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Other Confusing Verbs. Sometimes opposite verbs are confused. An example is borrow, lend, and loan. To borrow is to obtain or receive something with the promise or understanding of returning it. To lend is to give or allow the use of something temporarily. The one who borrows, gets; the one who lends, gives. Example: Thank you for lending me your notebook; may I also borrow a pen? Lend is always appropriate as a verb. Another word that can usually be substituted for lend is loan. Although loan is most often used as a noun, and it is less formal than the verb lend, it is an acceptable substitute when discussing physical transactions only. In other words, it is fine to say someone loaned you their bicycle, but not to say they loaned you their attention, their courage, their strength, and so forth. Examples: Correct usage: Please loan your textbook to our new student for this class period, Ashley. Incorrect usage: The decorations loaned an air of celebration to the cafeteria. Correct usage: The decorations lent an air of celebration to the cafeteria. Correct use: The loan of the Johnson's car helped my dad through a tight time. Another example of misunderstanding opposite verbs is using the word learn for teach. He learned me how to swim is incorrect. Learn means to receive instruction; teach means to give instruction. Examples: Jason taught me how to swim. I learned how to swim from Jason. Confusing Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. It is also quite common for people to confuse transitive and intransitive verb forms. Do you recall what these words mean? A transitive verb requires a direct object, a word to receive the action of the verb. An intransitive verb does not use a direct object. (Some verbs can work as either transitive or intransitive verbs.) The verbs that often get confused are similar in sound and meaning: sit and set, rise and raise, and lie and lay . Intransitive verb: sit- to rest with the upper body upright and supported by the buttocks Irregular: sat, sat Transitive verb: set- to put in a specified position or state Irregular: set, set Intransitive verb: rise- to stand after sitting or lying; to move from a lower to a higher level Irregular: rose, risen Transitive verb: raise- to move to a higher position; to cause to rise; to cultivate or produce to maturity Regular: raised, raised Intransitive verb: lie- to place oneself at rest horizontally; to occupy a position or place Irregular: lay, lain Transitive verb: lay- to cause to lie down; to put or set down; to deposit Regular: laid, laid Did you notice how similar the verb pairs are? You may also have noticed that many of them are irregular verbs; that is, their principal parts, the past and participle forms, are not made by adding -d or -ed to the verb stem. A special situation arises with the past tense of lie, which is the same as the base form of the verb to lay. (There is also another verb to lie, which is a regular verb. This lie means to present false information with the intent of deceiving. No one confuses this verb with lay, because their meanings are so dissimilar.) Following are examples of correct usage of these six verbs, including other tenses. The direct objects are italicized along with the verbs to help you see which are transitive and which are intransitive. to sit: My cat sits on the windowsill and watches the birds outside. Cole sat daydreaming about his future, instead of cleaning his room. My mother has sat in that odd position, with one foot tucked under her, many times. to set: Please set the dishes on the table. Connor set the groceries on the counter Dad has always set the thermostat too high for my preference. to rise: Always rise when the American flag is brought into the room. Meghan rose when the choir sang the "Hallelujah Chorus" from Handel's Messiah last Christmas. Grandmother has risen early for years in order to spend time alone with God in prayer. to raise: Jordan raises beautiful flowers, as well as vegetables, in his patio garden. Alexandra raised her hand to volunteer for the special project. The Boy Scouts have raised the flag each day this week. to lie: Our land lies between the creek and that stand of trees. Alejandro lay on the beach, exhausted after his long swim. Cassandra has lain in her new hammock with a good book to read every afternoon. to lay: Janelle lays the twins down for their nap at the same time every morning. Hunter laid his guitar down so he could go get a snack. The groundskeepers at the new church have laid sod all across the front.

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The Formal Essay Specific genres, or types, of literature are classified by their form and style. One of these types of literary genre is the essay. Essays can deal with many topics. They can be humorous or serious in tone. In this lesson, you will learn more about essays--their history and characteristics. You will study the formal essay. You will learn about the formal thesis and the logical order of information in a formal essay. Here are your goals for this lesson: Give the characteristics of a formal essay Relate three methods of organization within a formal essay Judge the effectiveness of a thesis statement Vocabulary expository Writing that sets forth or explains some information. Vocab Arcade One specific genre, or type, of literary prose is the essay. The essay is different from the novel, play, short story, or poem because it is a unique form of nonfiction writing. The essay is expository; that is, its main function is to explain something about a certain limited topic. Usually, the essay is moderately brief and can often be read in one sitting; some essays, however, are quite lengthy. Modern essays are found in news, sports, or literary magazines. In fact, most magazine articles can be classified as essays. The early Greeks and Romans wrote essay-like dialogues, philosophies, and treatises. The essay was not considered a specific literary genre until the time of the Renaissance. The French name essai was first used by Montaigne. The first English essays were written by Francis Bacon. Other popular English essayists were Richard Steele and Joseph Addison who wrote for The Spectator and the Tattler in the seventeenth century. Most of the prose published since then has been in essay form. Some of the more noted American essayists include Thomas Paine, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and James Thurber. The essay may be formal or informal, serious, or humorous. It may deal with a variety of subjects from literary criticism to directions for baking a cake. THE FORMAL ESSAY The formal essay is serious in tone and subject. The main purpose of the formal essay is to inform by means of a logical, organized style. The essay closely follows a certain thesis, or topic paragraph, and very methodically handles each part of a particular subject. The thesis statement contains the topic of an essay, determines the purpose of the essay, and is a theory, belief, or opinion about a certain topic. The essay attempts to prove the thesis by first presenting some type of evidence or facts and then drawing a logical conclusion. A thesis does not state a fact. You cannot prove a fact because facts are fairly well established already and thus not suitable material for a full-length essay. Your thesis, remember, is a theory, belief, or opinion. Fact: Trees produce wood. Thesis: Some woods are suitable for carving. Fact: My shoes are made of leather. Thesis: Leather shoes wear better than vinyl shoes. Some general methods of logical organization an author may use to prove his thesis in a formal essay include these three: reasons, examples, and incidents. By using reasons, the writer is showing evidence to support his thesis. Examples are also effective because the author can give actual proof to support his topic. Finally, incidents are effective in proving a thesis because these are real-life happenings that further support the topic paragraph. An author may use just one of these three methods or all three combined in his essay. For example, an author's thesis might state that "Although soccer is a sport that depends on individual skills, victory is hopeless without teamwork." The author can organize a formal essay around this thesis by using reasons, examples, or incidents -- or a combination of the three. Then the author will end his essay by coming to the conclusion that soccer is really a team-centered game. The author, then, has proved his thesis. The formal essay is not only logically organized, but it is also full of factual information. Since its purpose is serious, the formal essay concentrates on informing, not entertaining. Such essays are found in a variety of magazines and books today.

Analyzing a Formal Essay When you analyze a formal essay, you examine its parts and its organization carefully. You make a judgment about the quality of the essay based upon how well the author has made a case for his thesis statement. After you have analyzed the essay, you will usually evaluate its worth based partly upon your own beliefs and values. Here are your goals for this lesson: Read and analyze a formal essay Demonstrate understanding of the meaning of a formal essay Respond personally by evaluating the validity of the essay's premise Vocabulary aborted Stopped in its development before completion. cessation The bringing or coming to an end of some act; stopping. concede To admit, acknowledge; to yield. diminutive Small, inconsequential. ensue To take place as a result. exorbitant Excessive in amount. extol To glorify. hedonistic Characterized by the self-indulgent pursuit of pleasure. hermetically Tight enough so air cannot get in. holocaust A thorough destruction as if by fire. imploding Bursting inward. ironic Characterized by an unexpected twist of events. paragon A model of excellence, perfection. perception Awareness, consciousness. perennial Persistent, enduring. portentous Important, ominous. simile A figure of speech in which two unlike things are compared using the words like or as. substantial Important, essential. transcendence Surpassing in knowledge. trauma A disordered state caused by stress, injury. travail Physical or mental toil or exertion; labor in childbirth. unrequited Not repaid, not returned. Vocab Arcade Now you will read an essay reprinted from a magazine. The thesis paragraph is in bold. Notice that the thesis paragraph does not necessarily come at the beginning of the essay. The paragraphs are also numbered to aid you in answering the questions at the end of the essay. Be sure to notice how this author develops his thesis. Does he use reasons, examples, incidents, or a combination of these things? Pain: The Tool of the Wounded Surgeon 1. I am sitting in an airplane returning from a trip to the Pacific Northwest. In four days, I interviewed three people. One woman was in an auto accident. As she was driving across a desert with her best friend, a drunken driver missed a stop sign and rammed her car. Her friend and the drunk died instantly; the woman survived with a shattered jaw, broken arm, collapsed lung, lacerated face, and various internal injuries. She has recovered now, except for haunting memories and the prospect of plastic surgery. 2. A young man had a story with a happier ending. His fiancee and he were hiking in a ravine of the Cascade Mountains when an ice bridge collapsed, burying them under tons of ice. The boy chipped his way out with a rock and went for rescuers. A helicopter lifted the girl out and, after spending five months in a body cast, she healed perfectly. 3. The third victim was an eighteen-year-old athlete from Anchorage, Alaska. In school he lettered in football, basketball, and baseball. But during his junior year he noticed a bothersome lump above his ankle so had it diagnosed. Cancer. He lost his leg below the knee. 4. In the past seven years I've interviewed scores of people like these. All have undergone severe pain. A grandmother in a nursing home with two weeks to live and a race car driver in a burn ward are two examples. Every time I return from such a trip, I mull over their stories and their responses to pain. I can often read their reaction with one look into their piercing, sunken eyes. Each victim plods through similar stages: questioning, anger, self-pity, adjustment, gratitude, hope, more anger. Some wear this pain like a badge of courage. Others spend years wrestling with God. 5. These encounters have led me on a personal quest into the problem of pain. When asked what was the greatest problem he had observed in the United States, Helmut Thielicke replied, "They have an inadequate view of suffering." I have come to agree with him. We elaborately prepare for many life changes--a new house, a wedding, a grandchild's birth, a move. But how many of us prepare to cope with sudden, extreme pain? How many know how to respond to suffering friends? 6. After several years of talking with the suffering and of reading books on the problem of pain, I readily confess that I don't have a hermetically-sealed envelope full of answers. I can't say to each sufferer, "Praise God anyhow!" or "Pray for healing and it will come." The perspectives that I have gained are less sweeping and perhaps less satisfying. 7. Some religions, such as Buddhism or Christian Science, deal with pain by denying its existence or by overcoming it. Islam accepts pain as the will of Allah. But Christianity walks a tightrope, affirming the loving concern of a benevolent God but facing squarely the cries of a pain-wracked world. I have found comfort in the Christian perspective because it does face up to the problem so honestly. "How can a good God permit such a world?" is the perennial question rustling through the pages of theology. I believe that Christianity offers substantial help for coping with this messy problem. Why Pain? 8. I have never read a poem extolling the virtues of pain, nor seen a statue erected in its honor, nor heard a hymn dedicated to it. Pain is usually defined as "unpleasantness." Christians don't really know how to interpret pain. If you pinned them against the wall, or in a dark, secret moment, many Christians would probably concede that pain was God's mistake. He really should have worked harder and invented a better way of alerting us to the world's dangers. I am convinced that pain gets a bad press. Perhaps we should see statues, hymns, and poems to pain. Up close, under a microscope, the pain network is seen in an entirely different dimension. 9. I was most impressed with the amazing effectiveness of the pain network when I visited Dr. Paul Brand of Carville, Louisiana, the only man I've met who crusades on behalf of pain. Without hesitation, Brand announces, "Thank God for inventing pain! It's the paragon of his creative genius." Dr. Brand is well-qualified to make such a judgment, since he is one of the world's foremost experts on leprosy, which attacks the nervous system. Leprosy patients lose their fingers and toes, not because the disease can cause decay, but precisely because they lack pain sensations. Nothing warns them when water is too hot or a hammer handle is splintered. Accidental self-abuse destroys their bodies. 10. Brand's appreciation for pain climaxed after he was given a substantial grant to design an artificial pain system to help people with diseases that destroyed pain sensors. Brand had to think like the Creator, anticipating the needs of the body. After signing on three professors of electronic engineering, a bioengineer, and several research biochemists, he began. 11. First, the team developed an artificial nerve that could be placed on the fingertip like a glove. The nerve responded to pressure with an electric current that stimulated a warning signal. For five years Brand and his assistants tackled the technical problems. The more they studied nerves, the more complex their task appeared. At what level should the sensor sound a warning? How could a sensor distinguish between the normal pressure of gripping a railing and the pressure of gripping a thornbush? How could they allow for rigorous activities such as tennis-playing and yet warn of danger? 12. Brand also noticed that nerve cells change their perception of pain to meet the body's needs. When inflamed with an infection, a fingertip may become ten times more sensitive to pain. A swollen finger seems awkward and in the way, because nerve cells "turn up the volume," magnifying bumps and scrapes that are usually ignored. In no way could these well-funded scientists duplicate that feat with current technology. All the artificial sensors proved fragile and would rupture or deteriorate from metal fatigue or corrosion after a few hundred uses. 13. Almost everyone who studies the body will admit that the nervous system is well-engineered. But one could naturally ask, "Does pain have to be unpleasant? A protective system is, of course, necessary, but must it hurt? Piercing streaks of pain race to the brain, doubling up a patient--couldn't God have found another way?" 14. Brand's team contemplated these questions as they worked on an artificial nerve cell. For a long time they used an audible signal coming through a hearing aid, a signal that would hum when the tissues were receiving normal pressures and buzz loudly when the tissues were actually in danger. But the signal was not unpleasant enough. A patient would tolerate a loud noise if, for example, he wanted to turn a screwdriver too hard, even though the signal told him it could be harmful. Blinking lights were tried and eliminated for the same reason. Brand finally resorted to electric shock to make people let go of something that might hurt them. People had to be forced to remove their hands; being alerted to the danger was insufficient. The stimulus had to be unpleasant, just as pain is unpleasant. 15. "We also found out that the signal had to be out of the patient's reach," Brand said. "For even intelligent people, if they wished to do something which they were afraid would activate the shock, would switch off the signal, do what they had in mind to do, and then switch it on again when there was no danger of receiving an unpleasant signal. I remember thinking how wise God had been in putting pain out of reach." 16. After five years of work, thousands of man-hours, and over a million dollars, Brand and his associates abandoned the entire project. A warning system suitable for just one hand was exorbitantly expensive, subject to frequent mechanical breakdown and hopelessly inadequate to interpret the mass of sensations the hand encounters. The system sometimes called "God's great mistake" was far too complex for even the most sophisticated technology to mimic. 17. Brand thus discovered one of the most basic--but overlooked--facts about pain: it is well-suited for this fallen world. Without pain, simple acts like shoveling snow, taking a bath, and turning a screwdriver become dangerous. They can destroy our cells unless the warning system imposes its limits on us. For someone with crippling arthritis or terminal cancer, pain rages out of control, and any relief, especially a painless world, would seem like heaven itself. But for the majority of us, the pain network performs daily protective service. God's Megaphone 18. Christianity asserts that besides adapting us to a fallen physical world, pain perfectly expresses the nature of our morally fallen world. Suffering is consistent with the Bible's view of planet Earth. It is a stained planet, and suffering reminds us of that. C.S. Lewis introduced the phrase "pain, the megaphone of God." It's an apt phrase, because pain does shout. When I stub my toe or twist an ankle, pain tells my brain that something is wrong. Similarly, the existence of suffering on this earth is, I believe, a scream to all of us that something is wrong. It makes us consider other values. 19. We could (some people do) believe that the purpose of life here is to be comfortable. Enjoy yourself, build a nice home, engorge good food . . . live the good life. That's all there is. But the presence of suffering complicates that philosophy. It's much harder to believe that the world is here for my hedonistic fulfillment when a third of its people go to bed starving each night. It's much harder to believe that the purpose of life is to feel good when I see people injured on the freeway. If I try to escape the idea and merely enjoy life, suffering is there, haunting me, reminding me of how hollow life would be if this world were all I'd ever know. 20. Sometimes murmuring, sometimes shouting, suffering is a "rumor of transcendence" that the entire human condition is out of whack. Something is wrong with a life of wars and violence and insults. We need help. He who wants to be satisfied with this world, who wants to think the only reason for living is to enjoy a good life, must do so with cotton in his ears; the megaphone of pain is a loud one. 21. It is this aspect of Christianity that made G.K. Chesterton say, "The modern philosopher had told me again and again that I was in the right place, and I had still felt depressed even in acquiescence. But I had heard that I was in the wrong place, and my soul sang for joy, like a bird in spring" (Orthodoxy, Doubleday, 1959, p. 80). Optimists had told him the world was the best of all possible worlds, but he couldn't accept that. Christianity made sense to him because it freely admitted that this is a stained planet. One may accuse the Christian doctrine of the origin of suffering of being weak and unsatisfying--that it came as a result of man's aborted freedom. But at least, as Chesterton notes, the concept of a great but fallen world squares with what we know of reality. 22. Pain, God's megaphone, can drive me away from him. I can hate God for allowing such misery. Or, on the other hand, it can drive me to him. I can believe him when he says this world is not all there is, and take the chance that he is making a perfect place for those who follow Him on pain-wracked earth. If you once doubt the megaphone value of suffering, visit the intensive-care ward of a hospital. It's unlike any other place in the world. All sorts of people will pace the lobby floors. Some rich, some poor. There are beautiful, plain, black, white, smart, dull, spiritual, atheistic, white-collar, and blue-collar people. But the intensive-care ward is the one place in the world where none of those divisions makes a speck of difference, for all those people are united by a single awful thread--their love for a dying relative or friend. You don't see sparks of racial tension there. Economic differences, even religious differences fade away. Often they'll be consoling one another or crying quietly. All of them are facing the rock-bottom emotions of life, and many of them call for a pastor or priest for the first time ever. Only the megaphone of pain is strong enough to bring these people to their knees and make them reconsider life. The Wounded Surgeon's Promise 23. Almost all the suffering people I have talked to deal with God at some level. When the natural world of doctors and drugs doesn't seem to be working well, they try the supernatural world. A few find miraculous answers: healings, cessation of pain, supernatural faith. Others do not. 24. There are, however, two contributions to the problem of pain that hold true in any circumstance, whether healing or death ensues. The first is the simple fact of Jesus' coming. God entered humanity, and saw and felt for himself what this world is like. Jesus took on the same kind of body you and I have. His nerve fibers were not bionic--they screamed with pain when they were misused. Above all, Jesus was surely misused. This fact of history can have a large effect on the fear and helpless despair of sufferers. 25. The scene of Christ's death, with the sharp spikes and the wrenching thud as the cross was dropped in the ground, has been told so often that we, who shrink from a news story on the death of a race horse or of baby seals, do not flinch at its retelling. It was a bloody death, an execution quite unlike the quick, sterile ones we know today: gas chambers, electric chairs, hangings. This one stretches on for hours in front of a jeering crowd. 26. Jesus' death is the cornerstone of the Christian faith, the most important fact of his coming. You can't follow Jesus without confronting His death; the Gospels bulge with its details. He laid out a trail of hints and bald predictions about it throughout His ministry, predictions that were only understood after the thing had been done, when to the disciples the dream looked shattered. His life seemed prematurely wasted. His triumphant words from the night before surely must have cruelly haunted His followers as they watched him groan and twitch on the cross. 27. What possible contribution to the problem of pain could come from a religion based on an event like the crucifixion? Simply, we are not abandoned. The Alaskan boy with an amputated foot, grieving Ugandan Christians, the Toccoa Falls survivors--none has to suffer alone. Because God came and took a place beside us, He fully understands. Dorothy Sayers says: 28. "For whatever reason God chose to make man as he is--limited and suffering and subject to sorrow and death--He had the honesty and courage to take His own medicine. Whatever game He is playing with His creation, He has kept His own rules and played fair. He can exact nothing from man that He has not exacted from Himself. He has Himself gone through the whole of human experience, from the trivial irritations of family life and the cramping restrictions of hard work and lack of money to the worst horrors of pain and humiliation, defeat, despair and death. When He was a man, He played the man. He was born in poverty and died in disgrace and thought it well worthwhile" (Christian Letters to a Post-Christian World, Eerdmans, 1969, p.14). 29. By taking it on himself, Jesus in a sense dignified pain. Of all the kinds of lives He could have lived, He chose a suffering one. Because of Jesus, I can never say about a person, "He must be suffering because of some sin he committed." Jesus, who did not sin, also felt pain. And I cannot say, "Suffering and death must mean God has forsaken us; He's left us alone to self-destruct." Because even though Jesus died, His death became the great victory of history, pulling man and God together. God made a supreme good out of that day. T.S. Eliot wrote in his "Four Quartets": The wounded surgeon plies the steel That questions the distempered part; Beneath the bleeding hands we feel The sharp compassion of the healer's art Resolving the enigma of the fever chart (Collected Poems 1904-1962, Harcourt Brace World, 1965, p. 187). 30. The uniquely Christian contribution is a memory. But there is another one--a hope. To the person with unrequited suffering, it is the most important contribution of all. Christ did not stay on the cross. After three days in a dark tomb, He was seen alive again. Alive! Could it be? His disciples couldn't believe it at first. But He came to them, letting them feel His new body. Christ brought us the possibility of an afterlife without pain and suffering. All our hurts are temporary. 31. How to imagine eternity? It's so much larger than our short life here that it's difficult even to visualize. You can go to a ten-foot blackboard and draw a line from one side to another. Then, make a one-inch dot in that line. To a microscopic germ cell, sitting in the midst of that one-inch dot, it would look enormous. The cell could spend its lifetime exploring its length and breadth. But you're a human, and by stepping back to view the whole blackboard you're suddenly struck with how large that ten-foot line is compared to the tiny dot that germ calls home. 32. Eternity compared to this life is that way. In seventy years we can develop a host of ideas about God and how indifferent he appears to be about suffering. But is it reasonable to judge God and His plan for the universe by the swatch of time we spend on earth? No more reasonable than for that germ cell to judge a whole blackboard by the tiny smudge of chalk where he spends his life. Have we missed the perspective of the timelessness of the universe? 33. Who would complain if God allowed one hour of suffering in an entire lifetime of comfort? Why complain about a lifetime that includes suffering when that lifetime is a mere hour of eternity? 34. In the Christian scheme of things, this world and the time spent here are not all there is. Earth is a proving ground, a dot in eternity--but a very important dot, for Jesus said our destiny depends on our obedience here. Next time you want to cry out to God in anguished despair, blaming Him for a miserable world, remember: less than one-millionth of the evidence has been presented, and that is being worked out under a rebel flag. 35. Let me use another analogy to illustrate the effect of this truth. Ironically, the one event that probably causes more emotional suffering than any other--death--is in reality a translation, a time for great joy when Christ's victory will be appropriated to each of us. Describing the effect of His own death, Jesus used the simile of a woman in travail, full of pain and agony until all is replaced by ecstasy. 36. Your world is dark, safe, secure. You are bathed in warm liquid, cushioned from shock. You do nothing for yourself; you are fed automatically, and a murmuring heartbeat assures you that someone larger than you fills all your needs. Your life consists of simple waiting. You're not sure what to wait for, but any change seems far away and scary. You meet no sharp objects, no pain, no threatening adventures.--a fine existence. 37. One day you feel a tug. The walls are falling in on you. Those soft cushions are now pulsing and beating against you, crushing you downwards. Your body is bent double, your limbs twisted and wrenched. You're falling upside down. For the first time in your life you feel pain. You're in a sea of rolling matter. There is more pressure, almost too intense to bear. Your head is squeezed flat, and you are pushed harder, harder into a dark tunnel. Oh, the pain. Noise. More pressure. 38. You're hurting all over. You hear a groaning sound and an awful sudden fear rushes in on you. It is happening--your world is collapsing. You're sure it's the end. You see a piercing, blinding light. Cold, rough hands pull at you. A painful slap. A loud cry. 39. You have just experienced birth. 40. Death is like that. On this end of the birth canal, it seems fiercesome [sic], portentous, and full of pain. Death is a scary tunnel and we are being sucked toward it by a powerful force. We're afraid. It's full of pressure, pain, darkness--the unknown. But beyond the darkness and the pain there's a whole new world outside. When we wake up after death in that bright new world, our tears and hurts will be mere memories. And though the new world is so much better than this one, we have no categories to really understand what it will be like. The best the Bible writers can tell us is that then, instead of the silence of God, we will have the presence of God and see Him face to face. At that time we will be given a stone, and upon it will be written a new name, which no one else knows. Our birth into new creatures will be complete (Rev. 2:17). 41. Do you sometimes think God does not hear? God is not deaf. He is as grieved by the world's trauma as you are. His only Son died here. But He has promised to set things right. 42. Let history finish. Let the symphony scratch out its last mournful note of discord before it bursts into song. As Paul said, "In my opinion whatever we may have to go through now is less than nothing compared with the magnificent future God has planned for us. The whole creation is on tiptoe to see the wonderful sight of the sons of God coming into their own . . . . 43. "It is plain to anyone with eyes to see that at the present time all created life groans in sort of a universal travail. And it is plain, too, that we who have a foretaste of the Spirit are in a state of painful tension, while we wait for that redemption of our bodies which will mean that at last we have realized our full sonship in Him" (Rom. 8:18, 19, 22, 23). 44. As we look back on the speck of eternity that was the history of this planet, we will be impressed not by its importance, but by its diminutiveness. From the viewpoint of the Andromeda galaxy, the apocalyptic destruction of our entire solar system would be barely visible, a match flaring faintly in the distance, then imploding in permanent darkness. Yet for this burnt-out match, God sacrificed Himself. Pain can be seen, as Berkouwer puts it, as the great "not yet" of eternity. It reminds us of where we are, and creates in us a thirst for where we will someday be. (From CHRISTIANITY TODAY, March 24, 1978, Vol. XXII, No. 12.)

Development of Language: Origins and Dialects Why do you use the English language to communicate? In most cases, it is because you learned it from your parents. They did not make a conscious effort to teach it to you beyond your first few sentences, but you acquired it, first by listening and later through speaking and other forms of communication. Your parents probably learned the English language in the same way from their parents. There was a time, however, when no English language existed. We realize from studying the Old Testament that God created different languages at the Tower of Babel, but these languages have changed over the years. In this section, you will see how our language spread and changed as we trace the development of the English language. Here are your goals for this lesson: Note changes in the English language Identify dictionary abbreviations for the origin of English words Tell how languages change and how dialects develop Vocabulary analytical Dividing into elemental parts or basic principles. dominion Supreme authority; rule; control. etymology The study of the origin and history of a word. Germanic Of Germany, its people, or their language. Vocab Arcade The study of the development of language involves an understanding of what language is, how it is important to man, and how it changes as time passes. Language includes written symbols, spoken symbols, and sign language. Individuals have to agree that a word stands for a certain concept or idea before the word has any meaning. If I say to you, "Bring me the skruztblug," you would have no idea of what I mean. We have not agreed that the word skruztblug has a certain meaning between us. However, if I say instead, "Bring me the newspaper," you know exactly what I want because we understand that the word newspaper is the symbol for the periodical delivered to my home each day. Animals are sometimes thought to have a communication system, but it is by no means as well developed as that of man. When God created mankind, He gave him dominion over the animals. One of the gifts that man has is an analytical brain which can sort, separate, and develop a language system. In this manner, each item in man's world can be identified by a written and oral symbol. Written language is one of man's most important tools. Man not only has a higher capacity for communication, but he also has many languages, many of which have several dialects. Through language, man is uniquely capable of communicating abstract ideas by the use of symbols. When something new is found or invented, man creates new words to define it. This is one of the most important ways that our language develops. The variety and complexity of languages used by man separates him from the animals and identifies him as unique in God's creation. Although a language like our American English has commonly agreed-upon symbols, meanings will change over a period of years. Our English language developed from earlier languages over many centuries. In addition to its roots in the Germanic languages, our English has been influenced by languages such as Latin, Greek, and French. As a result, many of our English words have quite a diverse history. The origin of a word is called its etymology. Most good dictionaries give the etymology of words when it is known. Etymologies document the changes in meaning that occur over long periods of time. Meanings of words have changed dramatically since the first dictionaries were made. For example, the word let in today's dictionary means allow or permit. In 1611, the word let meant hinder. This is almost the opposite of allow or permit. Dictionaries document the history of words by including with most entries the source language of each word. Source languages are usually abbreviated in the following manner: Source Language Chart AF Anglo-French HG High German Dan. Danish L, Lat. Latin D, Du. Dutch LG Low German E, Eng English MF Middle French F, Fr. French MHG Middle High German G, Ger. German OE Old English Gk. Greek OF Old French Heb. Hebrew OHG Old High German Sp., Span. Spanish More about English Etymology

How languages change. As groups of people move away and develop their own civilizations, their languages move and change with them. Look at the following passages. Whan that Aprill with his shoures soote The droghte of March hath perced to the roote And bathed every veyne in swich licour Of which vertu engendred is the flour. ---Chaucer (Opening of the Canterbury Tales) "Saying, Go ye into the village over against you; in the which at your entering ye shall find a colt tied, whereon yet never man sat: loose him, and bring him hither." ---Luke 19:30 Whose woods these are I think I know. His house is in the village though; He will not see me stopping here To watch his woods fill up with snow. ---Robert Frost ("Stopping By Woods on a Snowy Evening") All three of these passages are written in English, yet the first one is very difficult to understand. You may also have some trouble reading the second. The first passage was written in the fourteenth century, the second in the seventeenth century, and the third in the twentieth century. These passages demonstrate some of the changes English has undergone during the last six centuries. How dialects develop. Languages change at different rates in different areas. These changes account for the many dialects we have in American English today. If an area has very little contact with the civilizations near or around it, its language reflects this isolation. When the English settlers began to cross the Appalachian Mountains in the early 1800's, some stayed in the mountains, built log cabins, and supported themselves by fishing, hunting, and gardening. The descendants of these early English settlers are the mountaineers of Kentucky and West Virginia today. Words in their vocabulary, such as vittles, kin, folk, varmint, and spell, have fallen into disuse in current American usage. They are old-fashioned words and are disappearing from modern English. How many dialect words or expressions do you know? These words would be understood in only one area of the country. For example, in Louisiana, a paper sack is called a "poke." If you are interested, ask your parents, teachers, and grandparents to help you identify words that are used only in your area or words that were used in your area until recently. If your family comes from another part of the country, identify words that were used in the area your family came from originally.

Standard and Nonstandard Usage Usage is usually divided into two levels: standard usage and nonstandard usage. An expression is considered standard if it is used in the speech or in the writing of a large number of educated persons. Here are your goals for this lesson: Distinguish between standard and nonstandard use of English State reasons for and probable results of choosing standard or nonstandard usage Replace nonstandard usage with standard usage while proofreading Vocabulary contraction A shortened form of a word or phrase such as can't for cannot or don't for do not. slang Nonstandard vocabulary used by a particular group. usage The customary way of using words. Vocab Arcade Standard English is the kind usually spoken by teachers, ministers, and other educated people. Well-known periodicals, particularly literary magazines, are good examples of standard written English. Nonstandard English is used by people who have not been influenced to any great extent by school instruction. Students or educated adults who use nonstandard language despite their knowledge of standard usage may be doing so for a variety of reasons. They may be careless, slipping easily into language patterns learned as a child. They may be demonstrating an attitude of rebellion, or unwillingness to fit into the academic or business environment in which they find themselves. They may be signaling to others in a particular social group, which may be largely uneducated, that they, too, fit in. They may just consider the use of standard English to be unimportant. Whatever their reason, they put themselves into a position where they are likely to be judged as uneducated or unworthy of status in the educational or business field. Therefore, it is wise not only to know standard English, but to become comfortable in its use. A letter of application for a job written in nonstandard English will create a poor impression. The following letter is an example of how not to apply for a job at a summer camp. Dear Camp Wildwood, Me and my friend Butch Carson was talking about next summer. Butch said we might make ourselves a few bucks working for you. Is this so? If it is, write me. Joe Mason 35 W. 54th Street Crestwood, Michigan 49000 If the letter were rewritten in standard English, it might read: Director Camp Wildwood Dear Sir: My friend, Robert Carson, and I were talking about our plans for next summer. We are interested in working as camp counselors. Do you have any positions open? If so, please mail two applications to my address. Sincerely yours, Joseph Mason 35 W. 54th Street Crestwood, Michigan 49000 Joe and Butch would have a better chance of getting jobs at Camp Wildwood if the camp director received the second letter rather than the first because the second letter is written in standard English. Joe sounds more mature in the second letter than he does in the first.

Nonstandard English. A few problems arise from nonstandard usage. In addition to the examples here, you may find some that are particular to your regional dialect. Learn the standard usage and replace the nonstandard usage. Then practice the standard usage until it becomes familiar and "just sounds correct" to you. (In the examples below, both the better and preferred forms are considered standard English; however, the forms labeled preferred have wider usage and acceptability, while those labeled better tend to be more regionally limited.) Had ought to and shouldn't ought to is nonstandard. Instead, use ought to or, even better, should. Examples: Nonstandard: He had ought to work if he wants to eat. She shouldn't ought to have said that. Better: He ought to work if he wants to eat. She ought not to say that. Preferred: He should work if he wants to eat. She shouldn't say that. Use the spelling all right when you mean that something is acceptable. Although you will occasionally see alright in print, it is a nonstandard variant of all right. Avoid its use. Correct: Is it all right to borrow your book? Incorrect: Is it alright to borrow your book? Using Negatives. A positive sentence is made negative in English by the addition of just one negative word. Example: Positive: They are going to the store today. Negative: They are not going to the store today. Negative: They are going to no stores today. In many languages (and once, long ago, in the English of Shakespeare), putting in additional negative words make the sentence more definitely negative. This is also true for some nonstandard, dialectical use of English. However, in modern English, the double negative is not allowed. In today's English language, two negatives make the sentence positive. It is grammatically incorrect to use double negatives. Negative Words no nothing neither not (n't) nowhere barely never nobody hardly none no one scarcely Examples: Incorrect: George doesn't listen to no one. Correct: George doesn't listen to anyone. Correct: George listens to no one. Incorrect: I can't hardly work without the radio. Correct: I can't work without the radio. Correct: I can hardly work without the radio. Another nonstandard word that is commonly used is the contraction ain't. This contraction has been around since 1778, used to mean am not and are not. Gradually, it came to be used for all forms of to be plus not, but it has usually been considered a mark of ignorance. You will do best to avoid it entirely, except in such quaint expressions as Say it ain't so! and You ain't seen nothing yet! when writing dialogue.

Confusing Words The English language contains a few words or word pairs that can be troublesome to those who are not aware. It is a good idea to familiarize yourself with those that are in common usage, so that you do not make needless mistakes in speaking or writing when standard English is required. Here are your goals for this lesson: Avoid confusion in using noun and verb forms of word pairs Avoid confusion in using opposite words Avoid confusion in using similar verbs that may and may not take a direct object Select appropriate similar modifiers depending upon their use in the sentence Confusing Verb and Noun Forms. A few words have noun and verb forms that are frequently confused. Make it a point to master the usage of these words, and you will never need to feel embarrassed by poor usage. Invite is a verb; invitation is a noun. It is never correct to use the verb invite as a noun. Examples: Correct Verb Use: I invited the neighbors over for hot chocolate. Correct Noun Use: We should send out the invitations to the party today. Incorrect: Did you get an invite to the swim party? Advise is a verb; advice is a noun. Examples: I would advise you to examine all sides of the situation before deciding. Did you appreciate getting his advice? Affect and effect are frequently confused. Part of the confusion is because both words can function as nouns or verbs depending on special usage. The most common usage of these words, however, is with the verb affect and the noun effect. Perfect your usage of these common meanings. Affect is a verb commonly meaning to influence or to pretend. Examples: To influence: The results of the evangelistic crusade will affect thousands of lives. To pretend: He affected a stern manner. The noun effect refers to a result brought about by a cause or agent. Examples: Chilled and exhausted from skiing, Skyler noticed the immediate effect of the hot apple cider and the roaring fire. The new tax law goes into effect on January 1. Think of it this way. If a song affects you emotionally, you feel the effect of its lyrics and harmonies. Almost all the time, you will use affect as a verb and effect as a noun. Now let's look at the exceptions to the rule. In some situations, effect is a verb and affect is a noun. This is not as confusing as it may sound, because the usage is well defined. The verb effect means to cause to come into existence; to bring about. Example: The new arbitrator hopes to effect a settlement in the dispute. The noun affect is a psychological term having to do with a person's emotional state as displayed by his facial expressions and body language. Example: The patient's affect caused the doctor to consider depression as a possible cause of symptoms. As a student, you will rarely have need for these less common usages.

Word Classes: Nouns As you have learned in previous years, English has three main classes of words: nouns, verbs, and modifiers. Nouns express ideas or name persons, places, or things. Here are your goals for this lesson: Identify nouns by their function in a sentence Distinguish between concrete and abstract nouns Distinguish between common and proper nouns Vocabulary categorize To group into a general system of classification. determiners Limiting adjectives including pronouns used as adjectives, numeral adjectives, and the words a, an, and the. modifier A word or group of words that limits another word or group of words. Vocab Arcade A noun names a person, place, or thing. Nouns which name things that can be seen are called concrete nouns. A noun can also express an idea or quality or concept. This type of noun is called an abstract noun. It names things that cannot be seen. Examples: truth beauty virtue love honesty value happiness loneliness Nouns can also be classified as proper nouns or common nouns. A common noun is any person, place, or thing; it is a general term or category. Common Nouns A proper noun is the name of a specific person, place, or thing; it is capitalized. Proper Nouns One way of identifying nouns is to use context clues, clues from the rest of the sentence. Does the following sentence make sense to you? The clursple betped on the sryor. It probably does not because it is composed of nonsense words. However, by the position in the sentence and by the familiar noun marker the, you can recognize two words that are supposed to be nouns: clursple and sryor. A noun can meet these tests: 1. It will fit in one of these sentence slots: ___________________ was in the book. The ________________was in the book. A (An) _____________ was in the book. 2. It can usually change to a plural form: car, cars; child, children; candy, candies. 3. It can take a modifier, a determiner, or another adjective before it. a school many books much trouble two cupcakes our address that teacher Learn More about Nouns

Personal and Possessive Pronouns Using personal and possessive pronouns correctly in speaking or writing is a mark of an educated person. Here are your goals for this lesson: Use subject and object pronouns correctly Use possessive pronouns correctly Vocabulary insanely In a manner which is extremely foolish; in a wild or deranged manner. Vocab Arcade A pronoun is a word that stands for a noun or for a group of words used as a noun. It acts as a noun substitute. The following pronouns stand for the nouns in bold type. Pronouns John called Susan twice. her Has the class seen the picture? it John and I prayed for a miracle. We Give the basketball to Mike. him Paul was the first person to leave. He Personal pronouns. Pronouns that refer to persons are called personal pronouns. The following chart contains personal pronouns. Subject Pronouns Object Pronouns Singular I me you you he, she, it him, her, it Plural we us you you they them Possessive Pronouns. When personal pronouns are used to indicate possession, they are called possessive pronouns. Study the following chart of personal possessive pronouns. Singular my, mine your, yours his, her, hers, its Plural our, ours your, yours their, theirs The next two paragraphs are examples of noun and pronoun usage: the first paragraph contains no pronouns. Notice the improvement in the second paragraph when the writer used pronouns to stand for some of the nouns. Yesterday, Bill stopped at the library to pick up some books for Bill's father. When Bill got to the library, the librarian could not find the books. The librarian looked for the books for half an hour. The librarian was embarrassed when the librarian found that the books had been put back on the shelves. Yesterday, Bill stopped at the library to pick up some books for his father. When he got to the library, the librarian could not find the books. She looked for them for half an hour. She was embarrassed when she found that they had been put back on the shelves.

The Informal Essay The informal essay is very enjoyable. This type of essay is meant primarily to entertain. You will read an informal essay and have an opportunity to create one of your own. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize an informal essay by its characteristics Demonstrate understanding of the construction and techniques used in an informal essay Vocabulary deftly Skillfully, dexterously. docility Teachability, manageability. mete To allot or assign. pedigree Distinguished purity of breed. Vocab Arcade The informal essay is probably the most popular form of essay. Although it does inform the reader, its main purpose is to entertain. This type of essay is more personal and natural in style. The author is casual as he shares his opinions and experiences with the reader. The informal essay is friendly and open--often humorous. Many literature books, collections of essays, and periodicals contain informal essays. In the following essay, humor is used to relay information in an entertaining way. Notice how the personal, friendly style of the informal essay differs from the logical, organized style of the formal essay. Every Dog Should Own a Man by Sparse Grey Hackle (pseudonym of Alfred W. Miller, 1893? - 1983) 1. Every dog should have a man of his own. There is nothing like a well-behaved person around the house to spread the dog's blanket for him, or bring him his supper when he comes home man-tired at night. Properly trained, a man can be a dog's best friend. 2. For example, I happen to belong to a medium-sized English setter, who acquired me when he was about six months old and has been training me quite successfully ever since. He has taught me to shake hands with him, and fetch his ball. I've learned not to tug at the leash when he takes me for a walk. I am completely housebroken, and I make him a devoted companion. 3. The secret of a dog's success in handling a man is patience. Some men are a little slow to respond, but a dog who makes allowances and tries to put himself in the man's place will be rewarded with a loyal pal. My setter has broken me so thoroughly that I have decided to set down a few basic rules of manhandling, as a guide for other dogs who happen to own friends of mine. 4. The first problem is to pick out the right man. A dog should exercise great care in making his choice, since he is apt to become quite attached to the man and will find it hard to get rid of him later if he proves to be unsatisfactory. Every dog wants to own a champion, but a happy and affectionate disposition is more important than an expensive pedigree. 5. I do not happen to be registered, for example, but my setter is just as fond of me as though I came from a long line of blue bloods. 6. The main things to look for in a man are sound teeth and gums, a good coat, and a self-confident manner. Remember that a dog is judged by the man he leads, so do not accept a specimen that is scrawny or a runt. Before acquiring a man, it is a good idea to walk him up and down a couple of times, in order to make sure that his action is free and he has springy hindquarters. 7. The next question to decide is whether the dog and man should share the house together. Some dogs prefer a kennel because it is more sanitary, but my setter decided at the start that he'd move right in the house with me. I can get into any of the chairs I want except the big overstuffed chair in the living room, which is his. 8. Training a man takes time, of course. A dog should realize that a man does not possess a dog's instincts, and it is not his fault when he fails to understand what the dog desires. Men are apt to be high-strung and sensitive, and a dog who loses his temper will only break the man's spirit. 9. A friend of mine, who was owned by a cocker spaniel, was handled very badly when his dog first got him. When my friend failed to serve him his meal on time, for example, the dog snarled and nipped him in the calf. As a result my friend became dog-shy, and would crawl under the sofa whenever he saw his dog coming. The spaniel finally had to give him away. 10. It is a great mistake to break a man by using force. Punishment should be meted out sparingly, and then only in cases of deliberate disobedience. More can be accomplished by a reproachful look than by flying off the handle. My setter has never raised a paw to me, but he has cured me almost entirely of the habit of running away. When he sees me start to pack my suitcase, he just lies down on the floor with his chin on his forepaws and gazes at me sadly. Usually I wind up by unpacking the suitcase and canceling my train reservations. 11. A lot of dogs make the added mistake of breaking a man too fast. A few minutes of yard work each afternoon are sufficient and the pupil will look forward to the next day's session with enthusiasm. Make each lesson a game, and always reward a man when he has done particularly well. A man is anxious to please his dog, and he will respond gratefully to an occasional friendly gesture, such as wagging the tail. 12. The first thing to teach a man is to stay at heel. To accomplish this lesson, the dog should hook one end of a long leather leash to his collar, and loop the other end around the man's wrist so he cannot get away. 13. Start down the street slowly, pausing at each telephone pole until the man realizes that he's under control. He may tug and yank at first, but this can be discouraged by slipping deftly between his legs and winding the leash around his ankles. If the man tries to run ahead of the dog, brace all four feet and halt suddenly, thus jerking the man flat on his back. After a few such experiences, the man will become lead-broken and follow his dog with docility. Remember, however, that all such efforts at discipline must be treated as sport, and after a man has sprawled on the sidewalk the dog should run over and lick his face to show him it was all in fun. 14. Another trick every man should learn is to retrieve a rubber ball. The way my setter taught me this trick was simple. He would lie in the center of the floor, while I carried the ball to the far side of the room and rolled it along the rug toward him, at the same time uttering the word, "Fetch!" The setter would watch the ball carefully as it rolled past him and came to a halt under the sofa. I would then walk to the other side of the room, get the ball from under the sofa and roll it past him again, giving the same command, "Fetch!" 15. This lesson would be repeated until the setter was asleep. After I got so I would retrieve the ball every time I said "Fetch!" my dog substituted other articles for me to pick up, such as an old marrowbone or a piece of waxed paper he found in the wastebasket. 16. Not only did I learn to keep the house neat, but the frequent bending over was good for my waistline. 17. The matter of physical conditioning is important. A man whose carriage is faulty and who slouches and droops his tail is a reflection on the dog who owns him. The best way to keep him in shape is to work him constantly, and never give him a chance to relax. Racing him up and down the street at the end of a leash, for example, is a great conditioner. 18. If he attempts to slump into an easy chair when he gets back, the dog should leap into it ahead of him and force him to sit in a straight-backed chair to improve his posture. 19. Be sure to get him up three or four times during the night and make him go out for a walk, particularly if it is raining. 20. Equally important is diet. The average man has a tendency to gobble everything in sight, and the dog should exercise a restraining influence on his appetite by eating all the leftovers in the house before the man gets a chance at them. 21. Last but not least, it is up to the dog to see that his man has the right companions. If he does not approve of a guest who has been invited to the house for dinner, he should express his dislike by removing a small section of the visitor's trouser leg as a gentle hint. Personally, I look forward to seeing the milkman these days, because he is practically the only person my dog will let in the house. 22. Not every dog who tries to bring up a man is as successful as my setter. The answer lies in understanding. The dog must be patient, and not work himself into a tantrum if his man cannot learn to chase rabbits or wriggle under fences as well as the dog does. After all, as my setter says, "It's hard to teach an old man new tricks."

The Anecdote One type of informal essay is the anecdote. In this lesson, you will learn the characteristics of an anecdote and have the opportunity to read a classic example of this genre. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize the anecdote as a type of informal essay Analyze elements of humor in an anecdote Tell ways in which the anecdote differs from the short story The anecdote is a short account of a single interesting or humorous incident. The anecdote may be based upon an actual incident, or it may be entirely imaginative. Even if the incident is entirely made up, the anecdote is still classified as an informal essay, a genre of nonfiction. Oftentimes, students will mistakenly categorize the anecdote as fiction, especially if elements within it are fairly unbelievable. However, the anecdote differs from the fiction genre of short story in several ways: there is no defined conflict or plot, the characters are not fully developed, and the conclusion is not neatly wrapped up as in the short story. In fact, the anecdotal essay often sounds more like a group of older adults sitting around telling funny stories of their lives. If based on an actual incident, the circumstances may be deliberately exaggerated, or overstated, in order to make the incident more humorous. The purpose is light-hearted fun--let's hear you laugh. What makes it funny? In order to make us laugh, humor connects to our own lives in some way. There is often an element of slight embarrassment in humor: as we are laughing at the author's situation and response, we are at some level recalling times when we have felt or acted the same way and have been embarrassed as a result. Have you ever made yourself look foolish in a situation where you felt intimidated or self-conscious by trying to appear "cool" and knowledgeable even though you didn't feel that way? This is a common human experience that Stephen Leacock drew on for his humorous essay. As you read, identify the author's purpose and look for situations with which you can identify even in these modern times. My Financial Career by Stephen Leacock (1869-1944) When I go into a bank I get rattled. The clerks rattle me; the wickets rattle me; the sight of the money rattles me; everything rattles me. The moment I cross the threshold of a bank and attempt to transact business there, I become an irresponsible idiot. I knew this beforehand, but my salary had been raised to fifty dollars a month and I felt that the bank was the only place for it. So I shambled in and looked timidly around at the clerks. I hadan idea that a person about to open an account must needs consult the manager. I went up to a wicket marked "Accountant." The accountant was a tall, cool [scoundrel]. The very sight of him rattled me. My voice was sepulchral. "Can I see the manager?" I said, and added solemnly, "alone." I don't know why I said "alone." "Certainly," said the accountant, and fetched him. The manager was a grave, calm man. I held my fifty-six dollars clutched in a crumpled ball in my pocket. "Are you the manager?" I said. . . . I didn't doubt it. "Yes," he said. "Can I see you," I asked, "alone?" I didn't want to say "alone" again, but without it the thing seemed self-evident. The manager looked at me in some alarm. He felt that I had an awful secret to reveal. Come in here," he said, and led the way to a private room. He turned the key in the lock. "We are safe from interruption here," he said; "sit down." We both sat down and looked at each other. I found no voice to speak. "You are one of Pinkerton's men, I presume," he said. He had gathered from my mysterious manner that I was a detective. I knew what he was thinking, and it made me worse. "No, not from Pinkerton's," I said, seeming to imply that I came from a rival agency. "To tell the truth," I went on, as if I had been prompted to lie about it, "I am not a detective at all. I have come to open an account. I intend to keep all my money in this bank." The manager looked relieved but still serious; he concluded now that I was a son of Baron Rothschild or a young Gould. "A large account, I suppose," he said. "Fairly large," I whispered. "I propose to deposit fifty-six dollars now and fifty dollars a month regularly." The manager got up and opened the door. He called to the accountant. "Mr. Montgomery," he said unkindly loud, "this gentleman is opening an account; he will deposit fifty-six dollars. Good morning." I rose. A big iron door stood open at the side of the room. "Good morning," I said, and stepped into the safe. "Come out," said the manager coldly, and showed me the other way. I went up to the accountant's wicket and poked the ball of money at him with a quick convulsive movement as if I were doing a conjuring trick. My face was ghastly pale. "Here," I said, "deposit it." The tone of the words seemed to mean, "Let us do this painful thing while the fit is on us." He took the money and gave it to another clerk. He made me write the sum on a slip and sign my name in a book. I no longer knew what I was doing. The bank swam before my eyes. "Is it deposited?" I asked in a hollow, vibrating voice. "It is," said the accountant. "Then I want to draw a cheque." My idea was to draw out six dollars of it for present use. Someone gave me a chequebook through a wicket, and someone else began telling me how to write it out. The people in the bank had the impression that I was an invalid millionaire. I wrote something on the check and thrust it in at the clerk. He looked at it. "What! are you drawing it all out again?" he asked in surprise. Then I realized that I had written fifty-six instead of six. I was too far gone to reason now. I had a feeling that it was impossible to explain the thing. All the clerks had stopped writing to look at me. Reckless with misery, I made a plunge. "Yes, the whole thing." "You withdraw your money from the bank?" "Every cent of it." "Are you not going to deposit any more?" said the clerk, astonished. "Never." An idiot hope struck me that they might think something had insulted me while I was writing the cheque and that I had changed my mind. I made a wretched attempt to look like a man with a fearfully quick temper. The clerk prepared to pay the money. "How will you have it?" he said. "What?" "How will you have it?" "Oh" —I caught his meaning and answered without even trying to think— "in fifties." He gave me a fifty-dollar bill. "And the six?" he asked dryly. "In sixes," I said. He gave it to me and I rushed out. As the big door swung behind me, I caught the echo of a roar of laughter that went up to the ceiling of the bank. Since then I bank no more. I keep my money in cash in my trousers pocket and my savings in silver dollars in a sock. The game below will help you master the vocabulary presented in the lessons on essays: "The Formal Essay," "Analyzing a Formal Essay," "The Informal Essay," and "The Anecdote."

The Indo-European Family How did we get our language? Where did it come from, and how did it develop? This lesson traces the roots of English back to an early language. It may surprise you to see how old the roots of English are and what other languages are related to English. Here are your goals for this lesson: Note similarities in basic words among languages Discuss English's parent language and related languages Vocabulary correlation A mutual, parallel, or corresponding relationship between two things. Hellenic The branch of the Indo-European family of languages that includes the various dialects of Greek. High German The literary and official language used throughout Germany and Austria. Indo-European Having to do with a group of related languages in India, western Asia, and Europe. Italo-Celtic The form of the Italic which was spoken in Italy before the Celts migrated westward. linguist One who studies and compares languages. Low German Collectively, the languages of the Low Countries--Dutch, Flemish, and Frisian--and of the northern lowlands of Germany. philologist A scientist who studies historical records of languages and words. predecessor A thing that came before another. Sanskrit The ancient literary language of India. Semitic The group of languages including Hebrew and Arabic. Slavic Concerning the people or languages of Eastern Europe. Vocab Arcade The English language that we speak today has been traced to the Indo-European language. Philologists, specialists who study records of languages, and linguists, specialists who study and compare languages, have determined a number of relationships among European languages. Through years of study, they have been able to trace these languages back to a common parent language called "Indo-European." The speakers of Indo-European probably lived in east central Europe about 3500 B.C. This language has been recreated by studying the changes many words have gone through in each language. Then the process is reversed to give the original words in Indo-European. Study the comparison chart to see correlation among the various languages. Comparison Chart English French Latin Celtic Greek Sanskrit three trois tres tri treis tri seven sept septem secht hepta sapta mother mere mater mathair meter matar night nuit noct-, nox ---- nykt, nyx nakta

The Indo-European family is one of many language families which developed in similar fashion. Aramaic, the language Jesus spoke, belongs to the Semitic family, which also includes Hebrew, Phoenician, and other Middle-Eastern languages. Other language families developed in Africa and China. None of these language families is as large as the Indo-European family. Notice that although Latin and Greek come from the same language family as English, they are not direct predecessors of English. If you think of this chart as a family tree, Germanic would be a grandparent, but Italic (from which Latin developed) and Hellenic (from which Greek developed) would be more like great-uncles or distant cousins. Why, then, do we have so many words with Latin and Greek roots in English? The answer has to do with the preservation of the knowledge of the Roman Empire and the "Golden Age" of Greek civilization by the Roman Catholic Church. During the Middle Ages, very few people were educated. The Church valued knowledge, however. Centuries of monks copied documents and kept learning alive in its original languages, especially Latin, which is the official language of the Roman Catholic Church. Later, many scientific words were deliberately coined from Greek roots because of the great respect learned men in the Renaissance had for the ancient Greek civilization. Let's look at the information from the family tree in another way. Indo-European was the "parent language" that linguists believe split into nine language groups. No one speaks Indo-European, no writings exist in that language, and there is no direct evidence that it ever existed. The indirect evidence of related languages, however, is convincing to many who study languages, even those who do not accept the biblical account of Babel. The nine language groups were: Indian Iranian Anatolic Albanian Celtic Hellenic Balto-Slavic Italic Germanic Each of these languages continued to develop and change. Some of them developed into multiple languages. Iranian gave rise to Avestan and Persian. Indian developed into Sanskrit; then that language changed further, giving us Bengali and Hindustani. Anatolic gave rise to Armenian and Phrygian. The Irish, Welsh, Breton, and Gaelic languages all came from Celtic. The ancient language called Hellenic became Greek. The Albanian language did not give birth to any other language, but that does not mean it remained the same; languages are constantly developing and changing as long as people speak them. The last three languages on our list developed into many languages. Balto-Slavic developed into Baltic and Slavic. Baltic became Lithuanian. Slavic gave birth to several languages: Bulgarian, Polish, Russian, Lettish, Czech, and Serbo-Croatian. What happened with Italic? It became Latin, giving rise to Provencal, French, Italian, Romanian, Catalan, Portuguese, and Spanish. Finally, let's look at our own language roots—Germanic. The Germanic language developed into four main groups, identified by geographic location: West Germanic, East Germanic, North Germanic, and West Norse. (How's your geography? You might enjoy locating the countries where these languages are spoken on a world map.) North Germanic developed into East Norse, which gave rise to Swedish, Danish, and Gothlandic. West Norse gave birth to Icelandic, Norwegian, and Faeroese. East Germanic developed into Gothic. Look at the table below to see what came of West Germanic. West Germanic Low German High German Middle Dutch Old Frisian Old English Old Saxon Yiddish German Dutch Frisian Middle English Plattdeusch Flemish Modern English Can you trace the complete lineage of the Modern English you speak all the way back to Indo-European?

The non-Germanic branches. By 2200 B.C., several groups had broken off from the main Indo-European population. Some of these groups settled in Asia; others settled in Europe. Those who settled around the Italian peninsula spoke Italo-Celtic which later developed into two branches, Latin and Celtic. The Celts migrated westward to settle in Britain; another group of Indo-Europeans settled in Greece. These people spoke Hellenic, the predecessor of Greek. Other branches included Slavic and Sanskrit. The Germanic branch. The Germanic groups quickly subdivided, just as their Indo-European predecessors had done. Some went north; others went southeast or west. The group that included the ancestors of the Anglo-Saxons occupied central and western Europe. Their West Germanic language was further subdivided into dialects, including High German and Low German. English developed from Low German. What set the Germanic languages apart from other Indo-European languages was pronunciation. Germanic accented the root syllable, using a stress accent. The consonant system was also different. For example, words that had begun with f earlier in the development of Germanic now began with b. The word brother is related to the Latin word frater, which was not affected by the changes in the Germanic consonant system. The grammar of Germanic was very similar to Latin and Greek. Inflections were used to show case, mood, gender, and so forth. Word order was not important. The grammar and pronunciation patterns of Germanic were continued in Anglo-Saxon, the language which German invaders brought to England about A.D. 450. Other changes affected English during later periods. Contact with the languages of other people, the impact of new ideas during the Renaissance, and the technological advance of the twentieth century all have acted to make the English of today is very different from Anglo-Saxon.

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Adjectives and Adverbs In English we have two kinds of modifiers: adjectives and adverbs. Adjectives modify nouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. Here are your goals for this lesson: Recognize adjectives and adverbs within sentence context Choose appropriate adverbs Recognize the noun-verb-adverb pattern Adjectives. Adjectives are words that are used to describe nouns. These adjectives answer the questions What kind? How many? and Which one? Example: Tom bought a large, yellow brick house at the end of a shady, winding avenue. Question: What kind of house? A large, yellow brick one. Question: What kind of avenue? A shady, winding one. Example: Three trees grow beside that house. Question: How many trees? Three trees. Question: Which house? That house. Learn More about Adjectives

Adverbs. An adverb is a word that modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. It answers the questions, How? Where? When? and How much? Adverb Questions: How? He ran quickly. Where? He was not there. When? We will go later. How much? He has changed greatly. Since many adverbs end in -ly, they are easy to recognize. Examples: heavily, swiftly, noisily, steadily, curiously, carelessly, sheepishly, soundly, cautiously Other adverbs do not end in -ly. Examples: soon, better, well, later Learn More about Adverbs. Adverbs can also be a part of another common sentence pattern such as this: noun verb adverb The fifth grade works hardest.

Direct Nonverbal Communication Communication between people can be either direct or indirect. Direct communication is deliberate, intentional communication. When you speak or write to someone, you are using direct communication. It is your intention to communicate by the words you are using. You may also be communicating indirectly, by your facial expressions, body language, or unintentional gestures. The forms of nonverbal communication you have studied so far have been supplemental to spoken or written language. However, there are whole languages which use no spoken words. These languages, though not verbal, are direct communication, also. They are intentional, not accidental or incidental, in nature. Here are your goals for this lesson: Distinguish between indirect and direct nonverbal communication Recognize examples of direct nonverbal communication Use interjections as nonverbal and verbal communication Signals as language. Whenever voice communication is not practical or not possible, signals may be used. A sign language is a basic form of signal. Hand signs and gestures have been used by one group of people to communicate with another group speaking a different language. Forms of sign language have been used by different hunting cultures such as the Native American and the Australian aborigine (native people of the Australian continent). Some cultures have as many as seven signs for one concept of language. Another very useful system of hand signals was devised to help hearing-impaired people to communicate. The system, called sign language, uses special hand positions, gestures, and even facial expressions to represent words and phrases and finger spelling for words for which there are no signs. In the United States, American Sign Language, Signed English, and finger spelling are used by the hearing-impaired to communicate with each other and with people who can hear. Study the signed alphabet. Try spelling your name. Different forms of sign language are used by other groups of people. Certain sports use a kind of sign language. Referees and umpires use specialized signals to communicate decisions to players and spectators. Other uses for signals have been found by the military. They use flags, light flashes, flares, smoke, and other signals. Policemen use signals for directing traffic. Hand signals are sometimes made by bicyclists and other drivers to indicate turns and stops. Motorists use signal lights to indicate an intention to turn or change lanes while driving.

Interjections as language. Interjections are short expressions of reaction or response used to exclaim, protest, or command. They may be sounds which are not actually words. Frequently, no grammatical connection exists between interjections and any verbalized thoughts that accompany them. At other times, interjections occur without being accompanied by words. They are generally easy to interpret. The following list includes some common interjections. Pssst! Boo! Eeek! Aha! Yecch! Uh,Oh! Wow! Ah! Ayiee! Yeh! Shhh! Hmmm! Yipes! Ouch! Aargh! Unh? Phew! Whew! Ugh! Ha ha ha! Other forms of interjections are produced through basic sound combinations. Such sounds result in laughing, crying, screaming, wheezing, whistling, whining, coughing, and moaning. These sounds are not actually words but vocalizations. A baby vocalizes using sound combinations to babble and coo for satisfaction as well as to express other feelings. Frequently, an interjection is the only type of communication necessary. It is brief and meaningful. Shhhh! is all that is needed to explain that no talking is allowed. Pssst! will attract attention quickly. Interjections also may be actual words. You may use almost any part of speech as an interjection. When writing, interjections that stand alone are generally punctuated by an exclamation point. Other Usage Interjection Put the cat out. (adverb) Out! I see land! (noun) Land! "How Great Thou Art" (adjective) Great! Interjections may also be combined with other words. An interjection in combination with other words is set off from the rest of the sentence by a comma, if mild, or by an exclamation point, if strongly felt or spoken. Examples: Help! I'm falling! Ooh, I really like that! My goodness, it's good to see you. Although interjections are common in spoken language, they are rarely used in formal or academic writing. To be successful in playing the following game, you should first review these lessons in this unit: Following Directions, Communication Without Words, and Direct Nonverbal Communication.

Other Kinds of Pronouns Apply yourself to learning the names of other kinds of pronouns and how they are used. Here is your goal for this lesson: Distinguish six different types and uses of pronouns Other kinds of pronouns. Some pronouns are formed by adding -self or -selves to the personal pronoun forms: myself, itself, yourself, themselves. This compound form is called reflexive when it refers back to the subject of the sentence. It is important to note that the subject of the sentence must be performing the verb to the subject for the pronoun to be reflexive. For example, in the first sample below it was I (subject) who hurt (verb) myself (subject), so the pronoun is reflective. Reflexive: I hurt myself. The cat cleaned itself. Did you burn yourself? The children fed themselves. When this form of the pronoun is used to emphasize the antecedent, it is called an intensive pronoun. (Remember that the antecedent is the word to which the pronoun refers; the noun that the pronoun is replacing.) Intensive: I did it myself. Did you bake it yourself? He ate it all himself. I spoke to the President himself. Interrogative pronouns are used to question. Imagine how awkward it would be to ask a question without the help of these pronouns. Interrogative: Who rang the bell? Which is your favorite? What do you want? Whose is this? Demonstrative pronouns point out certain things. These pronouns demonstrate which thing is being referred to in a passage just as you might point to an actual object if you were speaking to someone. Be sure to use these pronouns carefully so that they refer to a particular noun. Demonstrative: This is the program. These were left out. That seems reasonable. Those came with the set. Indefinite pronouns refer to no special person or thing. Overuse of these pronouns may result in vagueness. Indefinite: anyone both nobody everything many everybody anything one everyone each no one others Relative pronouns begin dependent clauses. A relative pronoun relates a dependent clause to a noun or a pronoun that precedes it in the sentence. Use who, whom, or that to refer to persons. Use which or that to refer to things. Relative: I saw the boy who won the race. Where is the book that I loaned you? Do you know the author about whom we are talking? Please take the suitcase which is in the hall. Learn More about Pronouns. To answer the lesson questions, don't forget the personal and possesive pronouns discussed in the previous lesson. To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Development of Language: Origins and Dialects," "The Indo-European Family," "Word Classes: Nouns," "Personal and Possessive Pronouns," and "Other Kinds of Pronouns."

Verbs This lesson will review what you have previously learned about verbs. It will help you keep your skills sharp. Here is your goal for this lesson: Recognize and use simple and auxiliary verbs Vocabulary auxiliary A verb which helps or supports the main verb. Vocab Arcade A verb expresses an action or a state of being. The verb to be is called a state-of-being verb. It does not show any action; rather, it indicates the condition or existence of a person or object. Forms of the irregular verb to be are, am, is, are, was, were, be, being, and been. The girl is tall. The houses are large. Were you at the show? When will they be home? Auxiliary verbs are helping verbs. We use them to form different tenses. Forms of to have, to do, and to be are common auxiliary verbs. It has been raining for three days. Have you seen Jennifer? Had he gone home? Parts of a verb may be separated by other words, especially in questions. It is best not to separate verb parts in statements, unless absolutely necessary. Necessary: I will not go tomorrow. Unnecessary: He will probably go. Correct: Probably, he will go. Verbs tell time; that is, their tenses indicate the time that the action occurs. This may be past, present, or future for actions that start and end at about the same time. For actions that occur over a period of time, the tense may be past perfect, present perfect, or future perfect. Regular verbs add -d or -ed to form tenses. The -s form is used in the third person singular present tense. A verb will often fit into this pattern of words: noun verb noun John hit the ball. Learn More about Verbs.

Suffixes Change the Spelling of Roots In this lesson, you will review the rules for spelling words that have been changed by the addition of suffixes. Here is your goal for this lesson: Apply spelling rules to words with suffixes The addition of a suffix to a word sometimes changes the spelling of the root. Often the change is slight, but it can be quite marked, as in the change from deceive to deception. Some of the easier rules for adding a suffix include these: 1. Change y to i before adding a suffix to a word ending in y preceded by a consonant. Suffixes beginning with i such as -ish and -ing are exceptions to this rule. Examples: happy + -est = happiest; marry + -ing = marrying 2. Drop silent e before adding a suffix. Examples: argue + -ment = argument; ripe + -er = riper; hope + -ing = hoping The suffix -ly is an exception to this rule. Most words ending in -ly keep the silent e: safely, nicely, definitely. Truly is a word which does drop the silent e. Able does too, but does not double the l: ably. Many words ending in double e, ge, and ce are exceptions to this rule, also. Example: agree + -ing = agreeing 3. Double a single final consonant when adding a suffix if the word has one syllable and the vowel is short. The rule does not apply to words ending in consonant blends such as lk, nd, nt, rt, and lt. Examples: hop + -ing = hopping; bag + -age = baggage; but walk + -er = walker Some longer words also double the consonant before -ed or -ing. Examples: refer, recur, omit Notice that these words end in one consonant preceded by one vowel and that the accent is on the last syllable. 4. Add k to a word ending in c before adding the suffix -y or a suffix beginning with i or e. Example: panic + -ing = panicking. All of these rules have exceptions, but they can serve as guides to solve many spelling problems. For more unusual spelling changes, memorization is the only answer. To be successful at the following game, you should review these lessons in this unit: "Improving Your Reading: Using Word Parts," "Inflections Add Grammatical Meaning," "Word Roots from Latin and Greek," "Categorizing Words and Analogies," and "Suffixes Change the Spelling of Roots."

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