad emperor and made it into a public space used for the enjoyment of the people of Rome and was thus, in a sense, propaganda. The Colosseum could hold 50,000 spectators and was 160 feet tall (tallest ancient Roman structure ever built), symbolizing the power and wealth of Rome. There were 76 entrances and exits in the circle facade. It was constructed using the interplay of barrel vaults, groin vaults, and arches. Sporting events would take place within the arena. Gladiators from different areas would compete, allowing the emperor to show the extent of his empire, as well as animal hunts and naval battles. The hypogeum was a two-story structure beneath the arena that contained a system of elevators, pulleys and trap doors that enabled tigers and gladiators to pop up from the floor. They recreated naval battles by diverting water from one of the aqueducts through water channels in the Colosseum and flooding the floor The Romans loved being able to control the natural world. They would move the velarium, or shade, to keep viewers from being in the sun. The exterior of the Colosseum features various engaged columns as to demonstrate the history of columns; fancier columns are placed higher up on the building.

Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Late Imperial Roman Date: 250 CE Patron: N/A Original Location: Rome Material: Marble Technique/Style: High-relief Subject: Romans vs. Goths Historical Context/Analysis: Sarcophagi start to appear more commonly in the beginning of the second century. It is unknown whose sarcophagus this is, but whoever it was was rich enough to to buy such a large piece of marble and higher such a skilled sculptor. It was created at a time in Roman history that was marked by instability and civil wars and the shift is clear in the chaotic, complex nature of this piece. It indicates a movement away from high classical Greek art, as it is less focused on the beauty of the human body and more focused on the interactions between people. It is characteristic of the artistic style of Late Imperial Rome, which is marked by emotional subject matters and a lack of realistic space. The chaos of the piece reflects the chaos of the age. The Lid of Ludovisi depicts the Romans receiving Germanic children and would have raised them as Roman. The goths are carved in deeper relief than the Romans to make them appear even more rugged and rough. The Germanic people have barbaric beards, whereas the Romans are stoic and polished. The figures are piled on top of one another, removing any sense of autonomy in the world. In the center at the top is the hero coming in on his horse. The base of the piece is decorated with lions, a symbol of power. Additionally, the figures get smaller towards the bottom of the piece, which provides an interesting perspective.

Arch of Constantine

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Late Imperial Roman Date: 315 CE Patron: Constantine Original Location: Material: Marble Technique/Style: Spolia, relief friezes, arch Subject: Arch Historical Context/Analysis: The Emperor Constantine, called Constantine the Great, was significant for several reasons. These include his political transformation of the Roman Empire, his support for Christianity, and his founding of Constantinople. Constantine's status as an agent of change also extended into the realms of art and architecture. The Triumphal Arch of Constantine in Rome is not only a great example of the ideological and stylistic changes Constantine's reign brought to art, but also demonstrates the emperor's careful adherence to traditional forms of Roman Imperial art and architecture. Constantine wanted to erect the arch quickly, so he stole pieces from other art dedicated to Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, and Hadrian; this process is called spolia. The Arch of Constantine is located along the Via Triumphalis in Rome, and it is situated between the Flavian Amphitheater (better known as the Colosseum) and the Temple of Venus and Roma. This location was significant, as the arch was a highly visible example of connective architecture that linked the area of the Forum Romanum (Roman Forum) to the major entertainment and public bathing complexes of central Rome. The spoliated material from the arch, traced to the reigns of Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius, indicates that Constantine is worthy of the same level of reverence as those emperors. This was very important to Constantine, who had himself essentially bypassed lawful succession and usurped power from others. Also, Constantine encouraged major social changes in Rome, such as decriminalizing Christianity. Any religious change was a threat to the ruling and political classes of Rome. By aligning himself with well-regarded emperors of Rome's golden age, Constantine was signaling that he intended to model his rule after earlier, successful leaders.

Weary (Farnese) Herakles

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Late classical Date: 320 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Marble Technique/ Style: Idealized, naturalistic, realistic, subtractive, sculpted in the round, standing in contrapposto Subject: Herakles after a battle Historical Context/Analysis: This piece is late classical or early hellenistic. He was found in a place where one could exercise, which is fitting because men could look at him and his body as a goal. Also, some Greek athletes would dedicate sculptures to Herakles to thank him for their success, as he was a symbol of strength and heroism. Herakles had been punished by the gods of Mount Olympus to be subservient to the king. One of his tasks was killing a lion and the artist chose to include the pelt of the lion that he slew. This piece is from the late classical, so Herakles, a hero, is still somewhat stoic and deified. However, he is also tired and worn down, which humanizes him. He is a part of the transition from the classical to the hellenistic.

Head of a Roman Patrician

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Republican Rome Date: 75-50 BCE Patron: A Roman Patrician Original Location: Rome Material: Marble Technique/Style: Veristic, naturalistic, subtractive, sculpted in the round Subject: A Roman Patrician Historical Context/Analysis: Similar to Greece in that it is a realistic, marble sculpture. He, however, is wearing a toga (the toga of manhood). Verism can be defined as a sort of hyperrealism in sculpture where the naturally occurring features of the subject are exaggerated. In the case of Roman Republican portraiture, middle age males adopt veristic tendencies in their portraiture to such an extent that they appear to be extremely aged and care worn. This stylistic tendency is influenced both by the tradition of ancestral imagines as well as a deep-seated respect for family, tradition, and ancestry. During this period of Rome, participation in government was extremely important. Thus, the patrician sculpted wanted to appear tired, as he was up all night worrying about the state of Rome. Additionally, he is not nude, as Rome instead valued the toga of manhood to represent status. This statue would have brought this man's family gravitas, an important thing back in Rome.

Riace Bronzes

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Severe Date: 450 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Ancient Greece Material: Bronze Technique/ Style: Lost Wax technique, idealized, more naturalistic than archaic pieces, standing in contrapposto, sculpted in the round Subject: Warrior Historical Context/Analysis: The Riace Warriors are two life-size Greek bronze statues of naked, bearded warriors. The Severe style is marked by an increased interest in the use of bronze as a medium as well as an increase in the characterization of the sculpture, among other features. There has been speculation that the two statues represent Tydeus and Amphiaraus, two warriors from Aeschylus' tragic play, Seven Against Thebes, and may have been part of a monumental sculptural composition. These pieces represent a transition from the archaic style to the classical style. Male nude is celebrated and the athletic man is the ideal.

Kritios Boy

Artist: N/A Period/Style: Severe (transitional) Date: 480 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Kritios Material: Marble Technique/Style: Stylized, idealized, stands in contrapposto, more naturalistic flesh, sculpted in the round Subject: A man Historical Context/Analysis: Kritios Boy shows the transition from the archaic kouros to more naturalistic, classical sculptures. This sculpture was originally broken when the Persians invaded Athens. However, the Greeks had previously defeated the Persians at Marathon. Some art historians suggest that the new-found naturalism that we see in the sculpture is a result of the new sense of self and self-determination. Like the earlier kouros figures, he is marble, standing nude, relatively still. However, he demonstrates a potential for movement (movement about to take place), which sets him apart. This figure has much more naturalistic renderings of the volumes of the body and a more sophisticated understanding of the musculature and bone structure. Kritios Boy is standing in contrapposto, meaning that his weight is shifted onto one leg, which affects the rest of the body, so that it acts in unison. The axis of the hips, for example, are no longer aligned. Because the symmetry is broken, he appears more life-like. He represents the movement away from linear representations to smooth, beautiful Greek ideals.

Niobides Krater

Artist: Niobid Painter (anonymous painter) Period/Style: Severe Date: 450 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Ancient Greece Material: Clay Technique/ Style: Red figure, movement, relaxed, stylized, idealized, vertical perspective, isocephalism, naturalistic posture, registers, narrative, frieze Subject: Apollo and Artemis killing Niobid on behalf of their mom Leto (side 1) and Herakles, warriors, and Athena sometime around the battle of marathon (side 2) Historical Context/Analysis: The "Severe" style of sculpture marks the transition from the Archaic to the early Classical period. This style shows a vested interest in naturalism, which was a more subdued and realistic departure from the Archaic. Subjects were now on the verge of emotional expression and poses that imply motion. The back side shows a mortal woman, Niobe, who had seven daughters and seven sons. She bragged about them being more numerous and beautiful than the children of the goddess, Leto. Amongst Leto's children are Apollo, god of the arts (music), and Artemis, goddess of the hunt. To avenge their mother, they are depicted killing the children of Niobe. This is red figure painting, which means that the bodies are part of the red clay of the pot, allowing for a tremendous amount of detail. There is great detail in Apollo's body and face, as well as Artemis' drapery. Both gods are in profile, while most of the children are in frontal view, indicating a sense of stiffness. This can be classified as severe style, which features realistic anatomy, serious expressions, pouty lips, and thick eyelids. This piece also gives a sense of illusion of space, with some figures in the foreground and some in the background. This indicates that there are different ground planes. In the center of the vase is the hero, Herakles. He holds a club and a lion skin and his feet don't touch the ground. By placing the figures all around him, the artists suggests a sense of depth.

Cella cult statue

Artist: Phidias Period/Style: Classical Greece Date: 447 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens, Greece Material: Ivory and gold Technique/Style: Idealized, Stylized, Naturalistic drapery, standing in contrapposto, 40 ft tall Subject: A victorious Athena Historical Context/Analysis: For 40-50,000 years, women were best known for fertility. Athena, however, came out of Zeus's head, taking away from the one major power that women had. Athens' patron goddess was Athena, so it is only fitting that she has a 40 foot statue in the parthenon dedicated to her. She is in armor and has her weapons, signifying that she is always ready for battle. Nike is near her hand, signifying that she is victorious. This statue would have been made after Athens' victory in the Persian war. Behind her shield is her serpent son, Erechtheos. He is known as the first king of Athens. While his birth represents a loss of female creative power, as Athena was impregnated by Hephestus' semen going into her leg, and Athena was born from Zeus' head, he also represents the idea that the virgin Athena could still create life. He is something from nothing.

Parthenon Metopes

Artist: Phidias Period/Style: Classical Greece Date: 447 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens, Greece Material: Marble, painted Technique/Style: High relief, stylized, idealized Subject: Different battles between the uncivilized and Civilized Historical Context/Analysis: As portrayed in the metopes, the Greeks had a story that centaurs crashed a wedding. The metopes symbolize civilization over barbarism (control), as seen in the Lapith vs. centaurs, Amazons vs. Greeks, and Trojans vs. Greeks. The centaur is unshaven and has a wild expression, while the lapith is clean shaven and stoic, symbolizing how civilization will always win.

Parthenon Frieze

Artist: Phidias Period/Style: Classical Greece Date: 447 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Parthenon Material: Marble Technique/Style: Low Relief to High Relief, naturalistic drapery, standing in contrapposto, overlapping perspective Subject: The Ergastines going to dress a cult statue of Athena Historical Context/Analysis: Athena gave a piece of wood to the Athenians that they made into a statue of her. This is the most sacred statue of Athena and is located in the Erechtheion. The Ergastines would dress this statue in a new Peplos on her birthday. These women represent a rare female power in Greece, as Athena is often protected by and connected to women. However, the woman are very covered up and more controlled compared to the nude men in action. This image is an example of the Greeks placing themselves with the gods, as it would be on a similar level to reliefs of the divine. The naturalistic drapery is meant to show the skill of the sculptor. Additionally, the top of the image is in a higher relief than the bottom, an example of how the Greeks played with perspective and distorted it for visual pleasure.

West Pediment (from the Parthenon)

Artist: Phidias Period/Style: Classical Greece Date: 447-410 BCE Patron: Pericles Original Location: Athens Material: Marble, painted Technique/Style: High Relief, stylized, idealized, standing in contrapposto, movement, narrative Subject: The battle between Athena and Poseidon Historical Context/Analysis: The west pediment faced the Propylaia and depicted the contest between Athena and Poseidon during their competition for the honor of becoming the city's patron. Athena and Poseidon appear at the center of the composition, diverging from one another in strong diagonal forms with the goddess holding the olive tree and the god of the sea raising his trident to strike the earth. At their flanks they are framed by two active groups of horses pulling chariots, while a crowd of legendary personalities from Athenian mythology fills the space out to the acute corners of the pediment. The figures are sculpted in natural movement with bodies full of vital energy that bursts through their flesh, as the flesh in turn bursts through their thin clothing. The thin chitons allow the body underneath to be revealed as the focus of the composition. The distinction between gods and humans is blurred in the conceptual interplay between the idealism and naturalism bestowed on the stone by the sculptors. The overall character of the pediment sculptures was very energetic as the figures were placed in a dense arrangement with many overlapping bodies and limbs.

Doryphoros (Spear Bearer)

Artist: Polykleitos Period/Style: Classical Date: 450 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Italy (Pompeii training ground) Material: Marble (Roman copy of Greek bronze) Technique/Style: Idealized, naturalistic, realistic, standing in contrapposto, imperfect symmetry, controlled, stoic, subtractive, sculpted in the round Subject: An ideal spear bearer Historical Context/Analysis: Polykleitos was influenced by Pythagoras' teaching. Greeks believed that underlying harmonic proportions/ratios could be found in everything in nature (beauty could be understood as harmonic numerical ratios). For the most part, the Greeks created their free-standing sculpture in bronze, but because bronze is valuable and can be melted down and reused, sculpture was often recast into weapons. This is why so few ancient Greek bronze originals survive, and why we often have to look at ancient Roman copies in marble (of varying quality) to try to understand what the Greeks achieved. This piece is also known as the canon and represents the Greeks understanding of and infatuation with perfection, and how they slightly distorted it to achieve true visual perfection.

Aphrodite of Knidos

Artist: Praxiteles Period/Style: Classical Date: 350 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Greece Material: Marble Technique/Style: Subtractive, sculpted in the round, standing in contrapposto, idealized, naturalistic, realistic Subject: Aphrodite about to bathe Historical Context/Analysis: Praxiteles created a life-size naked statue of Aphrodite (Venus). It was an important innovation in classical sculpture, and subsequent Hellenistic sculptors created several new types of nude Aphrodite figures, that further emphasized the sexual nature of her cult. This trend perhaps reflected both the rising social status of women and changes in male attitudes towards women: previously only male statues had been naked. Women had been depicted nude in earlier Greek art such as pottery, but usually only courtesans or slave girls, not deities. Because of its sensuality and beauty, the work was one of the most erotic of the ancient world and it was even a tourist attraction in antiquity. The female nude, however, was not as powerful as the male nude in Ancient Greece. The Greeks tried to control the female body. Even though she is nude, she is still modest, as her gaze is averted and she is about to take a bath, thus justifying her nudity. She does not know we are looking at her (artist incorporates the viewer into the piece)

Terra-cotta Apollo

Artist: Vulca Period/Style: Hellenistic Date: 6th c BCE Patron: Etruscan Original Location: Italy Material: Terra cotta Technique/Style: Stylized, idealized, movement, sculpted in the round Subject: Apollo Historical Context/Analysis: Perhaps most interesting about the Portonaccio temple is the abundant terracotta sculpture that still remains, the volume and quality of which is without parallel in Etruria. In addition to many terracotta architectural elements (masks, antefixes, decorative details), a series of over life-size terracotta sculptures have also been discovered in association with the temple. Originally placed on the ridge of temple roof, these figures seem to be Etruscan assimilations of Greek gods, set up as a tableau to enact some mythic event. The most famous and well-preserved of these is the Aplu (Apollo) of Veii, a dynamic, striding masterpiece of large scale terracotta sculpture and likely a central figure in the rooftop narrative. This piece, located on the top of the Temple of Minerva, is influenced from the Greek Kouros. In this civilization, the male nude is not celebrated. Instead, the clothing represents nobility. However, the shape of his body can be seen to emphasize his strength. Other figures discovered with these suggest an audience watching the action. It was a completely Etruscan innovation to use sculpture in this way, placed at the peak of the temple roof—creating what must have been an impressive tableau against the backdrop of the sky.

Arch of Titus

Period/Style: Imperial Roman Date: 81 CE Patron: Titus Original Location: Rome Material: Concrete (crushed limestone, water, sand), marble Technique/ Style: Arch (composed of wedge-shaped stones called voussoirs with keystone at center) Subject: Historical Context/Analysis: The arch was originally created by the Etruscans, but adopted by the Romans. The Roman triumph was an ancient martial tradition—a parade so riotous that its symbolic culmination involved catapulting the victorious general to quasi-divine status. All this was meant to awe the spectators and to transport the viewers to the battlefields of the war in the east and celebrates the capture of Jerusalem. The Arch of Titus is located in Summa Sacra Via, the highest point of the Sacra Via, Rome's "Sacred Way" that served as its main processional street. Furthemore, the Arch of Titus commands a key point along the triumphal route (via Triumphalis)—one that visually links the valley of the Flavian amphitheater (known to us as the Colosseum) to the valley of the Forum Romanum and the Capitoline Hill beyond. Emperors use triumphal arches to project power which serves as a type of propaganda. The text on the Arch of Titus celebrates the deified Titus. The subject matter of the flanking reliefs draws upon the triumph of Vespasian and Titus, depicting key triumphal episodes following the fall of Jerusalem. In one scene, Romans carry spoils from the Temple in Jerusalem, including a Menorah, sacred trumpets and the showbread table.

Tomb of the Triclinium

Title: Tomb of the Triclinium Artist: N/A Period/Style: Hellenistic Date: 480 BCE Patron: N/A Original Location: Tarquinia, Italy Material: Tufa and fresco Technique/Style: Subject: Tomb Historical Context/Analysis: What survives of Etruscan painting is funerary, done on the walls and ceilings of tombs. Brightly painted frescoes reveal a world full of cheerful Etruscans celebrating, dancing, eating, and playing musical instruments. Much of the influence is probably Greek. The tomb was named after a triclinium, an ancient Roman dining table, which appears in the fresco. The paintings depict banqueting couples reclining and eating in the ancient manor. It also displays the ancient convention of men painted in darker colors than women. Trees spring up between the main figures and shrubbery grows beneath the reclining couches (perhaps suggesting a rural setting). The paintings may be intended to show a funeral banquet, but the emotions are celebratory. The dancing figures play musical instruments in festive celebration. The ceiling has polychrome checkerboard patterns; the circles may symbolize time.