MCAT 2018

Potential energy of a capacitor

U=1/2 CV^2

Neutralization reactions

Are those in which an acid reacts with a base to form a salt (and usually water)

Repressible system (such as the trp operon)

Are transcribed under normal conditions; they can be turned off by a corepressor coupling the repressor and the binding of this complex to the operator site

Arrhenius acids and arrhenius bases

Arrhenius acid dissociate to produce an excess of hydrogen ions in solution; Arrhenius base dissociate to produce an excess of hydroxide ions in solutions;

autoionization

As an amphoteric compound, water can react with itself in a process called auto ionization: one water molecule donates a hydrogen ion to another water molecule to produce the hydronium ion (H30+) and the hydroxide ion (OH-)

Saturation kinetics

As substrate concentration increases the reaction rate does as well until a maximum value is reached

Releasing of neurotransmitters

At the nerve terminal, neurotransmitters are released into the synapse: - when the action potential arrives at the nerve terminal, voltage-gated calcium channels open - the influx of calcium causes fusion of vesicles filled with neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft - the neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell, which may be ligand-gated ion channels or G-protein coupled receptors

Sphingolipids:Glycosphingolipids

Attached to sugar moieties instead of a phosphate group. Cerebroside have one sugar connected to sphingosine; globosides have two or more

Attachment (4)

Attachment is an emotional bond to another person, and usually refers to the bond between a child and a caregiver. There are four types of attachment: 1. secure attachment requires consistent caregivers so the child is able to go out and explore, knowing he or she has a secure base to return to; the child will show a strong preference for the caregiver 2. Avoidant attachment occurs when a caregivers has little or no response to distressed, crying child; the child shows no preference for the caregiver compared to strangers 3. Ambivalent attachment occurs when a caregiver has an inconsistent response to a child's distress, sometimes responding appropriately, sometimes neglectful; the child will become distressed when caregiver leaves and is ambivalent when he or she returns 4. Disorganized attachment occurs when a caregiver is erratic or abusive; the child shows no clear pattern of behavior in response to the caregiver's absence or presence and may show repetitive behaviors

Attitudes

Attitudes are tendencies toward expression of positive or negative feeling or evaluations of something. There are affective, behavioral, and cognitive components of attitudes *component of attitude : ABC - Affective: refers to the way a person feels toward something, emotional component - Behavioral: the way a person acts with respect to soething - Cognitive: the way an individual thinks about something, which is usually justification for the other two components

Attribution theory

Attribution theory focuses on the tendency for individuals to infer the causes of other people's behaviors: 1. dispositional (internal) causes are those that relate to the features of the person whose behavior is being considered 2. situational (external) causes are related to features of the surroundings or social context

Prostaglandins

Autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules that regulate cAMP levels (affect regions close to where they are produced, local not the entire body so not endocrine). They have powerful effects on smooth muscle contraction, body temperature, the sleep-wake cycle, fever and pain

Hybridization: Polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

Automated process by which millions of copies of DNA sequence can be created from a very small sample by hybridization

Idea Gas: Avogadro's principal

Avogadro's principle is a special case of the ideal gas law for which the pressure and temperature are held constant; it shows a direct relationship between the number of moles of gas and volume : n/V=k or n1/v1=n2/v2 - k= constant - n1 & n2= number of moles of gas 1 and 2 as the number of moles of gas increases the volume increases in direct proportion

Posterior Pituitary

Axonal projections from the hypothalamus and is the site of release for the hypothalamic hormones antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) and Oxytocine

Magnetic field from a loop of wire

B = µo I / 2r

why is alpha anomer of D-Glucose less likely to form compare to Beta-anomer?

B-anomer undergoes less electron repulsion because the -OH group is equatorial so it has less steric hinderance than -OH on the axial (alpha).

Magnetic field from a straight line

B=µo I / 2πr - µo= permibility of free space - I=current

Backbone of DNA

Backbone of DNA is composed of alternating sugar and phosphate groups; it determines the directionality of the DNA and is always read from 5' to 3'. It is formed as nucleotides are joined by 3'-5' phosphodiester bonds- a phosphate group links the 3' carbon of one sugar to the 5'phosphate group of the next incoming sugar in the chain. Phosphate carry a negative charge; thus, DNA and RNA strands have an overall negative charge. DNA strands run antiparallel to one another; enzymes that replicate and transcribe DNA only work in the 5' to 3' direction. The DNA strand in figure is written as: 5'-ATG-3'. DNA is generally double stranded (dsDNA)while RNA is generally single-stranded (ssRNA)

Bacterial genetic recombination

Bacterial genetic recombination increases bacterial diversity:

Limiting reagent

Balanced equations can be used to determine the limiting reagent, which is the reactant that will be consumed first in a chemical reaction, the other reactnt present is termed excess reagents.

Behaviorist Perspective

Based on the concept of operant conditioning, holds that personality can be described as the behaviors one has learned from prior rewards and punishments

what linkage cannot be digested in human?

Beta-glycosidc linkage cannot be cleaved in the human body

Coefficient of Volumetric expansion

Beta= volumetric expansion

Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reactions

Bimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN2) reactions proceed in one concreted step - the nucleophile attacks at the same time as the leaving group leaves - the nucleophile must perform a backside attacks, which leads to an inversion of stereochemistry - the absolute configuration is charged- (R) to (S) and vice-versa- if the incoming nucleophile an the leaving group have the same priority in the molecule - SN2 reactions prefer less-substituted carbons because the alkyl groups create steric hinderance and inhibit the nucleophile from accessing the electrophilic substrate carbon - The rate of an SN2 reaction is dependent on the concentration of both the substrate and nucleophile: rate= k[Nu:][R-L]

Vitamine E (tocopherols)

Biological antioxidants. Their aromatic rings destroy free radicals, preventing oxidative damage

Enzyme

Biological catalysts that are unchanged by the reactions they catalyze and are reusable

what determines biological sex?

Biological sex is determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes in humans, with XX being female and XY being male - The X chromosome carries a sizable amount of genetic information; mutations of X-linked genes can cause sex-linked disorder. Males are hemizygous with respect to the unpaired genes on the X chromosome, so they will express sex-linked disorders, even if they only have one recessive disease-carrying allele. Women with one copy of the affected allele are called carriers. - the Y chromosme carries little genetic information, but contains the SRY (sex-determining region on Y) gene, which causes the gonads to differentiate into testes

Biological basis of nervous system disorder: Bipolar disorder

Bipolar disorders are accompanied by high levels of norepinephrine and serotonin. They are also highly heritable

Bonding orbitals

Bonding orbitals are created by head-to-head or tail-to-tail overlap of atomic orbitals of the same sign and are energetically favorable

Ideal Gas: Boyle's law

Boyle's law is a derivation of the ideal gas law and states that pressure and volume are inversely related: when one increases the other decreases - PV=k or P1V1=P2V2

Breaking of a peptide bond

Breaking a peptide bond is a hydrolysis reaction

tRNA (transfer RNA)

Brings in amino acids and recognizes the codon on the mRNA using its anticodon; it is responsible for coverting the language of nucleic acids to the language of amino acids and peptides; amino acids are connected to a specific tRNA molecules such RNA molecules are said to be charged or acitivated

Bronsted-Lowry Acids and base

Bronsted-Lowry Acids are species and can donate hydrogen ions; Bronsted-Lowry bases are species that can accept hydrogen ions.

Bronsted-Lowry acids

Bronsted-Lowry acids are proton donors; Brosted-Lowry bases are proton acceptors

Buffer solutions

Buffer solutions consist of a mixture of a weak acid and its conjugate salt or a weak base and its conjugate salt; they resist large fluctuations in pH

Buffering capacity

Buffering capacity refers to the ability of a buffer to resist changes in pH; maximal buffering capacity is seen within 1 pH point of the pKa of the acid in the buffer solution

Describe the organization of the nervous system

CNS (brain and spinal cord) and PNS (most cranial and spinal nerves)- the PNS is divided into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (automatic) and the autonomic is divided into parasympathetic (rest-and digest) and sympathetic (fight-or flight).

Hypothalamus: corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF)

CRF promotes the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

CAMs: Cadherins

Calcium dependent glycoproteins that hold similar cells together

3 types Ion channels

Can be used for regulating ion flow into or out of a cell and there are three types of ions changes: Ungaed channels are always open; voltage gated channel are open within a range of embrane potentials and ligand gated channels are open in presence of a specific bindig substance, usually a hormone or neurotransmitter

Hybridization:Southern blotting

Can be used to detect the presence and quantity of various DNA strands in a sample. after electrophoresis, the sample is transferred to a membrane that can be probed with single-stranded DNA molecules to look for a sequence of interest

Configurational Isomers

Can only be interchanged by breaking and reforming bonds.

DNA polymerase III (prokaryotes) or DNA polymerase alpha, delta and e (eukaryotes)

Can synthesize a new strand of DNA; they read the template DNA 3' to 5' (DNA synthesis and repair, RNA transcription and translation all occur 5' to 3') and synthesize the new strand 5' to 3'; the leading strand requires only one primer and can then be synthesized continuously in its entirety; the lagging strand requires many primers and is synthesized in discrete sections called Okazaki fragments. Enzymes involved include DNA helicase, gyrase, polymerase and ligase

Capacitance

Capacitance in parallel plate capacitors is determined by the area of the plates and the distance between the plates: C (farad, 1 F= 1C/V) = Q/V - 1µF = 1 x 10^-6 F or 1pF= 1 x 10 ^-12 F

Capacitors

Capacitors have the ability to store and discharge electrical potential energy.

Capacitors in series

Capacitors in series cause a decrease in the eqiuvalent capacitance of a circuit.

Aldoses vs. Ketoses

Carbohydrates that contain an aldehyde group as their most oxidized functional group are called aldoses;And those with a ketone group as their most oxidized functional group are called ketoses.

Process functions

Describe the pathway from one equilibrium state to another. Work and heat are process functions.

Concentration: percent composition by mass

% Composition by mass= (mass of solute/ mass of solution) x 100

The four phases in mitosis

* mitosis results in two identical daughter cells 1. in prophase, the chromosomes condense, nuclear membrane dissolves, nucleoli disappear, centrioles migrate to opposite sides of the cell, and the spindle apparatus begins to form. the kinetochore of each chromosome is contacted by a spindle fiber 2. in metaphase, chromosomes line up along the metaphase plate (equatorial plate) 3. in anaphase, sister chromatids are separated and pulled to opposite pole 4. in telophase the nuclear membrane reforms, spindle apparatus disappears, and cytosol and organelles are split between the two daughter cells through cytokinese

Action potential propagation

* the impulse propagates down the length of the axon because the influx of sodium in one segment of the axon bring the subsequent segment of the axon to a threshold. the fact that the preceding segment of the axon is in its refractory period means that the action potential can only travel in one direction

when does menstruation occurs/

*menstruation occurs if there is no fertilization. as the estrogen and progesterone levels drop, the endometrial lining is sloughed off, and the block on GnRH production is removed * if fertilization does occur, the blastula produces human chronic gonadotropin (hCG) which, as an LH analog, can maintain the corpus luteum. Near the end of the first trimester, hCG levels drop as the placenta takes over progesterone production

Oxidation states of Alkali metals

+1 and prefer to lose an e- to achieve noble gas-like configuration

Oxidation states of Alkali Earth metals

+2 and can lose two electrons to achieve noble gas-like configuration, form divalent cations.

Multiple lens system

- 1/ƒ = 1/ƒ' + 1/ƒ''+ 1/ƒ'''+ .... - P= P1 + P2 + P3+ ... - Mm (magnification)= m1 x m2 x m3 x....

Oxidation-Reduction reactions: aldehydes and ketones

- Aldehydes can be oxidized to carboxylic acids using an oxidizing agents like KMnO4, CrO3, Ag2O, or H2O2. They can be reduced to primary alcohols via hydride reagent (LiALH3,NaBH4) - ketones cannot be futher oxidized, but can be reduced to secondary alcohols using the same hydride reagents

Interneurons

Found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the three types of neurons (mostly in brain and spinal cord), often linked to reflexive behavior

Quaternary structure of Amino acids

Interaction between peptides in proteins that contain multiple subunits

Interference of wave

Interference describes the way in which waves interact in space to form a resultant wave

Primary Structure of amino acids

Linear sequence of amino acids in a peptide and is stabilized by peptide bonds

Factors involved in decision making: Base rate fallacy

Occurs when prototypical or stereotypical factors are used for analysis rather than actual data

How to demonstrate causality

Basic science research is often the best type for demonstrating causality because the experimenter has the highest degree of control over the experimental conditions

Carbolic acid derivatives: Amide nomenclature

- Amides are given the sufix -amide. The Alkyl groups on a substituted amide are written at begining of the name with the prefix N- - Cyclic amides are called Lactams. Lactams are named by the Greek letter of the carbon forming the bond with the Nitrogen (beta-lactam, gamma-lactam and so on)

Chemoselectivity

- Both nucleophile - electrophile and oxidation-reduction reactions tend to at the highest-priority (most oxidized ) functional groups - One can make use of steric hindrance properties to selectively target functional groups that might not primarily react, or to protect functional groups:Diols are often used as protecting groups for aldehyde or ketone carbonyl; alcohol may be protected by conversion to tert-butyl ethers

Central route processing vs peripheral route processing

- Central route processing (high elaboration) - scrutinizing and analyzing the content of persuasive information - peripheral route processing (low elaboration)- focusing on superficial details of persuasive information, such as appearances, catchphrases and slogans and credibility

Cues used to understand behaviors

- Consistency cues- has consistent behavior over time - Consensus cues- match other's behavior - Distinctiveness cues- uses similar behaior in similar situations

Terminology and 5' to 3'

- DNA to DNA= Replication: new DNA synthesized in 5' to 3' direction; - DNA to RNA = transcription: new RNA synthesized in 5' to 3' direction (template is read 3' to 5') - RNA to protein= translation: mRNA read in 5' to 3' direction

Symtoms of a manic episode: DIG FAST

- Distractible -Insomnia (decreased sleep) - Grandiosity - Flight of ideas (racing thoughts) -Agitation -Speech (pressured) -Thoughtlessness (risky behavior)

Carbolic acid derivatives: Ester nomenclature

- Esters are given the suffix -oate. The esterifying group is written as a substituent, without a number - Cyclic esters are called lactones. Lactones are named by the number of carbos in the ring and the Greek letter of the carbon forming the bond with the oxygen (alpha-acetolactone, beta-propiolactone, and so on) - Triacylglycerols, which are a form of fat storage, include three ester bonds between glycerol and fatty acids. - Saponification is the breakdown of fat using a strong base to form soap (salts of long-chain carboxylic acid)

Columb's law (Fe), electric field(E), electrostatic potential energy (U) and electric potential (V)

- Fe = KQq (or kq1q2)/r^2 - Electric field (E)= kQ/r^2 - electrostatic potential energy (U)=kQq (or kq1q2)/r - V (electric potential) = kQ/r

Demographic statistics

- Fertility rate= children per woman per lifetime - Birth rate= children per 1000 people per year - Mortality rate- deaths per 1000 people per year - migration rate= immigration rate minus emigration rate

Prokaryotes: cell wall and cell membrane of bacteria

- Germ-positive bacteria have a thick cell wall composed of peptidoglycan and lipoteichoic acid - Germ- negative bacteria have a thin wall composed of peptidoglycan and an outer membrane containing phospholipids and lipopolysaccharides

Rate limiting steps in Glycolysis, fermentation, glycogenesis, glycogenolysis, gluconeogenesis, pentose phosphate pathway

- Glycolysis: phosphofructokinase-1 - Fermentation: lactate dehydrogenase - Glycogenesis: glycogen synthase - Glycogenolysis: glycogen phosphorylase - Gluconeogensis: fructose-1,bisphosphatase - Pentose phosphate pathway: Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

symptoms of major depressive disorder: SIG E. CAPS

- Sleep - Interest - Guilt -Energy -Concentration -Appetite - Psychomotor symtoms - Suicidal thoughts

Carbolic acid derivatives: Anhydrides nomenclature

- Symmetric anhydrides are named for the parent carboxylic acid, followed by anhydride. Asymmetric anhydrides are named by listing the parent carboxylic acid alphabetically, followed by anhydride - some cyclic anhydrides can be synthesized by heating dioic acids. Five or six-membered rings are generally stable

Different stages of the cell cycle

- The G1, S and G2 stages are collectively called interphase, during which the DNA is uncoiled in the form of chromatin: 1. In the G1 stage (presynthetic gap), cells create organelles for energy and protein production, while also increasing their size. the restriction point, during which the DNA is checked for quality, must be passed for the cell to move into S stage 2. In the S stage (synthesis), DNA is replicated. the strands of DNA, called chromatids are held together at the centromere (each chromatid is composed of a complete double-stranded DNA, sister chromatids ar eindetical copies of each othe; chromosomes referes to either a single chromatid before S phase or the pair of chromatids attached at the centromerer after S phase) 3. In the G2 stage (postsynthetic gap), there is further cell growth and replication of organelles in preparation for mitosis; another quality checkpoint must be passed for the cell toenter into mitosis. 4. in the M stage (mitosis) , mitosis and cytokinesis occur (in autosomal cells, division results in two genetically identical daughter cells. in germ cells, the daughter cells are not equivalet) 5. in the G0 stage, the cell performs its function without any preparation for division

The MM equation restated using Kcat

- V= Kcat[E][S] / Km + [S] When km>>>S then V= kcat/km [E][S]

relationship between equilibrium constant (K_eq and E˚_cell)

- When Keq (the ratio of product's concentrations at equilibrium over reactants' , raised to their stoichiometric coefficient) is greater than 1, E˚_Cell is positive - When Keq is less than 1, E˚cell is negative - When Keq is equal to 1, E˚cell is 0

Ventromedial hypothalamic injury vs. lateral hypothalamic injury

- a person with ventromedial hypothalamic injury will never feel satiated when eating and will therefore will never feel the sensation to stop eating (increased food intake) ; on the other hand, a person with a lateral hypothalamic injury will never feel hunger and will have a decreased food intake

Prokaryotes account for two of the domains of life: Archaea and bacteria

- extremophiles, they have similarities to both eukaryotes (start translation with methionine, similar RNA polymerase, histones) ad bacteria (single circular chromosome, divide by binary fission or budding); - bacteria have many similar structures to eukaryotes and have complex relatinships with humans, including mutualistic symbiosis and pathogenesis - Eukarya is the only non-pokaryotic domain

Magnitude of Keq and balance of reaction

- if Keq > 1, the products are present in greater concentration - if Keq ≈ 1, products and reactants are both present at equilibrium at reasonably similar levels - if Keq < 1, the reactants are present in greater concentration at equilibrium - if Keq <<< 1, the amount of reactants that have been converted to products can be considered negligible in comparison to the initial concentration of reactant

Prokaryotes: bacterial classified on metabolic process

- obligate aerobe= require oxygen for metabolism - obligate anaerobes= cannot survive in containing environments and can only carry out anaerobic metabolism - facultative anaerobe= can survive in environments with or without oxygen and will toggle metabolic processes based on the environment - aerotolerant anaerobes= cannot use oxygen for metabolism, but can survive in an oxygen-containing environment

Magnetism: Diamagnetic materials

- possess no unpaired electrons and are slightly repelled by a magnet

Common angles for sin cos tan

- sin0= 1, sin 30 = 1/2, sine 90= 1, sin 180 =0 - cos0 =1 , cos60=1/2, cos90=0, cos 180= -1 - tano =1, tan45=1, tan180=0

internal and external structures of male reproductive tissue

- sperm develop in the seminiferous tubules in the testes. they are nourished by Sertoli cells - interstitial cells (of leydig) secrete testosterone and other male sex hormones (androgens) - the testes are located in the scrotum, which hangs outside of the abdominal cavity and has a temperature 2˚ C to 4˚C lower than the rest of the body - once formed, sperm gain motility in the epididymis and are stored there until ejaculation - during ejaculation, sperm travels through the vas deferens to the ejacualtory duct to the urethra and out through the penis - the seminal vesicle contribute fructose to nourish sperm and produce alkaline fluid - the prostate gland also produces alkaline fluid - the bulbourethral glands produce a clear viscous fluid that cleans out any remnants of urine and lubricates the urethra during sexual arousal - semen is composed of sperm and seminal fluid from the bulbourethral gland * mnemonic: pathway through the male reproductive system is: SEVE(N) UP

Prokaryotes: bacteria classified by shape

- spherical bacteria= Cocci - Rod-shaped bacteria = Bacilli - Spiral-shaped= spirilli

Temperature vs. Heat (Q)

- temperature is a scaled measure of the average kinetic energy of a substance; whereas heat is the transfer of energy that results from difference of temperature between two substances and the zeroth law of thermodynamics implies that objects are in thermal equilibrium only when their temperatures are equal, therefore heat is process function not a state function q=mc∆T (c=specific heat (cal/g.K)) c of water = 1cal/g.k

Membrane transport: mitochondria membrane

- the outer mitochondrial membranes i highly permeable to metabolic molecules and small proteins - the inner mitochondrial membrane surround the mitochonrial matrix, where the citric acid cycle produces electrons used in the electron transport chain and where many other enzymes important in cellular respiration are located. the inner mitochondrial membrane also does not contain cholesterol

Viral genomes: single stranded RNA virus and retroviruses

- they may be composed of DNA or RNA and may be single- or double-stranded - single stranded RNA viruses may be positive sense (can be translated by the host cells) or negative sense (a complementary strand must be synthesized using RNA replicase) - retroviruses contain a single-stranded RNA genome, to which a complementary DNA strand is made using reverse transcriptase. THe DNA strand can then be integrated into the genome

simplified Nernst equation

- whether it is log or ln, remember that a logarithm will be positive when equilibrium constants are greater than 1, negative when equilibrium constants are less than 1, and 0 when equilibrium constants are equal to 1

Square values of Integers from 1 to 20

- √2≈1.414(use 1.4) - √3≈1.732 (use 1.7)

Oxidation states of Halogens

-1 and prefer to gain an electron, they have the highest electronegativities

Oxidation states of Chalcogens (group VIA or 16)

-2 or +6 (depending on whether they are nonmetals or metals) in order to achieve noble gas configuration.

acetal and ketal formation

-in the formation of hemiacetals and hemiketals, alcohol is the nucleophile and the carbonyl carbon is the elctrophiles. in the formation of acetals and ketals, alcohol is the nucleophile and the carbocation carbon (formerly the carbonyl carbon) is the electrophile

standard and nonstandard coditions for free energy change

-∆G˚=-RTlnKeq - ∆G = ∆G˚ + RTlnQ

Timeline of language acquisition

1. 9-10 moths: babbling 2. 12-18 months: about one word per month 3. 18-20 months: "explosion of language" and combining words 4. 2-to 3 years: longer sentences (3 words or more) 5. 5 years: language rules largely mastered

Products of the anterior pituitary: FLAT PEG

1. Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) promotes the development of ovarian follicles in females and spermatogenesis in male 2. Luteinizing hormone (LH) promotes ovulation in female and testosterone production in males 3. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) promotes synthesis and release of glucocorticoids from the adrenal cortex 4. Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) promotes synthesis and release of triiodothryonine and thyroxine from the thyroid 5. Prolactin promotes milk production 6. Endorphins decrease perception of pain and can cause euphoria 7. Growth hormone (GH) promotes growth of bones and muscle and shunts glucose to these tissues. it raises blood glucose concentration

nomenclature of ions

1. For elements (usually metals) that can form more than one positive ions, the charge is indicated by a Roman numeral in parentheses following the name of the element; - Fe2+: Iron (I) 2. Monatomic anions are named by dropping the ending of the name of the element and adding -ide - H- (Hydride) 3. many polyatomic anions contain oxygen and are therefore called oxyanions; when there are two oxyanions, the name of the one with less oxygen ends in-ite and the one with more oxygen ends in -ate - NO2-: Nitrite - NO3- Nitrate 4. In extended series of oxyanions, prefixes Hypo- and per- are used to indicate less oxygen and more oxygen respectively - ClO-: Hypochlorite --ClO2-: Chlorite - ClO3-: Chlorate -ClO4-: Perchlorate 5. remeber the common polyatomic names

two specific cycles of Bacteriophage

1. In the lytic cycle, the bacteriophage produces massive numbers of new virions until the cell lyses. bacteria in the lytic phase are termed virulent 2. In the lysogenic cycle, the virus integrates into the host genome as a provirus or prophage, which can be reproduce along with the cell. the provirus then leaves the genome in response to a stimulus at some later time and enters the lytic cycle

The three stages of translation

1. Initiation: initiation in prokarytoes occur when the 30s ribosome attaches to the Shine-Dalgarno sequence and scans for a start codon; it lays down N-formylmethionine in the P site of the ribosome; initiation in eukaryote occurs when the 40s ribosome attaches to the 5' cap and scan for a start codon; it lays down methionine in the P site of the ribosome. 2. Elongation: Elongation involves the addition of new aminoacyl-tRNA into the A site of the ribosome and transfer of the growing polypeptide chain from the tRNA in the P site to the tRNA in the A SITE. the now uncharged tRNA pauses in the E site before exiting the ribosome. 3. Termination :occurs when the codon in the A site is a stop codon; a release factor places a water molecules on the polypeptide chain and thus releases the protein * Order of sites in the ribosome during translation- APE

what are the 3 types of neurons in the Nervous system

1. Motor (efferent) neurons: transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands 2. interneurons: found between other neurons and are the most numerous of the 3 types and it is mostly in the brain and spinal cord and are often linked to reflexive behavior 3. Sensory (afferent) neurons:transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain.

Personality Disorder: Different types of personality disorders

1. Paranoid PD involves a pervasive distrust and suspicion of other 2. Schizotypal PD involves ideas of reference, magical thinking and eccentricity 3. Schizoid PD involves detachment from social relationships and limited emotion 4. Antisocial PD involves disregard for the rights of others 5. Borderline PD involves instability in relationships, mood, and self-image. Splitting is characteristic , as are recurrent suicide attempts 6. Histrionic PD involves constant attention-seeking behavior 7. Narcissistic PD involves grandiose sense of self-importance and need for admiration 8. Avoidant PD involves extreme shyness and fear of rejection 9. Dependent PD involves a continuous need for reassurance 10. Obsessive-compulsive PD involves perfectionism, inflexibility, and preoccupation with rules; note, Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is NOT the same as Obsessive-Compulsive Personality Disorder (OCPD)

Characteristics of peptide hormone

1. Peptide hormones are polar and cannot pass through the plasma membrane; 2. these hormones bind to extracellular receptors, where they trigger the transmission of a second messenger; 3. each step of the signaling cascade can demonstrate amplification of the signal; 4. peptide hormone usually have rapid onset but are short-lived; 5. these hormones travel freely in the bloodstream and do not require a special carrier

4 important Jungian archetypes

1. Persona- the aspect of our personality we present to the world; 2. Anima- a "man's inner woman" 3. Animus- a "woman's inner man" 4. Shadow- unpleasant and socially reprehensible thoughts, feelings, and actions in our consciousness

3 important parts of the Frontal lobe

1. Prefrontal cortex: manages executive function by supervising and directing the operations of other brain regions and because it integrates information from different cortical regions the prefrontal cortex is a good example of association area (an area that integrates input from diverse brain regions) the opposite would the projection areas (examples include visual cortex and motor cortex) 2. Primary motor cortex: located on the precentral gryus (in front of central sulcus that divides frontal and parietal lobes) and it initiates voluntary motor movement by sending neural impulses down the spinal cord toward the muscle 3. Broca's area: important for speeach production

characteristics of steroid hormones

1. Steroid hormones are minimally polar (meaning nonpolar) and can pass though the plasma membrane. 2. these hormones bind to and promote a conformational change of intracellular or intranuclear receptors; the hormone-receptor complex binds to DNA, affecting the transcription of a particular gene 3. steroid hormones cannot dissolve in the bloodstream and must be carried by specific proteins

the two models for how we express emotion in social situations

1. The basic model state that there are universal emotions, along with corresponding expressions that can be understood across cultures 2. The social construction model states that emotions are solely based on the situational context of social interactions

Stem cells (3 different types)

1. Totipotent cells are able to differentiate into all cell types , including the three germ layers and placental structure 2. pluripotent cells are able to differentiate into all three of the germ layers and their derivatives 3. multipotent cells are able to differentiate only into a specific subset of cell types

Types of problem solving(4)

1. Trial and error; 2. algorithms- formula or procedure for solving a certain type of problems; 3. deductive (top-down) reasoning- starts from a set of general rule and draws conclusions from the information given; deduction is a solution that must be true based on the information given 4. inductive reasoning (bottom-up)- seeks to create a theory via generalizations.

what does post transcriptional modifications include?

1. a 7-methylguanylate triphosphate cap is added to the 5' end 2. a polyadenosyl (Poly-A) tail is added to the 3' end 3. splicing is done by snRNA and snRNPs in the spliceosome; introns(stay in the nucleus) are removed in a lariat structure and exons (exit the nucleus as part of the mRNA) are ligated together.

the three stages of general adaptation syndrome

1. alarm 2. resistance 3. exhaustion

The four basic tenets of the cell theory

1. all living things are composed of cells 2. the cell is the basic functional unit of life 3. cells arise only from preexisting cells 4. cells carry genetic information in the form of DNA. This genetic material is passes on from parent to daughter cell * Viruses are not considered living things because they are acellular, cannot reproduce without the assistance of a host cells, and my contain RNA as their genetic material

Glycoside formation

Basis for building complex carbohydrates and requires the anomeric carbon to link to another sugar

Neural Tube

Becomes the central nervous system (CNS)

Several solubility rules

1. all salts containing ammonium (NH4+) and alkali metal (group 1) cations are water-soluble; 2. all salts containing nitrate (NO3- ) and acetate (CH3COO-) anions are water-soluble; 3. Halide (Cl-, Br-, I-) exlcuding fluides are water soluble, with the exceptions of those formed with Ag+, Pb+ and Hg_2^2

Assigning oxidation numbers

1. any free element or diatomic species has an oxidation number of zero (N2, P4, S8 and He); 2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the charge of the ion (Na+ have an oxidation number of +1 and Cu2+ has an oxidation number of +2); 3. when in compounds, Group 1A metals have an oxidation number of +1; Group 2A metals have an oxidation number of +2 4. when in compounds, Group VIIA elements have an oxidation number of -1 (unless combined with an element with higher electronegativity); 5. The oxidation state of hydrogen is +1 unless it is paired with a less electronegative element, in which case it is -1 ; 6. the oxidation state of oxygen is usually -2, except in peroxides (when its charge is -1) or in compounds with more electronegative elements 7. the sum of the oxidation numbers of all the atoms present in a compound is equal to the overall charge of the compound

Roles of calcium

1. bone structure and strength 2. release of neurotransmitter from neurons 3. regulation of muscle contraction 4. clotting of blood (calcium is a cofactor) 5. calcium also plays a role in cell movement and exocytosis of cellular materials

Physical properties of carboxylic acids

1. carboxylic acids are polar and hydrogen bond very well ,resulting in high boiling points. They often exist as dimers in solution ; 2. The acidity of a carboxylic acid is enhanced by the resonance between its oxygen atoms 3. acidity can be further enhanced by substituents that are electron-withdrawing, and decreased by substituents that are electron-donating; 4. Beta-dicarboxylic acids, like other 1,3-dicarbonyl compounds, have an alpha-hydrogen that is also highly acidic - the hydroxyl hydorgens is the most acidic proton on a carboxylic aicd. However, in 1,3-dicarbonyls, the alpha-hydrogen is also quite acidic

Other organs that release hormone

1. cells in the stomach and intestine produce hormones like secretin, gastrin, and cholecystokinin; 2. the kidneys secrete erythropoietin, which stimulates bone marrow to produce erythrocytes (red blood cells) in response to low oxygen levels in the blood; 3. the atria of the heart secrete atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP),which promotes excretion of salt and water in the kidneys in response to stretching of the atria (high blood volume) 5. the thymus secrets thymosin, which is important for proper T-cell development and differentiation

Three main types of stresses applied to a system:

1. change in concentration: increasing the concentration of reactant or decrease the concentration of products will shift the reaction the right; increasing the concentration of products or decreasing the concentration of reactants will shift the reaction to the left 2. pressure and volume: increasing pressure on a gaseous system (decreasing its volume) will shift the reaction toward the side with fewer moles of gas; decreasing pressure on a gaseous system (increasing its volume) will shift the reaction toward the side with more moles of gas 3. temperature: increasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction or decreasing the temperature of an exothermic reaction will shift the reaction to the right; decreasing the temperature of an endothermic reaction or increase the temperature of an exothermic reaction will shift the reaction to the left

Nucleophilic is determined by 4 major factors

1. charge: nucleophilicity increases with increasing electron density (more negative charge); 2. ElectronegativityL nucleophilicity decreases as electronegativity increases because these atoms are less likely to share electron density 3. steric hinderance: bulkier molecules are less nucleophilic 4. solvent: protic solvents can hinder nucleophilicity by protonating the nucleophile or through hydrogen bonding - in polar protic solvents, nucleophilicity increarease down the periodic table; in polar aprotic solvents, nucleophilicty increases up the periodic table

Solving problems involving determination of limiting reagent

1. comparison of reactant must be done in units of moles; 2. the rate at which the reactants are consumed (the stoichiometric ratios of the reactants) combined with absolute mole quantities determines which react is the limiting reagent

hormones can be classified by their target tissues

1. direct hormones have major effects in non-endocrine tissues 2. tropic hormones have major effecs in other endocrine tissue

Steps in drawing Lewis structure

1. draw out the backbone of the compounds- least electronegative compound in center, H(always) and the halogens F,Cl,Br and I (usually) in terminal position 2. count valence electrons for the moleucle; 3. draw signle bonds- single bond equal pair of electrons 4. complete the octet for all atoms 5. place extra electrons on the central atom

Steps in predict the geometric structure using VSEPR theory

1. draw the Lewis dot structure 2. count the total number of bonding and nonbonding electron pairs in the valence shell of the central atom; 3. arrange the electron paris around the central atom so that they are as far apart as possible

How to write electron configuration

1. find the atomic number of the atom (for a neutral atom the number of proton=number of electrons); 2. charge of the atom 3. S orbital=1 orbital and each orbital contains 2 electrons; P orbital= 6 electrons (3 orbitals); D orbital= 10 electrons (5 orbitals); F orbital= 14 electrons (7 orbitals). 4. The order for filling orbitals is as follows: 1s, 2s, 2p, 3s, 3p, 4s, 3d, 4p, 5s, 4d, 5p, 6s, 4f, 5d, 6p, 7s, 5f, 6d, 7p, 8s.

Posttranslational modification include?

1. folding by chaperone 2. formation of quaternary structure 3. cleavage of proteins or signal sequences 4. covalent addition of other biomolecules (phosphorlation, carboxylation, glycosylation, Prenylation- addition of lipid groups)

Factors affecting reaction rates (4)

1. increasing the concentration of reactant will increase reaction rate (except for zero-order reactions) because there more effective collisions per time; 2. increasing the temperature will increase reaction rate because the particles' kinetic energy is increased; 3. change the medium can increase or decrease the reaction rate, depending on how the reactant interact with the medium; 4. adding a catalyst increase reaction rate because it lowers the activation energy; homogenous catalysts are the same phase as the recants; heterogeneous catalysts are a different phase

Operant conditioning

Behaviors is changed through the use of consequences; associated with B.F. Skinner, who is considere the father of behaviorsm

Steps for solving organic chemistry reactions

1. know your nomenclature 2. identify the functional groups 3. identify the other reagents 4. identify the most reactive functional groups 5. identify the first step of the reaction 6. consider stereospecificitly/stereoslectivity

Formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, butyraldehyde, valeraldehyde

1. methanal 2. ethanal 3. propanal 4. Butanal 5. pentanal

Steps and proteins involved in DNA replication

1. origin of replication 2. unwinding of DNA double helix (helicase) 3. stabilization of unwound template strand (single-stranded DNA-binding Protein) 4. synthesis of RNA primers (primase) 5. Synthesis of DNA (DNA polymerase) 6. removal of RNA primers 7. replacement RNA with DNA 8. Joining of Okazaki fragments (DNA ligase) 9. removal of positive supercoils ahead of advancing replication forks (DNA Topoisomerases/DNA Gyrase) 10. synthesis of telomeres

The three elements of emotion

1. physiological response: when feeling is first experienced, arousal is stimulated by changes in the autonomic nervous system; 2. Behavioral response: includes facial expression and body language 3. cognitive response: subjective interpretation of the feeling being experienced

States of Consciousness: stages of sleep

1. stage 1 is light sleep and dominated by theta waves on EEG 2. stages 2 is slightly deeper and includes theta waves, sleep spindle and K complexes 3 &4. stage 3 and 4 are deep (slow-wave) sleep (SWS), delta waves predominate on EEG; most sleep disorders occur during stage 3 and 4 non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep. Dreaming in slow wave sleep focuses on consolidating declarative memories 5. Rapid eye movement (REM) sleep is sometimes called paradoxical sleep- where the mind appears close to awake on EEG, but the person is asleep. Eye movement and body paralysis occur in this stage. Dreaming in REM focuses on consolidating procedural memories (most dreaming occurd during REM) - sequential of brain wave- beta, alpha, theta, detal- BAT-D: BAT sleeps during the day

Bacterial growth follows a predictable pattern

1. the bacteria adapts to new local conditions during the lag phase 2. Growth then increase exponentially during the exponential (log) phase 3. as resources are reduced, growth levels off during the stationary phase 4. as resources become insufficient, bacteria undergo a death phase

The 3 primary germ layers

1. the ectoderm: becomes epidermis, hair, nails and the epithelia of the nose, mouth and anal canal, as well as the nervous system (including adrenal medulla) and lens of the eye 2. The mesoderm: becomes much of the musculoskeletal, circulatory and excretory systems. mesoderm also gives rise to the gonads and the muscular and connective tissue layers of the digestive and respiratory systems, as well as the adrenal cortex 3. the endoderm: becomes much of the epithelial linings of the respiratory and digestive tracts, and parts of the pancreas, thyroid, bladder and distal urinary tract

the 3 different stage during trimester

1. the first trimester, organogenesis occur 2. second trimester, tremendous growth occurs, movement begins, the face becomes distinctly human. and the digits elongate 3. third trimester, rapid growth and brain development continue, and there is transfer of antibodies to the fetus

how fetal circulatory system differs from adults?

1. the foramen ovale connects the right atrium to the left atrium, bypassing the lungs 2. the ductus arteriosus connects the pulmonary artery to the aorta, bypassing the lungs 3. The ductus venous connects the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava, bypassing the liver

Cognitive biases that impact our perceptions of others

1. the primary effect refers to when first impressions are more important than subsequent impressions 2. the recency effect is when the most recent information we have about an individual is most important in forming our impressions 3. a reliance on central traits is the tendency to organize the perception of others based on traits and personal characteristics that matter to the perceiver 4. the halo effect is when judgments of an individual's character can be affected by the overall impression of the individual 5. the just-world hypothesis is the tendency of individuals to believe that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people 6. Self-serving bias refers to the fact that individuals will view their own successes as being based on internal factors, while viewing failure as being based on external factors

Amino acid derivative hormones

1. they are modified amino acids 2. their chemistry share some features with peptide hormones and some features with steroid hormones; different amino acid-derivative hormones share different features with these other hormone classes 3. common examples are epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are fast onset but are short-lived like peptide hormone. Triiodothyroine and thyroxine are more like steorid hormone that have slower onset but a longer duration

Key features of Watson-Crick Model

1. two strands of DNA are antiparallel (one has 5' to 3' down the page and the other strand has 5' to 3' polarity up the page); 2. sugar phosphate backbone is on the outside of the helix with the nitrogenous bases on the inside; 3. Complementary base-pairing :A-T via two hydrogen bonds; G-C via three hydrogen bonds, the 3 Hydrgen bond make the G-C base pair interaction stronger 4. Chargaff's rules: Purines and pyrimidines are equal in number in DNA molecule and that because of base-pairing, the amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine and the amount of cytosine equals the amount guanine

Communication: verbal and non-verbal

1. verbal communication is conveyance of information through spoken, written or signed words 2. nonverbal communication is the conveyance of information by means other than the use of words, such as body language, prosody, facial expressions, and gestures 3. animal communication takes place not only between nonhuman animals, but between humans and other animals as well. animals use body language, rudimentary facial expression, visual displays, scents and vocalizations to communicate

Gibbs free Energy and Spontaneity

1. ∆G < 0: reaction proceeds in forward direction (spontaneous) 2. ∆G = 0 : reaction is in dynamic equilibrium 3. G > 0 : reaction process in reverse direction (non-spontaneous) - endergonic (absorb energy=nonspontaneous) /exogonic ( release energy = spontaneous) describes Gibbs free energy while endothermic/exothermic describes enthalpy

UV spectroscopy

Best for Proteins contains aromatic side chains

The simplest monosachrides

contain 3 carbon atoms and are called trioses; Carbohydrates with 4, 5, and 6 carbon atoms are called tetroses, pentoses and hexoses.

Sociology- Theories and institutions: The 4 ethical tenets of American medicine

1.Beneficence refers to acting in the patient's best interest 2. Nonmaleficence refers to avoiding treatments for which risk is larger than benefit 3. respect for autonomy refers to respecting patients' rights to make decisions about their own healthcare 4. Justice refers to treating similar patients similarly and distributing healthcare resources fairly

optics equation

1/ƒ = 1/o + 1/i= 2/r • ƒ= focal length, is the distance between the focal point (F) and the mirror= r/2 • r = radius of curvature • i = the distance between the image and the mirror • o= is the distance between the object and mirror

Important pressure equivalents

1atm=760mmHg=760torr=101.325kpa

wavelength of standing wave (strings and open pipes)

2L/ n - L= length of closed pipe - n= nonzero integer (n=1,2,3...) called the harmonic

how to determine the number of possible stereoisomers?

2^n possible stereoisomer (n=chiral centers)

Number of stereoisomers with common backbone

2^n; n= number of chiral carbons with common backbone

Max. number of electrons within a shell

2n^2

Stop Codons

3 codons that encode for termination of protein translation; there are no charged tRNA molecules that recognize these codons, which leads to the release of the protein from the ribosome, these stop codons are UG, UAA, and UAG - UAA- U Are Annoying - UGA-U Go Away - UAG-U Are Gone

Amino Acids

4 groups attached to a central (alpha) Carbon. Amino group, caboxylic acid group, hydrogen and R group.

wavelength of a standing wave (closed pipes)

4L / n - n = odd integers (n=1,2,3 and so on)

Max. number of electrons within a subshell

4l+2

Torque

= r x F = rF sinø\ - r = distance of each person from the fulcrum

A cultural syndrome

A cultural syndrome Is a shared set of beliefs, norms, values and behaviors organized around a central themes, as is found among people sharing the same language and geography

Gram equivalent weight

A measure of the mass of a substance that can donate one equivalent of the species of interest; in acid-base chemistry, the gram equivalent weight represents the mass of acid that tields one mole of protons, or the mass of base tha tyields one mole of hydroxide ions. -b= gram equivalent weight = molar mass/ n - n= number of particles of interest produced

Mental set

A mental set is a pattern of approach for a given problem. an inappropriate mental set may negatively impact problem solving

Gene Therapy

A method of curing genetic deficiencies by introducing a functional gene with a viral vector

Elements of social interaction: role

A role is a set of beliefs, values, and norms that define the expectations of certain status in a social situation

Fluid dynamics

A set of principles regarding actively flowing fluid

Dilution

A solution is diluted when solve is added to a solution of higher concentration to produce a solution of lower concentration; the concentration of a solution after dilution can be determined using the equation: MiVi=MfVf

Elements of social interaction: status

A status is a position in society used to classify individuals: - an ascribed status is a involuntarily assigned to an individual based on race, ethnicity, gender, family background and so on. - an achieved status is voluntarily earned by an individual - a master status is the status by which an individual is primarily identified

Steroids: Cholesterol

A steroid important to membrane fluidity and stability; it serves as a precursor to a host of other molecules; amphipathic molecule, can acts as a buffer: at low temp. it will keep membrane from becoming too rigid and at high temp. it will prevent it from becoming too permeable.

Reversible Inhibition

Ability to replace the inhibitor with a compound of greater affinity or to remove it using mild lab. treatment. Includes competitive, Noncompetitive, Mixed and Uncompetitive Inhibition

absolute and relative poverty

Absolute poverty is when people do not have enough resources to acquire basic life necessities, such as shelter, food, clothing and water. Relative poverty is when one is poor in comparison to a larger populations

Errors in the basic science research: accuracy and prevision

Accuracy (validity) is the quality of approximating the true value, precision (reliability) is the quality of being consistent in approximation. - Bias is a systematic error and there are also random error is difficult to avoid but can be overcome by large sample size

Common name of Ethanal

Acetaldehyde

Common name for Propanone

Acetone

what's special about Acetylcholine

Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter released by preganglionic neuron in both sympathetic and parasympathetic NS. the post ganglionic neuron in the sympathetic NS usually releases norepinephrine, while the postganglionic neurons in the parasymapthetic nervous system releases acetylcholine

Sympathetic Nervous system functions

Activated by stress, closely associated with rage and fear reactions

how are amygdala and prefrontal cortex related to aggression?

Activity of the amygdala increase aggression. The prefrontal cortex should control aggression, therefore decreased prefrontal cortex is associated with higher level of aggression

Aldo condensation step 2

After the aldol is formed, a dehydration reaction (loss of a water molecule) occurs. This results in an alpha,beta-unsaturated carbonyl

Aggression

Aggression is a physical, verbal, or nonverbal behavior with the intention to cause harm or increase social dominance

Reactions of alcohols: Mesylate and Tosylates

Alcohols can be converted to mesylates or tosylates to make them better leaving groups for nucleophilic substitution: - Mesylates contain the functional group -SO3CH3, which is derived from methanesulfonic acid (Methysulfonyl chloride serves as a protecting group for alcohols, which are converted into mesylates. reacting with this reagent before continuing with what would notmally bean oxidation reaction keeps the alcohol from reacting; when the protecting group is then removed using strong acid, the resultant product is the same as the initial reactant) - Tosylates contain the functional group -SO3C6H4CH3, which is derived from toluenesulfonic acid

Hydrogen bond and alcohols

Alcohols can hydrogen bond, raising their boiling and melting points relative to corresponding alkanes. Hydrogen bonding also increases the solubility of alcohols

Alcohols

Alcohols have the general form ROH and are named with suffix -ol. If they are not the highest priority, they are given the prefix hydroxy-

Common acidic functional groups

Alcohols,aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids, and carboxylic acid derivative are common acidic functional groups. alpha-hydrogens (hydrogens connected to and alpha-carbon, a carbon adjacent to a carbonyl) are acidic

Aldehydes and ketones productions

Aldehydes and ketones are commonly produced by oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols, respectively: - Weaker, anhydrous oxidizing agents like Pyridinium Chlorochromate (PCC) must be used for synthesizing aldehydes, or the reaction will continue oxidizing to the level of the carboxylic acid - various oxidizing agents can be used for ketones, such as dichromate, chromium trioxide, or PCC because ketones are the most oxidized functional groups for secondary carbons

Enol form

Aldehydes and ketones exist in the traditional keto form (C=O) and in the less common enol form (ene + ol = double bond + hydroxyl group) - Tautomers are isomers that can be interconverted by moving a hydrogen and a double bond. the Keto and enol forms are tautomers of each other - the enol form can be deprotonated to form an enolate. Enolates are good nucleophiles

Aldehydes

Aldehydes are terminal functional groups containing carbonyl bonded to at least one hydrogen. In nomenclature, they used the suffix - al and the prefix oxo-. In rings, they are indicated by the suffix -carbaldehyde

Reactions of alcohols: acetal and ketal

Aldehydes or ketones can be protected by converting them into acetals or ketals : - two equivalents of alcohols or a dialcohol are reacted with the carbonyl to form an acetal (a primary carbon with two -OR groups and a hydrogen atoms) or ketal (a secondary carbon with two -OR groups) - other functional groups in the compound can be reacted (especially by reduction) without effects on the newly formed acetal or ketal - the acetal or ketal can then be converted back to a carbonyl by catalytic acid; which is called deprotection

Wobble Position

All amino acids except for methionine and tryptophan are encoded by multiple codons; for amino acids with multiple codon, the first two bases are usually the same and the third base in the codon is variable, we refer to this as the wobble position

Nucleophilic Acyl substitution reaction

All carboxylic acid derivative can undergo nucleophilic substitution reactions. The rates at which they do are determined by their relative reactivities

Resting membrane potential and its maintenance

All neurons exhibit resting membrane potential of approximately -70mv: - resting potential is maintained using selective permeability of ions as well as the Na+/K+ ATPase - the Na+/K+ ATPase pumps 3 sodium ions out of the cell for every 2 potassium ions pumped in

Allosteric Site

Allosteric site can be occupied by activators, which increase either affinity or enzymatic turnover

CAMs: Selectins

Allow cells to adhere to carbohydrates on the surfaces of other cells and are most commonly used in immune system

Membrane components: gap junctions

Also called connexons and are formed by the alignment and interactions of pores composed of six molecules of connexin; allow for the rapid exchange of ions and other small molecules between adjacent cells

Mismatch repair

Also occurs during the G2 phase of the cell cycle, using the genes MSH2 and MLH1

Irreversible Inhibition

Alters the enzyme in such way that the active site is unavailable for a prolonged duration or permanently; new enzyme molecules must be synthesized for the reaction to occur again.

Altruism

Altruism is a form of helping behavior in which the persons's intent is to benefit someone else at some cost to him- or herself

Biological basis of nervous system disorder: Alzheimer's disese

Alzheimer's disease is associated with genetic factors, brain atrophy, decreases in acetylcholine, senile plaques of beta-amyloid and neurofibrillary tangles of hyperphosphorylated tau protein

Brain disorder that cause forgetting

Alzheimer's diseases is a degenerative brain disorder, it is marked by progressive dementia (a loss of cognitive function) and memory loss, it occurs in retrograde fashion- with loss of recent memories before distant memories. Korsakoff's syndrome is another form of memory loss caused by thiamine deficiency in the brain, marked by retrograde amnesia (loss of previously formed memories) and anterograde amnesia (inability to form new memories; CAN ALSO BE LOST DUE TO ANOSIA, DECAY OR INTERFERENCE

Carbolic acid derivatives: Amide

Amides are the condensation products of carboxylic acids and ammonia or amines

Common basic functional groups

Amines and amides

Ammeters

Ammeters are inserted in series in a circuit to measure current; they have negligible resistance

Phospholipids

Amphipathic(hydrophilic and hydrophobic) and form the bilayer of biological membranes; they contain hydrophilic (polar) head group and hydrophobic (nonpolar) tails

Decarboxylation

Beta-dicarboxylic acids and other beta-keto acids can undergo spontaneous decarboxylation when heated, losing a carbon as carbon dioixde This reaction proceeds via a six-membered cyclic intermediates

Amphoteric and amphiprotic

Amphoteric species are those that can behave as an acid or base; amphiprotic species are amphoteric species that specifically can behave as a Bronsted-Lowry acid or Bronsted-Lowry base - water is a classic exmple of an amphoteric, amphiprotic species- it can accept a hydrogen ion to become a hydronium ion, or it can donate a hyrdrogen ion to become a hydroixde ion; amino acids and partially deprotante polyprotic acids such as bicarbonate and bisulfate are also common examples. - Conjugate species of polyvalent acids and bases can also behave as amphoteric and amphiprotic species

starches like amylose and amylopectin are broken down by what enzymes?

Amylose is degraded by alpha-amylase and beta-amylase

Action potential (describe the process)

An action potential is used to propagate signals down the axon: 1. when enough excitatory stimulation occurs, the cell is depolarized to the threshold voltage and voltage-gated sodium channels open 2.sodium flow into the neuron due to its strong electrochemical gradient; this continues depolarizing the neuron 3. at the peak of the action potential (approximately +35mv), sodium channels are inactivated and potassium channels open 4. potassium flows out of the neuron due to its strong electrochemical gradient, repolarizing the cell. potassium channels stay open long enough to overshoot the action potential, resulting in hyperpolarized neuron; then, the potassium channels close 5. the Na+/K+ ATPase brings the neuron back to the resting potential and restores the sodium and potassium gradient

Electrochemical cell:

An electrochemical cell describes any cell in which oxidation-reduction reaction take place. Certain characteristics are shared between all types of electrochemical cells

Polyvalence and normality: equivalent

An equivalent is defined as one mole of the species of interest; an acid equivalent is equal to one mole of H+ (or, more properly, H3O+); a base equivalent is equal to one mole of OH- ions equivalent poing: NaVa=NbVb

Confounding

An error in data analysis that results from a common connection of both the dependet and independent variables to a third variable

Idea gas:

An idea gas represents a hypothetical gas with molecules that have no intermolecular forces and occupy no volumes; idea gas follows the gas laws at all pressures and temperatures, a real gas deviated from these laws at high pressure (low volume) and low temperatures because of intermolecular forces or volume effects - Standard temperature and pressure (STP)= 275k (o˚C) and 1 atm.

What does the first law of thermodynamic tells us?

An increase in the total internal energy of a system is caused by transferring heat into the system or performing work on the system. The total internal energy of a system will decrease when heat is lost from the system or work is performed by the system.

The eye

An organ specialized to detect light in the form of photons.

Oxidizing agent and reducing agent

An oxidizing agent facilitates the oxidation of another compound and is reduced itself in the process; a reducing agent facilitates the reduction of another compound and is itself oxidized in the process: - a common oxidizing agent almost all contains oxygen or a similarly electronegative element - a common reducing agents often contain metal ions or hydrides (H-)

Carbolic acid derivatives: Anhydrides

Anhydrides are the condensation of dimers of carboxylic acid

Nucleophilic Acyl substitution reaction: Cleaving anhydride

Anhydrides can be cleaved by the addition of a nucleophile: - addition of ammonia or an amine results in an amide and a carboxylic acid - addition of an alcohol results in an ester and a carboxylic aicds - addition of water results in two carboxylic acids

Relearning

Another way of demonstrating that information has been stored in long-term memory; the brain organize ideas into a semantic network- concepts are linked together based on similar meaning, spreading activation is the heart of a retrieve cue known as priming, in spreading activation the concept of red will also unconsicously activate other linked concepts

Anxiety disorders

Anxiety disorders include generalized anxiety disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, agoraphobia and panic disorder - Generalized anxiety disorder is a disproportionate and persistent worry about many different things for at least six months - Specific phobia are irrational fears of specific objects or situations - social anxiety disorder is anxiety due to social or performance situations - Agoraphobia is a fear of places or situations where it is hard for an individual to escape - Panic disorder is marked by recurrent panic attacks: intense, overwhelming fear and sympathetic nervous system activity with no clear stimulus. It may lead to agoraphobia

Expanded octet

Any element in period 3 and greater can hold more than eight electrons, including P (10), S(12), Cl(14) and many others

Odd number of electrons

Any molecule with an odd number of valence electrons cannot distribute those electrons to give eight to each atom; for example: nitric oxide (NO) has 11 valence electron.

Enzymes without cofactor

Apoenzymes

Apoptosis

Apoptosis Is programmed cell death via the formation of apoptotic blebs that can subsequently be absorbed and digested by other cells. Apoptosis can be use for sculpting certain anatomical structures, such as removing the webbing between digits

Freud's Theories

Are based on the id (base urges of survival and reproduction), superego (the idealist and perfectionist, responsible for moral guilt when we do not live up to our ideals ) and the ego (the mediator between the two and the conscious mind). The ego makes use of defense mechanism to reduce stress caused by the urges of the id and the superego.

Complex ions or coordination compounds

Are composed of metallic ions bonded to various neutral compounds and anions, referred to as ligands; formation of complex ions increase the solubility of otherwise insoluble ions (the opposite of the common ion effect); the process of forming a complex ion involves electron pair donors and electron pair acceptors such as those seen in coordinate covalent bonding

Sphingolipids:Sphingomyelins

Are major class of sphingophospholipids and contain a phosphatidylcholine or phosphatidylethanolamine head group. they are a major component of the myeline sheath

boiling point of carbonyl-containing compounds

Carbonyl-containing compounds have higher boiling points than equivalent alkanes because of dipole interactions. Alcohols have higher boiling points tan carbonyls because of hydrogen bonding

Functional Groups in order of priority

Carboxylic acid > Anhydride> Ester> Amide>Aldehyde>Ketone>Alcohol>Alkene or Alkyne> Alkane

Esters

Carboxylic acid derivatives where -OH is replaced with -OR, use suffix -oate or the prefix alkoxycarbonyl-

Anhydrides

Carboxylic acid derivatives where it is formed from two carboxylic acids by dehydration. can be symmetric, asymmetric or cyclic. Named using the suffix anhydride in place of acid

Carboxylic acids nomenclature

Carboxylic acids are indicated with the suffix -oic acid. Salts are named with the suffix -oate, and dicarboxylic acids are -dioic acids

synthesis of a carboxylic acid

Carboxylic acids can be made by the oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes using an oxidizing agent like potassium permanganate (KMnO4), dichromate salts (Na2Cr2O7 or K2Cr2O7) or chromium trioxides (CrO3)

Reduction of carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids can be reduced to a primary alcohol with a strong reducing agent like Lithium aluminum hydride (LiAlH4): - Aldehyde intermediates are formed, but are also reduced to primary alcohols - Sodium borohydride (NaBH4) is a common reducing agent for other organic reactions, but is not strong enough to reduce carboxylic acid

Carboxylic acids

Carboxylic acids contain a carbonyl and a hydroxyl group connected to the same carbon. They are always terminal groups

What are the 3 basic type of traits identified by Allport?

Cardinal, central and secondary

Hydrolases

Catalyze cleavage with the addition of water. Phosphatase cleaves a phosphate group from another molecule. Others include Peptidase (break down proteins), Nucleases (nucleic acids) and lipase(cleaves lipids).

Lyases

Catalyze cleavage without the addition of water and without the transfer of electrons. Th reverse reaction (synthesis) is often more important biologically.

Oxidoreductases

Catalyze oxidation-reduction reaction that involves the transfer of electrons. Reductant is the electron donor and oxidant is the electron acceptor. The enzyme with Dehydrogenases or reductases in their name is usually oxidoreductases enzymes in which Oxygen is the final electron acceptor often include oxidase in their name.

Isomerases

Catalyze the interconversion of isomers, including both constitutional isomer and stereoisomers (rearrangement of bonds within a molecule)

Ionic radius of cation and anion

Cations are generally smaller than their corresponding neutral atom and anions are larger.

Causality in observational studies

Causality in observational studies is supported by Hill's criteria, which include temporality (the exposure-independent variable must occur before the outcome- dependent variable, strength, dose-response relationships, consistency, plausibility- reasonable mechanism for the independent variable to impact the dependent variable supported by existing literature =, consideration of alternative explanations, experiments, specificity and coherence- new data and hypo. are consistenty with the current state of scientific knowledege.

Cell diagrams

Cell diagrams are shorthand notation that represent the reactions taking place in an electrochemical cell: - cell diagram are written from anode to cathode with electrolytes (the solution in between) - electron flow - a vertical line represent a phase boundary, and a double vertical line represents a salt bridge or other physical boundary

Membrane components: Cell-cell junctions

Cell-cell junctions are generally comprised of cell adhesion molecules (CAM), which are proteins tha tallow cells to recignize each other and contribute to proper cell differenciation and development; regulate transport intracellularly and inter-cellularly

Organization of the Human nervous system

Central nervous system- brain and spinal cord, Peripheral nervous system- cranial and spinal nerves

Cuase of sleepiness and wakefulness

Changes in light in the evening trigger release of melatonin by the pineal gland resulting in sleepiness. Cortisol levels increase in the early morning and help promote wakefulness. Circadian rhythms normally trend around 24-hour day.

Ideal Gas: Charle's law

Charle's law is also a derivation of the ideal gas law and states that volume and temperature are directly proportional: when one increases, the other increases in direct proportion: V/T=k or V1/T1= V2/T2

Chemical bond

Chemical bonds can be ionic or covalent; elements will form bonds to attain a noble gas-like electron configuration

Lewis dot diagram

Chemical symbol of an element surrounded by dots, each representing one of the s or p valence electrons of the atom; some atoms can expand their octets by utlizing the d-orbitals in thier outer shell (atoms in period 3 or greater)

what does Research in Role taking and observational learning tell us?

Children are more likely to engage in the behavior modeled by individuals who are like themselves

Chromatic aberration

Chromatic aberration is a dispersive effect within a spherical lens

Biological Theorists

Claim that behavior can be explained as a result of genetic expression

Terpense

Class of lipid built from isoprene (C5H8) moieties and share a common structural pattern with carbons grouped in a multiples of 5, these odiferous chemicals are the metabolic precursors to steroid and other lipid signaling molecules. One terpense unit (monoterpene) contains two isoprene units

Middle ear

Consists of the ossicle :malleus (hammer), incus (anvil), and shapes (stirrup). The footplate of the stapes rest on the oval window of the cochlea. the middle ear is connected to nasal cavity by the Eustachian tube

cleavage

Cleavage is defined as the early divisions of cells in the embryo. these mitotic divisions result in a larger number of smaller cells, as the overall volume does not change: - the zygote becomes an embryo after the first cleavage because it is no longer unicellular - Indeterminate cleavage results in cells that are capable of becoming any cell in the organism, while determinate cleavage results in cells that are committed to differentiating into a specific cell type

Beta-amylase

Cleaves amylose at the nonreducing end of the polymer (the end with acetal) to yield maltose; acetal is shown in the image

Glycogen phosphorylase

Cleaves glucose from the nonreducing end of a glycogen branch and phosphorylating it, thereby producing G-1-Phosphate.

Closed pipes

Closed pipes (closed at one end) also support standing waves, and the length of the pipe is equal to some odd multiple of quarter-wavelengths

Personality Disorder: what does each Cluster (A, B, C) include?

Cluster A includes paranoid, schizotypal, and schizoid PDs; Cluster B includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic and narcissitic PDs; Cluster C includes avoidant depenedne, and obsessive-compulsive PDs

Tumor Suppressor genes

Code for proteins that reduce cell cycling or promote DNA repair; mutations of tumor suppressor genes can also lead to cancer

Cognitive appraisal (2 stages)

Cognitive appraisal is the subjective evaluation of a situation that induces stress; 1. primary appraisal is classifying a potential stressor as irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful; 2. sencodary appraisal is directed at evaluating if the organism can cope with the stress, based on harm, threat and challenge

What are some common structural proteins ?

Collagen- makes ip most of the extracellular matrix , elastin-important component of the extracellular matrix of connective tissue, keratin-intermediate filament proteins found in epithelial cells , actin- makes up microfilament and thin filaments in myofibrils and tubulin- makes up microtubulues

Colligative Properties

Colligative properties are physical properties of solutions that depend on the concentration of dissolved particles but not on their chemical identity

Where does the strain in cyclic molecules comes from?

Comes from angle strain (created by stretching or compressing angles from their normal size), Torsional strain (from eclipsing conformations) and non-bonded strain (from interactions between substituents attached to nonadjacent carbons. Cyclic molecules adopt nonplanar shapes to minimize this strain.

Common sensory receptors

Common sensory receptors include photoreceptors, hair cells, nociceptors, thermoreceptros, osmoreceptors, olfactory receptors, and taste receptor.

Strong acid and bases

Completely dissociate into their component ions in aqueous solutions; acid-base reactions that consist of a single-headed arrow generally indicate strong acids or bases

Socialization: Compliance

Compliance occurs when individuals change their behavior based on the requests of others. Methods of gaining compliance include the foot-in-the-door technique, door-in-the-face technique, lowball technique and that-not all technique, among others.

Nucleosides

Composed of 5-carbon sugar (pentose) bonded to a nitrogenous base and are formed by covalently linking the base C-1' of the sugar

mirror vs lense

Concave mirror and convex lenses are both converging and thus have similar properties; Convex mirror and concave lenses are both diverging and also have similar properties

Concentration cells

Concentration cells are a specialized form of a galvanic cell in which both electrodes are made of the same material. rather than a potential difference causing the movement of change, it is the concentration gradient between the two solutions

Conductor and insulators

Conductors allow the free and uniform passage of electrons when charged; Insulators resist the movement of of charge and will have localized areas of charge that do not distribute over the surface of the material

Sociology- Theories and institutions: Conflict theory

Conflict theory focuses on how power differentials are created and how these differential contribute to the maintenance of social order

what are the reasons for conjugated proteins?

Conjugated proteins can have lipid or carbohydrate "tags" added to them and they can indicate that these proteins should be directed to the cell membrane or to specific organelle and they can also provide activity of the protein

Bacterial genetic recombination: Conjugation

Conjugation is the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another across a conjugation bridge; a plasmid can be transferred from F+ cells to F- cells or a portion of the genome can be transferred from an Hfr cell to a recipient

Reactivity principle of Carboxylic acid derivatives: Conjugation

Conjugation refers to the presence of alternating single and multiple bonds, which creates delocalized pi electron clouds above and below the plane of the molecules. - Electrons experience resonance through the unhybridized p-orbitals, increasing stability. Conjugated carbonyl-containing compounds are more reactive because they can stabilize their transition state. •Conjugation and resonance are much more powerful than induction

Connective tissue

Connective tissue support the body and provide a framework for epithelial cells; in most organs, connective tissues form the stroma or support structure by secreting materials to form an extracellular matrix; bone, cartilage, tendons, ligaments, adipose tissue, and blood are all connective tissue

Conservative vs. Non-conservative force

Conservative force (gravity and electrostatic ) conserve mechanical energy: ∆E=∆U+∆K=0. Non-conservative force (friction and air resistance) dissipate mechanical energy as thermal or chemical energy: Wnonconservative=∆E=∆U+∆K

Eukaryotic organelles: The Golgi apparatus

Consists of stacked membrane-bound sacs in which cellular products can be modified, packaged and directed to specific cellular locations

Interference: constructive interference

Constructive interference occurs when waves are exactly in phase with each other. the amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of the amplitude of the two interfering waves

Steroids

Contain 3 cyclohexane rings and one 1 cyclopentane ring. Their oxidation state and functional groups may vary

What group does aldehydes contain and how is it named?

Contain a carbonyl group on a terminal carbon that is attached to a hydrogen atom. Named using the suffix -al or by using prefix oxo- if a higher priority group is present

what group does alcohol contain and how is it named?

Contain a hydroxyl -OH group. It is named by substituting the suffix -ol or by using prefix hydroxy- if a higher priority group is present. It has higher priority than double or triple bond

Eukaryotic organelles: Mitochondria

Contain an outer and inner membrane. the outer membrane forms a barrier with the cytosol; the inner membrane is folded into cristae and contains enzymes for the electron transport chain. Between the membranes is the inter membrane space; inside the inner mitochondrial membrane is the mitochondria matrix. Mitochondria can divide independently of the nucleus via binary fission; they can trigger apoptosis by releasing mitochondrial enzymes into the cytoplasm.

Electrolytes

Contain equivalent of ions from molecules that dissociated in solution. the strength of an electrolyte dependes on its degree of dissociation or solvation; the best electrolytes dissociate readily (high dissociation constant) and have large amounts of cations and anions.

Eukaryotic organelles: Peroxisomes

Contain hydrogen peroxide and can break down very long chain fatty acids vis Beta-oxidation. They also participate in phospholipid synthesis and the pentose phosphate pathway

Eukaryotic organelles: Lysosomes

Contain hydrolytic enzymes that can break down substances ingested by endocytosis and cellular waste products. when these enzymes are released, autolysis of the cell can occur

Genomic libraries

Contain large fragment of DNA, including both coding and noncoding regions of the genome. They cannot be used to make recombinant proteins or gene therapy

Waxes

Contain long-chain fatty acids esterified to long-chain alcohol. They are used as protection against evaporation and parasites in plants and animals.

cDNA libraries (expression libraries)

Contain smaller fragment of DNA, and only include the exons of genes expressed by the sample tissues. they can be used to make a recombinant protein or for gene therapy

Projectile Motion

Contains both an x and y component. Assuming negligible air resistance, the only force acting on the object is gravity

What does the Hindbrain contain?

Contains cerebellum, medulla oblongata, and reticular formation

Sphingolipids:Gangliosides

Contains oligosaccharides with at least one terminal N-Acetylneuraminic acid (NANA: also called sialic acids), the sphingolipids with the most complex structure an functional groups in all direactions.

What does the Midbrain contain?

Contains the inferior and superior colliculi

What does the Forebrain contains?

Contains the thalamus, hypothalamus, basal ganglia, limbic system and cerebral cortex.

Inner ear

Contaisn the bony labyrinth, within which is the membranous labyrinth. The bony labrynith is filled with perilmph; the mebranous labyrinth is filled with endolymph. the membranous labyrinth consists of the cochlea, which detects sound; utricle and saccule, which detect linear acceleration; and semicircular canals, which detect rotational acceleration

Parts of the Forebrain: Limbic system

Controls emotion and memory. And it contains septal nuclei (involved with feelings of pleasure, pleasure-seeking behavior and addiction) , amygdala (controls fear and aggression), and hippocampus (consolidates memories and communicates with other parts of the limbic system through an extension called the fornix)

Functions of Frontal lobe

Controls executive function, impulse control, long-term planning, motor function and speech production

Controls

Controls or standard are method of verifying results and are used to correct for any influences of an intervention that are not part of the model, control may be positive or negative

Functions of the parietal lobe

Controls sensations of touch, pressure, temperature and pain; spatial processing; orientation; and manipulation

Functions of the Temporal lobe

Controls sound processing, speech perception, memory and emotion. Wernicke's area is associated with language reception and comprehension

Functions of the occipital lobe

Controls visual processing

The 3 important enzymes in gluconeogenesis: Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase

Converts fructose 1,6 bisphosphate to fructose 6-phosphate, bypassing phosphofructokinase-1. this is the rate-limiting step of gluconeogenesis. It is activated by ATP directly and glucagon indirectly (via decrease level of fructose 2,6-bisphosphate). It is inhibited by AMP directly and insulin indireactly (via increased levels of fructose 2,5bisphosphate)

important Glycolytic enzymes: Hexokinase

Converts glucose to glucose 6-[hosphate in periopheral tissues

Lenses: Convex lenses

Convex lenses are converging systems and can produce real, inverted images or virtual, upright images

Conventional morality

Corresponds to normal adult moral reasoning

Cosine

Cosø= adjacent/hypotenuse= b/c

Terpenoids

Derived from terpense via oxygenation or backbone rearrangement. They have similar odorous characteristics

Thermal expansion

Describe how a substance changes in length or volume as a function of the change in temperature.

Coulomb's law (magnitude of electrostatic force= Fe)

Coulomb's law gives the magnitude of the electrostatic force vector between two charges; the force vector always points along the line connecting the centers of the two charges: Fe= Kq1q2/r^2 - Force is inversely proportional to r^2: F=1/r^2 - k= Coulomb's constatnt also called the elctrostatic constant= 1/4πEo= 8.99x10^9 N.m^2/C^2, Eo is the permititvity of free space= 8.85 x10^-12 C^2/N. m^2 - R= DISTANCE BETWEEN CHARGES

Transgenic mice

Created by integrating a gene of interest into the germ line or embryonic stem cells of a developing mouse; organisms that contain cells from two different lineages (such as mice formed by integration of transgenic embryonic stem cells into a normal mouse blastocyst) are called chimeras.

Culture

Culture describe beliefs, ideas, behaviors, actions and characteristics of a group or society of people

Culture

Culture encompasses the lifestyle of a group of people and includes both material and symbolic elements: - material culture includes the physical items one associates with a given groups, such as artwork, emblems, clothing, jewelry, foods, buildings and tools - symbolic culture includes the ideas associated with a cultural group

Culture lag

Culture lag refers to the idea that material culture changes more quickly than symbolic culture

Conductivity

Current flows only in conductive materials: - metallic conduction relies on uniform movement of free electrons in metallic bonds; - Electrolytic conduction relies on the ion concentration of a solution - insulators are materials that do not conduct a current

Current

Current is the movement of charge that occurs between two points that have different electrical potention; By convention, current is defined as the movement of positive charge from the high-potential end of a voltage source to the low-potential end but in reality, it is negatively-charged prticle (electrons) that move in a circuit, from low potential to high potential.

Mutarotation

Cyclic compounds can undergo mutarotation, in which they shift from one anomeric form to another with the straight-chain form as an intermediate

Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK)

Cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases (CDK) rise and fall during the cell cycle, they are the molecules reponsible for the cell cycle. Cyclins bind to CDKs, phosphorylating and activating transcription factors for the next stage of the cell cycle

enantiomers of glyceraldehyde

D-Glyceraldehyde and L- Gyceraldehyde

Some common names of sugars

D-fructose, D-glucose, D-galactose and D-mannose

Hybridization: Agarose gel electrophoresis

DNA molecules can be separated by size

Formation of recombinant plasmid vector

DNA vectors contain at least one sequence, If not many, recognized by restriction enzymes. a vector also requires an origin of replication and at least one gene for antibiotic resistance to allow for selection of colonies with recombinant plasmids. Once replicated the bacterial cells can be used to create a protein of interest or can be lysed to allow for isolation of the fragment of interest from the vector

Idea Gas: Dalton's law of partial pressures

Dalton's law of partial pressure states that individual gas components of a mixture of gases will exert individual pressure in proportion to their mole fractions. the total pressure of a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of the partial pressure of the component gases: Pt = Pa + Pn + Pc + ... - Pa = Xa . P, where Xa= moles of gas A / total moles of gas

Damping of waves

Damping is a decrease in amplitude caused by an applied or nonconservative force

Atomic Radius trend (different from all other trend)

Decrease from left to right and increases from top to bottom. Increased atomic radius lower electron affinity

Operant conditioning: Punishment

Decreases the likelihood of a behavior

Androgyny

Defined as the state of being simultaneously very masculine and very feminine, while those who achieve low scores on both scales are referred to as undifferentiated.

Deindividuation

Deindividuation is a loss of self-awareness in large groups, which can lead to drastic changes in behavior. This is thought to be due to the presence of a large group that provide anonmymity and cause of loss of individual identity. Deindividuation can also lead to antinormative behavior.

demographics

Demographics refers to the statistics of populations and are the mathematical applications of sociology. One can analyze hundreds of demographic variables; some of the most common are age, gender, race and ethnicity, sexual orientation and immigration status

Electrophoresis: SDS-PAGE

Denatures the proteins and masks the native charge so that comparison of size is more accurate but the functional protein cannot be recaptures from the gel, smaller and more charged molecules go faster, give uniform charges to its separated based on size

Neuron anatomy: Dendrites

Dendrites are appendages that receive signals from other cells so it carries signals toward the soma

Concentration

Denote the amount of solute dissolved in a solvent; Concentrations are commonly expressed as percent composition by mass, mole fraction, molarity, molality and normality.

Heterochromatin

Dense, transcriptionally silent DNA that appears dark under light microscopy

Ideal Gas law: Density

Density is the ratio of the mass per unit volume of a substance; densities of gases expressed as g/L: PV=nRT, where n = m(mass)/ M(molar mass-mol/g), therefore PV=m/M (RT) and density= m/v=PM/RT

Polarity of molecules

Dependent on the dipole moment of each bond and the sum of the dipole moment in a molecular structure; all polar molecules contain polar bond; non polar molecules may contain non polar bonds or polar bonds with dipole moment that cancel each other

Biological basis of nervous system disorder: Depression

Depression is accompanied by high levels of glucocorticoids and low levels of norepinephrine, serotonin and dopamine

Sigma and pi bonds

Describe the patterns of overlap observed when molecular bonds are formed; sigma bonds are the result of head-to-head overlap; π bonds are the result of the overlap of two parallel electron cloud densities

state Functions

Describe the physical properties of an equilibrium state; they are pathway independent and include pressure, density, temperature, volume, enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs free energy and entropy - Mnemonic: when i'm under pressure and feeling dense, all i want to do is watch TV and get HUGS - H=enthalpy; U=internal energy; S=entropy

Personality

Describe the set of thoughts, feelings, traits and behaviors that are characteristic of an individual across time and different location.

Vygotsky

Described Development of language, culture and skills. He proposed the idea of the zone of proximal development- those skills that a child has not yet mastered and require a more knowledgeable other to accomplish

Rutherford principle

Described dense, positively charged nucleus

The bystander effect

Describes the observation that when in a group, individuals are less likely to respond to a person in need

Interference: Destructive interference

Destructive interference occurs when waves are exactly out of phase with each other. The amplitude of the resultant wave is equal to the difference in amplitude between the two interfering waves

Motion is detected by?

Detected by magnocellular cells, with low spatial resolution and high temporal resolution

Shape is detected by?

Detected by paravocellular cells, with high spatial resolution( permit us to see very fine detail when thoroughly examining an object) and low temporal resolutions (can only work with staitonary or slow-moving objects)

Cell specialization: Determinations

Determination is the commitment to a specific cell lineage, which may be accomplished by uneven segregation of cellular material during mitosis or by morphogens, which promote development down a specific cell line. to respond to a specific morphogen, a cell must have competency

R group

Determine the chemistry and function of that amino acid

Oncogenes

Developed from mutations of proto-oncogenes, and promote cell cycling. They may lead to cancer, which is defined by unchecked cell proliferation with the ability to spread by local invasion or metastasize (migrate to distant sites via the bloodstream or lymphatic system)

Cognitive development

Development of one's ability to think and solve problems across the lifespan. During childhood, cognitive development is limited by the pace of brain maturation; early cognitive development is characterized by mastering the physical environment; culture, genes and environment all influence cognitive development.

Development of the Nervous System

Develops through neurulation in which the notochord stimulates overlying ectoderm to fold over creating a neural tube topped with neural crest cells.

Socialization: Deviance

Deviance refers to any violation of norms, rules, or expectations within a society

Dielectric materials

Dielectric material are insulators placed between the plates of a capacitor that increase capacitance by a factor equal to the material's dielectric constant, k. Because a dielectric material can never decrease the capacitance; thus k can never be less than 1: C'= kC - C' is the new capacitance with the dielectric preset and C is the original capacitance

Conformational Isomers

Differ by rotation around a single bond

Cell specialization: Differentiation

Differentiation refers to the changes a cell undergoes due to selective transcription to take on characteristics appropriates to its cell line

Diffraction

Diffraction is the bending and spreading out of light waves as they pass through a narrow slit. Diffraction may produce a large central light fringe surrounded by alternating light and dark fringes with the addition of lens

The simplest ketose (a ketotriose )

Dihydroxyacetone

Discrimination

Discrimination is when prejudicial attitudes cause individuals of a particular group to be treated differently from others: - individual discrimination refers to one person discriminating against a particular person or group - institutional discrimination refers to the discrimination against a particular person or group by an entire institution

Cooperative Enzymes

Display a sigmoidal curve because of the change in activity with substrate binding. Low-affinity Tense state and High affinity Resting-state and binding of substrate encourage transition from T- R state. The cooperative binding of hemoglobin acts as a transport protein rather than an enzyme results in a characteristic sigmoid binding curve.

Display rules

Display rules are unspoken rules that govern the expression of emotion

Distrubutions

Distributions can be classified by measures of central tendency and measures of distribution

Iris

Divides the front of eye into the anterior and posterior chambers. It contains two muscles, the dilator and constrictor pupillae, which open and close the pupil.

Lipids: Sphingolipids

Do not contain glycerol, nit contain a hydrophilic region and two fatty acid-derived hydrophobic tails: ceramide, sphingomyeline, cerebrosides and ganglisoides

Isolated systems

Do not exchange matter or energy with the surrounding

Double bounds

Double bonds contain one sigma bond and one pi bond. pi bonds are created by sharing of electrons between two unhydridized p-orbitals that align side-by-side

extrinsic vs. intrinsic motivation

Extrinsic motivation is based on external circumstances; intrinsic motivation is based on internal drive or perception; intrinsic motivation can be reduced by introducing external reward into a scenario

primary Factors that influence motivation: Drive reduction theory

Drives are defined as internal states of tension that activate particular behaviors focused on goals: Primary drives are related to bodily processes; secondary drives stem from learning and include accomplishments and emotions. Drive reduction theory states that motivation aries from the desire to eliminate drives, which create uncomfortable internal states

Heat of transformation

During a phase change, heat energy causes changes in the particles potential energy and energy distribution (entropy) but not kinetic energy, therefore there is no change in temperature. - m= mass - L= heat of tranformation or latent heat, heat of fusion

During birth

During birth, the cervix thins out and amniotic sac ruptures. then uterine contractions, coordinated by prostaglandins and oxytocin, result in birth of the fetus. Finally, the placenta and umbilical cord are expelled.

Gastrulation

During gastrulation, the archenteron is formed with a blastopore at the end. As the archenteron grows through the blastocoel, it contracts the opposite side, establishing three primary germ layers

Helicase and Topoisomerase

During initiation of transcription, several enzymes including helicase and topoisomerase are involved in unwinding the double-stranded DNA and preventing formation of supercoils

Heating curve

During phase changes, we must use values based on enthalpy (H), need a different formula to calculate q during phase changes when ∆T=0: q=mL where m= mass and L= latent heat, a general term for the enthalpy of an isothermal process has the units of cal/g.

Planck relation (wavelength )

E= (hxc)/ Wavelength - h= Planck's constant 6.626x10^-34 J x s - c= speed of light - when the question asks for the energy of one mole of photons multiply by avogadro's number Na= 6.02 x 10^23 mol-1

Angular momentum of an electron (Bohr model)

E= - (Rh/n^2)

The power dissipated by a resistor carrying is current current

E= I^2. R. ∆t

energy of photon of light

E= hf, where E is the energy of the photon of light, h is the Plank's constant (6.25x10^-34J •s) and f is he frequency of the light - the energy of a photon increases with increasing frequency

Electric field on a capacitor

E=V/d

Planck relation (frequency)

E=hf

Activation of Amino acid for protein synthesis

Each type of amino acid is activated by different aminoacyl-tRNA syntheses that requires two high-energy bonds from AT, implying that the attachment of the amino acid is an energy rich bond.

Eclipsed conformations

Eclipsed confromations Have groups directly in front of each other (120˚), in totally eclipsed conformations the two largest groups are directly in front of each other and strain is maximized (0˚).

Electric potential (V)

Electric potential is the electric potential energy per unit charge; different points in the space of an electric field surrounding source charge will have different electric potential values, it is the ratio of the work done to move a test charge from inifinity to a point an electric field surronding a source charge divided by the magnitude of the test charge: V =U/q - 1V=1J/C - when there is no test charge: V = kQ/r - electric potential (V)= The amount of work done (W)/ q

Electrochemical cell: Electrodes

Electrodes are strips of metal or other conductive materials placed in an electrolyte solution

Electromagnetic waves

Electromagnetic waves are transverse waves that consist of an oscillating electric field and an oscillating magnetic field; the two field are perpendicular to each other and to the direction of propagation of the wave

Signs on electromotive force and change in free energy

Electromotive force and change in free energy always have opposite signs: - When E˚_cell is positive, ∆G˚ is negative. This is the case in galvanic cell - When E˚_cell is negative, ∆G˚ is positive. This is the case in electrolytic cells - When E˚_cell is o, ∆G˚ is 0. This is the case in concentration cells

Electronic vs. Molecular geometry

Electronic geometry refers to the position of all electrons in a molecule whether bonding or non bonding; Molecular geometry refers to the position of only the bonding paris of electrons in a molecule.

Electrostatic potential energy (U)

Electrostatic potential energy is the amount of work required to bring the test charge from infinitely far away to a given position in the vicinity of a source charge; Electrostatic potential energy will increase when two like charges move toward each other or when two opposite charges move further apart; electric potential energy of a system will decrease when two opposite charges move toward each other or when two like charges move further apart U = kQq/ r - Q= magnitude of positive charge x e - q= magnitude of negative charge x e

Emotion

Emotion is a state of mind, or feeling, that is subjectively experienced based on circumstances, mood and relationships

Factors that influence motivation: self-determination theory

Emphasis the role of 3 universal needs: autonomy, competence and relatedness

Humanistic perspective

Emphasizes the internal feelings of healthy individuals as they strive toward happiness and self-realization. Maslow's hierarchy of needs and Roger's therapeutic approach of unconditional positive regard flow from the humanistic view of personality

Enamines

Enamines are tautomers of imines. Like enols, enamine are the less common tatutomer - Imine is thermodynamic favored over enamines

Encoding

Encoding refers to the process of putting new information into memory, it can be automatic or effortful

what does Endocrine signaling require?

Endocrine signaling involves the secretion of hormones directly into the blood stream. The hormones travel to distant target tissues, where they bind to receptors and induce a change in gene expression or cell function

Membrane transport: Endocytosis and exocytosis

Endocytosis and exocytosis are methods of engulfing material into cells or release material to the exterior of cells, both via the cell membrane; pinocytosis is the ingestion of liquid in the cells in vesicles formed form the cell membrane phagocytosis is the ingestion of larger, solid molecules

Telomeres

Ends of chromosomes. They contain high GC-content to prevent unraveling of the DNA. During replication, telomeres are slightly shortened, although this can be (partially) reversed by the enzyme telomerase.

Potential energy

Energy that is associated with a given object's position in space or other intrinsic qualities of the system: U = mgh - h= height is relative to whatever the problem states is the ground level - g= acceleration due to gravity= 9.8m/s^2

Positive controls

Ensure that a change in the dependent variable occurs when expected

Negative controls

Ensure that no change in the dependent variable occurs when none is expected

Enthalpy: bond dissociation energies vs. heat of combustions

Enthalpy can also be calculated using heat of formation, bon dissociation energies or heat of combustions: 1. Bond dissociation energy is the average energy that is required to break a particular type of bond between atom in the gas phase, it is an endothermic process while bond formation is generally exothermic and has the units of KJ/mol of bonds broken: ∆H˚rxn= ∑∆H bonds broken - ∑∆H bonds formed = total energy absorbed- total energy released; 2. Standard heat of combustion ∆H˚com, is the the enthalpy change associated with the combustion of fuel, the larger the alkane reactant the more numerous the combustion products.

Enthalpy (H)

Enthalpy is a state function and is a measure of the potential energy of a system found in intermolecular attractions and chemical bonds - ∆H rxn = H products - H reactant, where a positive ∆H rxn = endothermic process, negative ∆H rxn= exothermic process - standard enthalpy of a reaction: ∆H˚ rxn = ∑∆H˚f.product - ∑∆H˚f.reactants

Entropy

Entropy is a measure of the degree to which energy has been spread throughout a system or between a system and its surroundings, second law of thermodynamic states that energy spontaneously disperses from being localized to becoming spread out if it is not hindered from doing so--- ∆Suniverse= ∆Ssystem + ∆Ssurrounding > 0 : ∆S = Qrev / T, the unit of S= J/mol.K ∆S˚rxn = ∑∆S˚f.products - ∑∆S˚f.reactants

Where is the site of catalysis?

Enzyme's active site

How does enzymes act?

Enzymes act by stabilizing the transition state, providing a favorable microenvironment, or bonding with the substrate molecules.

Epithelial cells

Epithelial tissues cover the body and line its cavities, protecting against pathogen invasion and desiccation. some epithelial cells absorb or secrete substances; epithelial cells ar etightly joined to each other and to an underlying layer of connective tissue kown as basement membrane

Special cases in Electrostatics: Equipotential lines

Equipotential lines designate the set of points around a source charge or multiple source charges that have the same electric potential - equipotential lines are always perpendicular to electric field lines - work will be done when a charge is moved from one equipotential line to another; the work is independent of the pathway taken between the lines - No work is done when a charge moves from a point on an equipotential line to another point on the same equipotential line

Error sources

Error may be in the form of bias, confounding or random error. Bias is systematic and a result of flaws in the data collection phase of an experimental or observational study and confounding is an error during analysis;

Carbolic acid derivatives: Ester

Esters are the condensation products of carboxylic acids with alcohols (Fischer esterification)

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism refers to the practice of making judgements about other cultures based on the values and beliefs one's own culture: - an in-group is a social group with which a person experiences a sense of belonging - an out-group refers to a social group with which an individual does not identify

Common name of Ethanol

Ethyl Alcohol

Alternative Splicing

Eukaryotic cells can increase the variability of gene products through alternative splicing (combining different exons in a modular fashion to acquire different gene products)

Irreversible vs. Reversible

Every natural process is ultimately irreversible; under highly controlled conditions, certain equilibrium processes such as phase changes can be treated as essentially reversible.

start codon

Every protein begins with methionine, the codon for methionine (AUG) is considered the start codon for translation of the mRNA into protein

Open systems

Exchange both energy and matter with their surrounding

Closed systems

Exchange energy but not matter with their surroundings

Glutamate

Excitatory Neurotransmitter in the brain

Postconventional

Expected in a smaller subset of adults with more advanced moral reasoning skills than the average population

Language: social interactionist theory

Explains language acquisition as being caused by a motivation to communicate and interact with others

Opponent-process theory

Explains motivation for drug use: as drug use increases, the body counteracts its effects, leading to tolerance and uncomfortable withdrawal symptoms

Bernoulli's equation

Expression of conservation of energy for a flowing fluid. This equation states that the sum of the static pressure and the dynamic pressure will be constant between any two points in a closed system - P1 +1/2 Pv^2= P2 + 1/2 pv^2 + pgh

Conversion between temperature

F = (9/5 )C + 32 K = C + 273

Magnetic foece on a current-carrying wire

F_B = ILB sinø

Magnetic force on a moving point charge:

F_B = qvB sinø - q= charge - v= magnitude of its velocity B= magnitude of the magnetic field - Sin0˚ and sin 180˚=0, therefore any charge moving parallel or antiparallel to the direction of the magnetic field will experience no force from the magnetic field

Mechanical advantage

Factor by which a simple machine multiplies the input force to accomplish work , the input force necessary to accomplish the work is reduced: Mechanical advantage= Fout/Fin

Faraday's law

Faraday's law states that the liberation of gas and deposition of elements on electrodes is directly proportional to the number of electrons being transferred during the oxidation-reduction reaction; 1 Faraday (F) = amount of charged contained in one mole of electrons (1F=96,485C)

Centripetal Force

Fc = mv^2/r

Fertilization

Fertilization is the joining of a sperm and an ovum: - it usually occurs in the ampulla of th fallopian tube - the sperm uses acrosomal enzymes to penetrate the corona radiata and zona pellucida - once it contacts the oocyte's plasma membrane, the sperm establishes the acrosomal apparatus and injects it pronucleus - when the first sperm penetrates, it causes a release of calcium ions, which prevents additional sperm from fertilizing the egg and increases the metabolic rate of resulting diploid zygote. this is called the cortical reaction

Fetal hemoglobin (Hbf)

Fetal hemoglobin (Hbf) has a higher affinity for oxygen than adult hemoglobin (primarily HbA), which also assists in the transfer (and retention) of oxygen into the fetal circulatory systems

Gravitational Force

Fg = Gm1m2 / r^2 G= 6.67 x 10^-11 (Nxm^2/ kg^2)

Components of gravity on an inclined plane

Fg,II= mgsin ø Fg,pen. = mgcos ø

Weight of a volume of fluid

Fg= pVg

Fission

Fission occurs when a larger nucleus splits into smaller nuclei. energy is released in both fusion and fission because the nuclei formed in both process are more stable than the starting nuclei

Nucleotide excision repair

Fixes helix-deforming lesions of DNA (such as thymine dimers) via a cut-and-paste process that requires an exicsion endonuclease.

Prokaryotes: flagella of bacteria

Flagella generate propulsion to move the bacterium toward food or away from immune cells; moving in response to chemical stimuli is called chemotaxis; bacterial flagella contain a filament composed of flagellin that anchors and rotates the flagellum and a hook that connects the two; Prokaryotes carry out the electron transport chain using the cell membrane; prokarotic ribosomes are smaller than eukaryotic ribosomes.

Adhesive Forces

Fluid experience adhesive forces with other materials

Cohesive forces

Fluid experience cohesive forces with other molecules of the same fluid and cohesive forces give rise to surface tension.

Logarithms

Follow many of the same rule as exponents because they are inverse functions: Log_a 1=0; log_a A = 1

Functions of EEG and Regional Cerebral blood flow (rCBF)

For EEG broad patterns of electrical activity can be detected and recorded and rCBF detects patterns of neural activity based on increased blood flow to different parts of the brain. Both are non invasive

How does electron gain energy?

For an electron to gain energy it must absorb energy from photons to jump up to a higher energy level (ex: n=2 to n=6).

Membrane transport: passive transport- Facilitated diffusion

For molecules that are impermeable to the membrane (large, polar or charged), facilitated diffusion requires integral membrane proteins to serve as transporter or channels for these substrates; usually semipermeable membrane refers to a membrane governed by the same permeability rules as biological membranes

Foraging

Foraging is searching for and exploiting food resources

what is the units of Force

Force = ma, N= kg (m/S^2)

Ionic bonds

Form between atoms that have significantly different electronegativity. The atom that loses the electrons becomes a cation and the atom that gain electrons becomes an anion. Ionic bonds are generally formed between a metal and a non-metal; non metals gain electrons and metal lose electrons; ionic compounds form crystalline lattice- large, organized arrays of ions

Neutralization reactions

Form salts and (sometimes) water; in gerneal, neuralization reactions go to completion. The reverse reaction, in which the salt ions react with water to give back the acid or is known as hydrolysis. HA (aq) + BOH (aq) ------- BA (s) + H2O(l)

Polar covalent bonds

Form when there is a significant difference in electronegativities (∆EN>0.5-1.7), but not enough to transfer electrons and form an ionic bond. In a polar bond, the more electronegative element takes on a partial negative charge and the less electronegative element takes on a partial positive charge

Common name of methanal

Formaldehyde

Formation of a complex ion in solution

Formation of a complex ion in solution greatly increases solubility: - The formation or stability constant (Kf) is the equilibrium constant for complex formation. Its value is usually much greater than Ksp - the formation of a complex increases the solubility of other salts containing the same ions because it uses up the products of those dissolution reactions, shifting the equilibrium to the right (opposite of the common ion effect) - the common ion effect decreases the solubility of a compound in solution that already contains one of the ions in the compound. the presence of that ion in solution shifts the dissolution reaction to the left, decreasing its dissociation

Nucleotides

Formed when one to three phosphate groups are attached to to C-5' of a nucleoside: Nucleotides in DNA contain deoxyribose- contain -H on C2 and in RNA contains ribose- ribose has an -OH group at C-2; Nucleotides are abbreviated by letter: Adenine (A), Cytosine(C), Guanine(G), Thymine(T) and Uracil (U).

Ventral root ganglia

contains cell bodies of the motor neurons only

Fraternal (dizygotic) vs. Identical (monozygotic) twins

Fraternal (dizygotic) twins result from the fertilization of two eggs by two different sperm. Identical (monozygotic) twins result from the splitting of a zygote in two. Monozygotic twins ca be classified by the placental structures they share (mono- vs. diamniotic, mono- vs. dichrionic)

Saponification

Free fatty acids are unesterified fatty acids that travel in the bloodstream, salts of free fatty acids are soaps and can be synthesized in saponification; saponification is the ester hydrolysis of triacylglycerols using a strong base like sodium or potassium hydroxide; soaps act as surfactant forming micelle.

Libido

Freud made the assertion that Libido (sex drive) is present at birth

Other monosaccharides: Fructose

Fructose comes from honey, fruit, and sucrose (common table sugar). it is trapped in the cell by fructokinase, and then cleaved by aldolase B to from glyceraldehyde and DHAP; because DHAp and glyceraldehyde, the products of fructose metabolism, are downstream from the key regulatory and rate-limiting enzyme of glycolysis (PFK-1), a high fructose drink supplies a quiick source of energy in both aerobic and anaerobic cells.

Sociology- Theories and institutions: Functionalism

Functionalism focuses on the function of each components of society and how those components fit together.Manifest functions are deliberate actions that serve to help a given system. Latent functions are unexpected, unintended or unrecognized positive consequences of manifest functions

Glycogen

Functions a main energy storage for animals: alpha-1,5 glycosidic bonds, highly branched so allow enzymes(glycogen phosphorylase) to work on multiple site within the molecule simultaneously

Fundamental attribution error

Fundamental attribution error is the bias toward making dispositional attributions rather than situational attributions in regard to the actions of others

Fusion

Fusion occurs when small nuclei combine into larger nuclei

Hypothalamus: Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)

GHRAH promotes the release of growth hormone

Glucose Transport: GLUT 2

GLUT 2 is found in the liver (for glucose storage) and pancreatic beta-islet cells (as part of the glucose sensory); it has high Km

Glucose transport: GLUT 4

GLUT 4 is found in adipose tissue and muscle and is stimulated by insulin; it has low Km - muscle storaes excess glucose as glycogen, and adipose tissue requires glucose to form DHAP, which is converted to glycerol phosphate to store incoming fatty acids as triacyglycerols

Other monosaccharides: Galactose

Galactose comes from lactose in milk. it is trapped in the cell by galactokinase and converted to glucose 1-phosphate via galactose-1-phosphate uridyltransferase (UDP) and an epimerase; in the well-fed state, galactose can enter glycolysis or contribute to glycogen storage

Game theory

Game theory attempts to explain decision making between individuals as if they are participating in a game

The Gas Phase

Gasess are the least dense phase of matter, gasess are fluids and therefore conform to the shapes of their containers and gases are easily compressible; gas systems are described by the variables temperature (T), Pressure (P), Volume (V) and number of moles (n)

Cornea

Gathers and filters incoming light

Ideal Gase: Gay-Lussac's law

Gay=Lussac's law is complimentary to Charle's law. It utilizes the same derivation from the ideal gas law, but it relates pressure to temperature instead: P/T=k or P1/T2=P2/T2

Haploid (n) cell

Germ cells are haploid, containing only one copy of each chromosome

Gibbs Free energy: Effect of ∆S, ∆H and T on spontaneity

Gibbs free energy depends on temperature when ∆H and ∆S have the same sign

Molecular formula

Gives the exact number of atoms of each element in the compound and is a multiple of the empirical formula; to calculate molecular formaula you need to know the mole ratio (this will give you the empirical formula) and the molar mass (molar mass divided by emprical formula weight will give the multiplier for the empirical formula-to-molecular formula conversion).

globalization

Globalization has led to further inequalities in space, food and water, energy, housing and education as the production of foods shift to cheaper and cheaper labor markets. this has led to significant economic hardship in industrializing nations

important Glycolytic enzymes: Glucokinase

Glucokinase, which converts glucose to glucose-6-phosphate. It is present in the pancreatic beta-islet cells as part of the glucose sensor and is responsive to insulin in the liver

Enzymes that catalyze irreversible reactions

Glucokinase/hexokinase, PFK-1 and pyruvate kinase

Cyclic sugar formation via intramolecular nucleophilic addition

Glucose forms a six-membered ring with two anomeric forms: -OH of the 5th carbon attack the carboyl carbon; the anomeric carbon is the new chiral center formed in ring closure it was the carbon containing the carbonyl in the stright chain form

The simplest Aldose

Glyceraldehyde

Lipids: Glycerophospholipids

Glycerophospholipids or phospholipids Replace one fatty acid with a phosphate group, which is often linked to other hydrophilic group, phospholipids spontaneously assemble into micelles (small monolayer vesicle) or liposomes (bilayer vesicles) due to hydrophobic interactions

Glycogenesis ( Glycogen synthesis)

Glycogen is the storage form of glucose; Glycogenesis is the production of glycogen using Glycogen synthase and Branching enzyme

Hypothalamus: Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

GnRH promotes the release of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (lH)

Dorsal root ganglia

contains cell bodies of the sensory neurons only;

Gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH)

Gonadotropin- releasing hormone (GnRH) released from the hypothalamus causes the releases of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), the functions of which depends on the sex of the individual: - in male FSH stimulates the sertoli cells and triggers spermatogenesis, while LH causes the interstitial cells to produce testosterone. Testosterone is responsible for the maintenance and development of the male reproductive system and male secondary sex characteristic (facial and axillary hair, deepening of the voice and changes in growth pattern) - in female, FSH stimulates the development of the ovarian follicles, while LH causes ovulation - estrogens are secreted in response to FSH, and they result in the development and maintenance of the female reproductive system and female secondary sexual characteristics, in adults estrogen lead to thickening of the linking of the uterus (endometrium) each month is preparation for the implantation of a zygote - Progesterones is secreted by the corpus luteum- the remnant follicle that remains after ovulation- in response to LH; - estrogen establishes and progesterone protects the endometrium

Group decision-making: Group polarization

Group polarization is the tendency toward making decisions in a group that are more extreme then the thoughts of the individual group members: 1. illusion of invulnerability 2. collecive rationalization 3. illusion of morality 4. excessive stereotyping 5. pressure for conformity 6. self-censorship 7. illusion of unanimity 8. mindguards

Elements of social interaction: Groups

Groups are made up of two or more individuals with similar characteristics that share a sense of unity: - a peer group is a self-selected group formed around similar interests, ages, and statuses - a family group is the group into which an individual is born, adopted or married - An in-group is one with which an individual identifies - an out-group is one that an individual compete with or opposes - A reference groups is agrup to which an individual compares him- or herself - A primary groups are those that contain strong, emotional bonds. - Secondary groups ar eoften temporary and contain fewer emotional bonds and weaker bonds overall - Gemeinschaft (community) is a group unified by feeling of togetherness due to shared beliefs, ancestry or geography - Gesellschaft(society) is a group unified by mutual self-interested in achieving a goal (ex: compnay or country) - groupthink occurs when member begin to conform to one another's views an ignore outside perspectives

Group decision-making: Groupthink

Groupthink is the tendency for groups to make decisions based on ideas and solutions that arise within the group without considering outside ideas. Ethics may be disturbed as pressure is created to conform and remain loyal to the group

Functions of heterotrimeric G-proteins

Gs stimulates, Gi inhibits and Gq activated phospholipase c.

Consciousness-altering drugs: Marijuana

Had depressant, stimulant and hallucinogenic effects. Its active ingredient is tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), THC exerts its effects by acting at cannabinoid receptors, glycine repceptors and opioid receptors, THC inhibits GABA activity and indirectly icnrease dopamine acitivity

Meso compounds

Has chiral center but the internal plane of symmetry will also be optically inactive because the two sides of the molecule cancel each other out

CAMs: Integrins

Has two membrane spanning chains and permit cells to adhere to proteins in the extraceullar matrix. some also have signaling capabilities

What group does ketones contain and how is it named?

Have a carbonyl group on a nonterminal carbon. Named with suffix -one and share the prefix oxo- if a higher priority group is present and can also be indicated by the prefix keto-. Acetone is the smallest ketone with IUPAC name propanone.

Zero-order reactions

Have a constant rate that does not depend on the concentration of reactant; the rate of a zero-order reaction can only be affected by changing the temperature or adding a catalyst; a concentration vs. time curve of a zero-order reaction is a straight line; the slope of such a line= -k - rate= k[A]^0[B]^0=k k=M/s

G protein-coupled receptors

Have a membrane-bound protein associated with a trimeric G-protein, they also initiate second messenger systems: Ligand binding engages the g protein- Gdp is replaced with GRP and the alpha subunit dissociates from the beta and gma subunits- the activated alpha subunits alters the acitivity of adenylate cyclase or phospholipase c- Gtp is dephophorylated to GDP and the alpha subunit rebinds to the beta and gamma subunits.

Staggered conformations

Have groups 60˚ apart as seen in Newman projections. In anti staggered molecules the two largest groups are 180˚ apart and strain is minimized. In Gauche staggered molecule the two largest groups are 60˚ apart.

Bipolar and related disorders

Have manic or hypomanic episodes: - Bipolar 1 disorder contains at least one manic episode -Bipolar 2 disorder contains at least one hypomanic episode and at least one major depressive episode - Cyclothymic disorder contains hypomanic episodes with dysthymia

Eukaryotic cells

Have membrane-bound organelles found in the cytoplasm, a nucleus, and may form multicellular organisms; The cell membrane and membranes of organelles contain phospholipids, which organize to form hydrophilic interior and exterior surfaces with a hydrophobic core

Bimodal distributions

Have multiple peaks, although not necessarily multiple modes (if one peak is higher than the other), strictly speaking. it may be useful to perform data analysis on the two groups separately

paramagnetic materials

Have unpaired electrons that align with magnetic fileds, attracting the material to a magnet.

Jung

He assumed collective unconsicous that links all hmans together and are considered to be a residue of the expereince of our early ancestors . He viewed the personality as being influenced by archetype

The second sickness

Health is dependent on geographic, social and economic factors, second sickness refers to an exacerbation of health outcomes caused by social injustice - poverty is associated with worse health outcomes - certain racial and ethnic minorites have worse helth profies than others with african american with the worst and asians with the best health profies - females have better health profies tha nmales

What is heat?

Heat is the process of energy transfer between two objects at different temperatures and will continue until the two objects come into thermal equilibrium at the same temperature.

Transcription factors

Help the RNA polymerase locate and bind to the promoter region of the DNA, helping to establish where transcription will start; unlike DNA polymerase III in DNA replication, RNA polymerase does not require a primer to strat generating transcirpt.

Membrane transport: concentration gradiesn

Help to determine appropriate membrane transport mechanisms in cells, tells us whether this process will be passive or active

Idea Gas: Henry's Law

Henry's law states that the amount of gas dissolved in solution is directly proportional to the partial pressure of that gas at the surface of the solution, the solubility of a gas will increase with increasing partial pressure of the gas [A]= Kh x Pa or [A]1/P1 = [A]2/P2= Kh - Kh is Henry's constant

Enthalpy: Hess's law

Hess's law states that the total change in potential energy of a system is equal to the changes of potential energies of the individuals steps of the process, which means that enthalpy changes of reactions are additive; state functions are always path independent; switch signs when reverse equation and make sure to calcualt the correct stoichiometricocefficients - Hess's law applies to any state function, including entropy and Gibbs free energy

what are the three subdivisions of the Brain

Hindbrain, Midbrain and Forebrain

hnRNA (Heterogeneous nuclear RNA)

HnRNA is synthesized from the DNA template (antisense) strand, mRNA is derived from hnRNA via posttranscriptional modifications

Enzyme containing cofactors

Holoenzymes

Fisher projection

Horizontal lines are wedges (out of the page); vertical lines are dashes (into the page)

Electrolytic cells

House non-spontaneous reactions (∆G>0) with a negative electromotive force. These non-spontaneous cells can be used to create useful products through electrolysis.

Galvanic (voltaic) cells

House spontaneous reactions (∆G<0) with a positive electromotive force (emf); Galvanic cells are commonly used in batteries

equivalents

How many moles of the thing we are interested in (protons, hydroxide ions, electrons or ions) will one mole of a given compound produce? - equivalnets = mass of compound(g)/ Gram equivalent weight (g)

Cell cycle and replication

Humans have 46 chromosomes and 23 pairs of chromosomes; we inherit 23 from each parent. Eukaryotic cells replicate through the cell cycle, a specific series of phases during which a cell grows, synthesizes DNA, and divides.

Hybridization

Hybridization is a away of making all of the bonds to a central atom equivalent to reach other. The Sp^3 orbitals are the reason for the tetrahedral shape that is hallmark of carbon-containing compounds

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions:Cyanohydrins

Hydrogen cyanide reacts with carbonyls to form cyanohydrins

Non-polar Amino Acids (say the name and be able to draw the structure)

Hydrophobic amino acids are mostly like to be found in a transmembrane portion.

Hydroxyquinones

Hydroxyquinones are produced by oxidation of quinone ( through 2 oxidation steps: Phenols must be converted to quinones through an oxidation step; the second oxidation is required to further oxidize quinones to hydroxyquinones), adding a variable number of hydroxyl groups - a hydroquinone is a benezene ring with two hydroxyl groups. A hydroxylquinone contains two carbonyls and a variable number of hydroxyl groups

Hypothesis tests

Hypothesis tests use a known distribution to determine whether a hypothesis of no difference (the null hypothesis) can be rejected - type I error= incorrectlly rejecting the null hypothesis - type II error= when we incorrectlly fail to reject the null hypothesis

Intensity of sound equation

I = P/A

Titration: Indicators

IIndicators are weak acids or bases that display different colors in their protonated and deprotonated forms; the indicator chosen for a tirtration should have a pKa close to the pH of the expected equivalence point, the endpoint of a titration is when the indicator reaches it s finals' ndicators change color as they shift between their conjugate acid and base form H-indicator (color 1) - H+indicator (color 2), because this is an equilibrium process, we can apply Le Chatelier's :adding H+ shifts the equilibrium to the left, Adding OH- removes H+ and therefore shift the equilibrium to the right

Echolalia

Ia an involuntary repetition of others's words and utterances and may be seen in schizophrenia

Temperature and pH can affect the activity of enzyme (what's the ideal?)

Idea temperature of most enzymes are 37˚C=98.6˚F=310K and the ideal pH for most enzymes are 7.4 but for gastric enzyme=2 and for pancreatic enzyme=8.5. (salinity or osmolarity can change activity of enzyme in vitro)

Hierarchy of Salience

Identities are organized into hierarchy of salience such that we let the situation dictate which identity holds the mot importance for us at any given moment.

Codon

If a gene sequence is a "sentence" describing a protein, then its basic unit is a three letter "word" known as codon, which is translated into an amino acid; each codon consists of 3 bases thus there are 64 codons, all codons are written in the 5'-3' direction and the code is unambiguous, in that each codon is specific for one and only one amino acid; Each codon represents only one amino acids;; however, most amino acids are represented by multiple codons

Heisenberg uncertainty principle

If a particle is moving, it has momentum, but trying to measure that momentum necessarily creates uncertainty in the position, we can't measure position and momentum simultaneously and exactly. Error in one variable is increased by attempts to measure the other.

Second law of thermodynamics

States that in a closed system (up to and including the entire universe), energy will spontaneously and irreversibly go from being localized to being spread out (dispersed).

Estimating Logarithms

If a value is written in proper scientific notion, it will be in the form nx10^m, where n is a number between 1 and 10: log (nx10^m) = log (n) + log (10^m); because n is a number between 1 and 10, its log will be a decimal between 0 and 1 (log 1= 0, log 10 = 1): log (n x 10 ^ m) ≈ m + 0.n: 0.n represents sliding the decimal point one position to the left (dividing n by 10)

Nucleophilic acyl substitution: Formation of Ester

If the nucleophile is an alcohol, an ester is formed. Esters are given the suffice -oate. Cyclic ester called lactones

Archetype

Images of common experience that has an emotional element, they are underlying forms or concepts that give rise to archetypal images which may differ somewhat between cultures.

Vitamine k (PHYLLOQUINONE AND MENAQUINONE)

Important for formation of prothrombin, a clotting factor. Performs posttranslational modifications on number of proteins, creating calcium- binding sites

Impression management

Impression management refers to the maintenance of a public image, which is accomplished through various strategies: - self discloser is sharing factual information - Managing appearances refers to using props, appearance, emotional expression, or associations to create a positive image - Ingratiation is using flattery or conformity to win over someone else - Aligning actions is the use of excuse to account for questionable behavior - Alter-casting is imposing an identity onto another person

RNA polymerase I

In Eukaryotes, fund in nucleolous and is in charge of transcribing most of the rRNA for use during ribosomal creation

Condensation

In a Condensation reaction, two molecules are combined to form one, with the loss of a small molecule0water, in our case. Carboxylic acid derivative are formed by this mechanism

Polyvalence and normality: Normality

In acid-base chemistry, normality is the concentration of acid or base equivalents in solution

Plasmids

In addition to the single circular chromosomes in prokaryotes, extrachromosomal material can be carried in plasmids. Plasmids may contain antibiotic resistance genes or virulence factors. Plasmids that can integrate into the genome are called episomes

Diploid (2n) cells

In animals, autosomal cells are diploid, which means that they contain two copies of each chromosome

central nervous system: grey and white matter

In central nervous system, white matter consists of myelinated axons and grey matter consists of un-myelinated cell bodies and dendrites. In the brain, white matter is deeper than grey matter; in the spinal cord, grey matter is deeper than white matter

Classical conditioning

In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus that produces an instinctive, unconditioned response is paired with a neutral stimulus. with repetition, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus that produces a conditioned response. Pavlov's experiment

Venturi effect

In closed system, there is a direct relationship between cross-sectional area and pressure exerted on the walls of the tube

DNA in human

In humans, DNA is divided up among the 46 chromosomes found in the nucleus of the cell.

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions: Hydration reactions

In hydration reactions, water adds to a carbonyl, forming a geminal diol

Meiosis 1

In meiosis 1, homologous pairs of chromosomes (homologues) are separated from each other. Homologues are chromosomes that are given the same number, but are of opposite parental origin (the human genome is composed of 23 homologous pairs of chromosome each of which contains one chromosome inherited from each parent. 1. in prophase I, the same vents occur as in prophase of mitosis, except that homologues come together and intertwine in a process called synapsis. The four chromatids are referred to as tetrad and crossing over exchange genetic material from one chromatid with material from a chromatied in the homologues chromosome. This accounts for Mendel's second law (of independent assortment) 2. in metaphase 1, homologous chromosomes line up on opposite sides of the metaphase plate 3. in anaphase 1, homologous chromosomes are segregated to opposite poles of the cell. This accounts for Mendel's first law (of segregation) 4. in telophase 1, the chromosomes may or may not fully decondense and the cell may enter interkinesis after cytokinesis

Epithelial cells: parenchyma

In most organs, epithelial cells form the parenchyma or the functional parts of the organ; epithelial cells may be polarized, with one side facing a lumen or the outside world and the other side facing blood vessels and structural cells

Reactivity principle of Carboxylic acid derivatives:

In nucleophilic substitution reactions, Anhydrides are the most reactive, followed by esters and carboxylic acids, and then amides

Plane-polarized light

In plane-polarized light, all of the light rays have electric fields with parallel orientation, plane-polarized light is created by passing unpolarized light through a polarizer. The electric fields of unpolarize lighr waves exist in all three dimensions: the direction of the wave's propagation is surrounded by electric fields in every plane perpendicular to htat direction. polarizing light limits the electric fields's oscillation to only two dimentions

Neurosis

In response to anxiety caused by fixation, the child forms personality pattern based on that particular stage, which persists into adulthood as a functional mental disorder known as neurosis

Conjugate acid and base

In the Bronsted-Lowry definition acids have conjugate bases that are formed when the acid is deprotonated; bases have conjugate acids that are formed when the base is protonated - strong acids and bases have very weak (inert) conjugates - weak acids and bases have weak conjugates -K_ a, acid x K_b, conjugate base= Kw= 10^-14 K_b, base x K _ a, conjugate acid = Kw=10^-14

Enolate chemistry: Michael addition

In the Michael addition, an enolate attacks an alpha, beat-unsaturated carbonyl, creating a bond

What are the three major traits which could be used to describe all individuals?

PEN: Psychoticism (non-conformity), Extraversion (tolerance for social interaction and stimulation), Neuroticism (arousal in stressful situations)

Aldol condensation

In the aldol condensation, the aldehyde or ketone acts as both nucleophile and electrophile, resulting in the formation of a carbon-carbon bond in a new molecule called an aldol: - an aldol contains both aldehyde and alcohol functional groups - the nucleophile is the enolate formed from the deprotonation of the alpha-carbon - first, a condensation reaction occurs in which the two molecules come together

Incidence

Incidence is calculated as the number of new cases of a disease per population at risk in a given period of time: for example, new cases per 100 at-risk people per year

Consciousness-altering drugs: Depressants

Include alcohol, barbiturate and benzodiazepine. They promote or mimic GABA activity int the brain - GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain; its receptor is a chloride channel that causes hyperpolarization of the membrane - long term use of alcohol can cause Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome: which is caused by a deficiency of thiamine (vitamin B1_ and characterized by severe memory impairment with change in mental status and loss of motor skills - Barbitutes include amobarbital and phenobarbital; Benzodiazepine include alprazolam, lorazepam, diazepam and clonazepam.

States of Consciousness

Include alertness, sleep, dreaming and altered states of consciousness

Dissociative disorders

Include dissociative amnesia, dissociative identity disorder, and depersonalization/derealization disorder: - dissociative amnesia is an inability to recall past experience without an underlying neurological disorder. In sever forms, it may involve dissociative fugue, a sudden change in location that may involve the assumption of a new identity - Dissociative identity disorder is the occurrence of two or more personalities that take control of a person's behavior - Depersonalization/derealization disorder involves feeling of detachment from the mind and body or from the environment

Consciousness-altering drugs: Opiate and opioids

Include heroin, morphine, opium and prescription pain medications such as oxycodone and hydrocodone. They can cause death by respiratory depression; these compounds bind to opioid receptor in the peripheral and central nercoussystem causing a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria.

Consciousness-altering drugs: Hallucinogens

Include lysergic acid diethylamide(LSD), peyote, mescaline, ketamine and psilocybin-containing mushrooms

Depressive disorders

Include major depressive disorder and seasonal affective disorder: - major depressive disorder contain at least one major depressive episode - persistent depressive disorder is dysthymia for at least two years that does not meet criteria for major depressive disorder - seasonal affective disorder is the colloquial name for major depressive disorder with seasonal onset, with depression occurring during winter months

Biological factors that affect cognition

Include organic brain disorder, genetic and chromosomal conditions, metabolic derangement and drug use; a mild level of cognitive decline while aging is normal; significant changes in cognition may signify an underlying disorder- dementia; fluid intelligence- problem-solving skills peaked in early adulthood and crystalized intelligence- use of learned skills and knowledge peaked in middle adulthood.

Type Theories of Personality

Include the ancient Greek notion of humors, Sheldon's somatotypes, division into Types A and B, and the Myer-Briggs Type Inventory

Linear Motion

Includes free fall and motion in which the velocity and acceleration vectors are parallel or antiparallel

Excitatory vs. Inhibitory signals

Incoming signals can be either excitatory or inhibitory: - excitatory signals cause depolarization of the neuron leading to potential action potential - inhibitory signal cause hyper-polarization of the neuron - temporal summation refers to the addition of multiple signals near each other in time - spatial summation refers to the addition of multiple signals near each other in space

Reactivity principle of Carboxylic acid derivatives: beta-lactams and ring strain

Increased strain in a molecule can make it more reactive. Beta-lactams are prone to hydrolysis because they have significant ring strain. - Ring strain is dues to torsional strain from eclipsing interactions and angle strain from compressing bond angles below 109.5˚

Nerves vs. tracts

Individual axons are bundled into nerves or tracts: - multiple neurons may be bundled together to form a nerve in the peripheral nervous system; these nerves may be sensory, motor or mixed (carry different types of information); the cell bodies of neurons of the same type are clustered together into ganglia in PNS - In the central nervous system, axons may be bundled together to form tracts; unlike nerves, tracts only carry one type of information; the cell bodies of neurons in the same tract are grouped into nuclei.

Identities

Individual component of our self-concept related to the groups to which we belong. Religious affiliation, sexual orientation, and ethic and national affiliations are example of identities

Reactivity principle of Carboxylic acid derivatives: Induction

Induction refers to uneven distribution of charge across a sigma bond because of difference in electronegativity. The more electronegative groups in a carbonyl containing compounds, the greater its reactivity

Grasping reflex

Infant grabs anything put into his or her hand.

Rooting Reflex

Infant turns his or her head toward anything that brushes the cheek

Mixed inhibition

Inhibitor bind with unequal affinity to the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex. Vmax is decreased, Km is increased or decreased depending on if the inhibitor has higher affinity for the enzyme or enzyme-substrate complex.

Uncompetitive inhibition

Inhibitor binds only with the enzyme-substrate complex. Km and Vmax both decrease.

Factors that influence motivation: Instincts and instinct theory

Instincts are innate, fixed-pattern of behavior in response to stimuli, it may be consistent throughout life, or it may appear or disappear with time. In the instinct theory of motivation, people perform certain behaviors because of these evolutionarily programmed instincts; primitive reflexes are examples of instinct seen in infants that extinguish with age

Internal validity vs. external validity

Internal validity refers to the identification of causality in a study between the independent and dependent variables. External validity refers to the ability of a study to be generalized to the population that it described

Internalization and identification

Internalization and identification both deal with accepting other's ideas, but whereas internalization also reflects a change in internal thoughts to agree with the idea, identification is acceptance of the idea on the surface level without internalizing it

Interpersonal attraction

Interpersonal attraction is what makes people like each other is influenced by multiple factors: 1. physical attractiveness, which is increased with symmetry and proportions close to the golden ratio; 2. similarity of attitudes, intelligence, education, height, age , religion, appearance and socioeconomic status 3. self disclosure, which includes sharing fears, thoughts, and goals with another person and being met with empathy and nonjudgement 4. reciprocity, in which we like people who we think like us 5. Proximity, or being physically close to someone

Topoisomerase enzyme

Involved in DNA replication and transcription, DNA gyrase is a type of topoisomerase are invovled in DNA replication and mRNA synthesis(transcription), aids helicase

The limbic system: Amygdala

Involved with attention and fear, helps interpret facial expressions and is part of the intrinsic memory system for emotional memory

Meditation

Involves a quieting of the mind and is often used for relief of anxiety. it has also played a role in many of the world' religions.

Unique chemical and physical properties of Ionic compounds

Ionic compounds tend to dissociate in water and other polar solvents; Ionic solids tend to have high melting points

Eukaryotic organelles: The endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

Is a series of interconnected membranes and is continuous with the nuclear envelope. The rough ER (RER) is studded with ribosomes, which permit translation of proteins destined for secretion. The smooth ER (SER) is used for lipid synthesis and detoxification

Post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)

Is characterized by intrusion symptoms (reliving the event, flashbacks, nightmares), avoidance symptoms (avoidance of people, places, objects associated with trauma), negative cognitive symptoms (amnesia, negative mood and emotions), and arousal symptoms (increased startle response, irritability, anxiety)

Covalent bonds

Is formed via the sharing of electrons between two elements of similar electronegativities

States of Consciousness : Sleep and EEG

Is important for health of the brain and body; sleep is studied by recoding brain wave activity with eletroencephalography (EEG) which is predominated by Beta waves- high frequency and occur when person is alert and alpha waves-occur when we are awake but relaxing with our eyes closed;

Work

Is not energy but a measure of energy transfer W (J)= F x d = Fd cos ø - F= magnitude of the applied force - d= magnitude of the displacement through which the force is applied - ø= angle between the applied force vector and displacement vector

Range

Is the difference between the largest and smallest values in a data set

Interquartile range

Is the difference between the value of the third quartile and first quartile; An outlier is any value lower than 1.5xInterquartile range below Q1 or any value higher than 1.5xInterquartile range above Q3 - n=number of data points - steps in calculating quartiles: 1. calculate position of Q1(multiple n by 1/4) ; 2. if this is a whole number, the quartile is the mean of the value at this position and the next highest position; 3. if this is a decimal, round up to the next whole number and take that as the quartile position; 4. The position of the value for (multiple n by 3/4)

Perception

Is the processing of sensory information to make sense of its significance

Isoelectric focusing

Isoelectric focusing is a technique used to separate amino acids or polypeptides based on their isoelectric points (pI); the positively charged amino acids will migrate towards the cathode; negatively charged amino acids will migrate towards the anode

Common name for 2-Propanol

Isopropyl Alcohol

First Law of thermodynamics

It accounts for the conservation of mechanical energy, which points that energy is never created nor destroyed- it is merely transferred from one for to another

Acetylcholine

It can act as excitatory or inhibitory neurotransmitter in muscle cells depending on the type of receptor found on the cell, It largely functions as an excitatory neurotransmitter in CNS. Used by somatic nervous system (to move muscles) , the parasympathetic NS and the CNS (for alertness)

Where does retina contains cones?

It contains cones mostly in the macula, which corresponds to the central visual field. The center of the macula is the fovea, which contains only cones

Kohlberg's stages of moral development

It describe the approaches of individuals to resolving moral dilemmas. Kohlberg believed that we progress through six stages divided into three main phases: preconventional, conventional and postconventional

what does saturation of FA tails determine?

It determines the fluidity of the membrane; saturated fatty acids(all single bonds) are less fluid than unsaturated ones (contain double bonds). fatty acids form most of the structural thickness of the phospholipid bilayer.

Disaccharides Formation

It forms as a result of glycosidic bonding between two monosaccharide subunits; polysaccharides from by repeated monosacchride or polysaccharide glycosidic bonding: the -OH group on the anomeric carbon reacts with the -OH of another sugar to form an acetal (or ketal) with a 1,2; 1,4; or 1,6 glycosidic linkage

Archimede's Principle

It governs the buoyant force. When an object is placed in a fluid, the fluid generate a buoyant force against the object that is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

Third Law of Thermodynamics

States that the entropy of a perfectly-organized crystal at absolute zero is zero.

Social Cognitive Perspective

It holds that individuals interact with their environment in a cycle called reciprocal determinism. People mold their environments according to their personalities, and those environment in turn shape our thoughts, feeling and behaviors.

Parts of the Forebrain: Cerebral Cortex

It is sometime called the neocortex, it has numerous bumps and folds called gyri and sulci respectively, divided to two halve called cerebral hemispheres and the surface of the cortex is divided into four lobes- frontal, parietal, temporal and occipital lobes.

The study of cognition

It looks at how our brains process and react to the incredible information overload presented to us by the world and thought is more than that of which we are conscious. The brain processes and makes decisions about the importance of various stimuli below the level of conscious awareness

products of posterior pituitary (2 hormones)

It releases two hormones produced in the hypothalamus: 1. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) is secreted in response to low blood volume or increased blood osmolarity and increases reabsorption of water in the collecting duct of the nephron, increasing blood volume and decreasing blood osmolarity; 2. Oxytocin is secreted during childbirth and promotes uterine contractions. It also promotes milk ejection and may be involved in bonding behavior. it is unusual in that it has a positive feedback loop, not negative. - the posterior pituitary does not synthesize any homones itself

The auditory pathway

It starts from the cochlea and travels through the vestibulocochlear nerve and medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus to get to the auditory cortex in the temporal lobe. Sounds information also projects to the superior olive, which localizes the sound, and the inferior colliculus, which is involved in the startle reflex

DNA Sequencing

It uses dideoxyribonucleotides, which terminate the DNA chain because they lack a 3'-OH group. The resulting fragments can be separated by gel electrophoresis, and the sequence can be read directly from the gel

Ligases

Joining two large biomoleculeus, often of the same type.

Jones oxidation

Jones oxidation requires acidic conditions, provided by diluted sulfuric acid and the oxidation in carried out in aqueous solution

Myers-Briggs Type Inventory (MBTI)

Jung laid groundwork for this, a class of personality

Catalytic efficiency

Kcat/Km, larger the value the more efficient the enzyme.

Single-stranded DNA-binding proteins

Keeps unwound strands from reannealing or being degraded

Ketones

Ketones are internal functional groups containing a carbonyl bonded to two alkyl chains. In nomenclature, they use the suffix -one and the prefix oxo- or keto-

Reactivity of ketones

Ketones are less reactive toward nucleophiles because of steric hinderance and alpha-carbanion destabilization: - the presence of an additional alkyl group crowds the transition step and increases its energy - the alkyl group also donates electron density to the carbanion, making it less stable

Current Law: Kirchhoff's laws

Kirchhoff's laws express conservation of charge and energy

Maximum kinetic energy of an electron in the photoelectric effect

Kmax = hf- W, where W is the work function of the metal in question

What is the stereochemistry of the alpha-carbon of all chiral amino acids in eukaryotes?

L, D-amino acids can exist in prokaryotes. All chiral amino acids except cysteine have S configuration and all amino acids are chiral except glycine.

Language

Language consists of phonology, morphology, semantics, syntax and pragmatics

Language

Language consists of spoken or written symbol combined into a system and governed by rules

DNA libraries

Large collection of known DNA sequences

Piaget's stages of cognitive development: Concrete operational stage

Lasts from 7 to 11 years of age. Focuses on understanding the feelings of others and manipulating physical (concrete) objects

Piaget's stages of cognitive development: Preoperational stage

Lasts from about 2 to 7 years of age, and is characterized by symbolic thinking-ability to pretend, egocentrism-ability to imagine what another person may think and centration- focus only on one aspect of a phenomenon or inability to understand conservation

Leaving groups

Leaving groups are the molecular fragments that retain the electrons after heterolysis - the best leaving groups can stabilize additional charge through resonance or induction - weak bases (the conjugate bases of strong acids) make good leaving group (like I-, Br- and Cl-) - alkanes and hydrogen ions are almost never leaving groups because they form reactive anions

Two cerebral hemispheres

Left and Right, In most individuals the left hemispheres is the dominant hemisphere for language (even in left-handed individuals). Communicates contralaterally.

Lenses

Lenses refract light to form images of objects (while mirror reflect light): - thin symmetrical lenses have focal points on each side; - lenses with non-negligible thickness require use of lensmaker's equation" i/ƒ = (n-1) (1/r- 1/r')

Euchromatin

Less dense, transcriptionally active DNA(expressed) that appears light under light microscopy

Lewis acids and bases

Lewis acid are electron-pari acceptors and lewis base are electron-pair donors

Lewis acids

Lewis acids are electron acceptors; they have vacant orbitals or positively polarized atoms

Lewis base

Lewis base are electron donors; they have a one pair of electrons and are often anions

Neuroglia or Glial cells: Epidermal cells

Line the ventricles of the brain and produce cerebrospinal fluid, which physically supports the brain and serves as a shock absorbance

when are lipids soluble or insoluble?

Lipids are soluble in nonpolar organic solvents and insoluble in water. Lipid properties are determined by the degree of saturation in fatty acid chains and the functional groups to which the fatty acid chains are bonded

Lipids: Triacylglycerols and free fatty acids

Lipids are the primary membrane component, both by mass and mole fraction; triacylglycerols and free fatty acids act as phospholipid precursors and are found in low levels in the membrane; fatty acids are carboxylic acids that contain a hydrocarbon chain and terminal carboxyl group; triacylglycerol are storage lipids involve in human metabolic processes- they contain 3 fatty acid chin esterified to a glycerol molecules; fatty acids can be unsaturated fatty acids (contain double bonds) or saturated fatty acids; two important essential fatty acids for humans are alpha-linolenic acid and linoleic acid

Flippase

Lipids can also move between the membrane layers, but this is energetically unfavorable because the polar head group of the phospholipid must be forced through the non-polar tail region in the interior of the membrane; specialize enzymes called flippase assist in the transition or "flip" between the layers.

Components of membrane

Lipids, proteins, carbohydrates, extracellular ligands, cell-cell junctions

Centromeres

Located in the middle of chromosomes and hold sister chromatids together until they are separated during anaphase in mitosis. They also contain a high GC-content to maintain a strong bond between chromatids

Longitudinal waves

Longitudinal waves have oscillations of wave particles parallel to the direction of wave propagation (example: sound waves)

Intensity of sound

Loudness or volume of sound (sound level) is related to tis intensity: - intensity is related to a wave's amplitude - intensity decreases over distance and some energy is lost to attenuation (damping) from frictional force

What do enzymes change and not change?

Lowers the activation energy but it does not alter the free energy (∆G) or enthalpy (∆H) change that accompanies the reaction nor the final equilibrium position; rather they change the rate (kinetics) at which equilibrium is reached.

phenols vs. Hexanol

M-methtylphenol is a phenol and not a hexanol because the the cyclic group has double bounds rather than single bonds. the methyl group is separated from the hydroxy carbon by by one carbon in between, making it m-methylphenol

Concentration: Molarity (M)

M= moles of solute / litters of solution

DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid)

Macromolecule that stores genetic information in all living organism; DNA is a polydexoyribonucleotide that is composed of many monodexoyribonucleotide linked together

Magnetic fields

Magnetic fields are created by magnets and moving charges; the SI unit for the magnetic field is the tesla (T; 1T= 10,000 gauss)

Magnets

Magnets have a north and a south pole; field lines point from the north to the south pole.

Polysaccharide role: Cellulose

Main structural component for plant cell walls and is a main source of fiber in the human diet: polymer of 1,4- linked beta- D- Glucose

Epinephrine and norepinephrine

Maintain wakefulness and alertnss, and mediate fight-or-flight responses. Epinephrine tends to act as a hormone, and norepinephrine tends to act more classically as a neurotransmitter

Parts of the Forebrain: Hypothalamus

Maintains homeostasis and integrates with the endocrine system through the hypophyseal portal system that connects it to the anterior pituitary. Functions of Hypothalamus: the 4F- Feeding, Fighting, Flighting, (sexual) Functioning. When the lateral hypothalamus (LH) is destroyed one Lacks Hunger; when the Ventro Media Hypothalamus (VMH) is destroyed, one is Very Much Hungry; when the Anterior hypothalamus is destroyed one is Asexual.

Dopamine

Maintains smooth movements and steady posture (found in basal ganglia) ; dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia (too much dof dopamine) and parkinson is associated with loss of dopaminergic neurons in basal ganglia.

Diamagnetic

Materials that have all paired electrons, which cannot easily be realigned; they are repelled by magnets (Group 2a, noble gas and group containing zn).

Outliers

Maybe a result of true population variability, measurement error, or a non-normal distribution, procedure for handling outliters should be formulated before the beginning of a study

The arithmetic mean or average

Measure of central tendency that equally weighs all values; t is most affected by outliers

Entropy (J/molxK)

Measure of how much energy has spread out or how spread out energy has become - Q= heat gained or lost in resersible process

Viscosity (Pa x s = N x s / m^2)

Measurement of a fluid's internal friction. Viscous drag is a nonconservative force generated by viscosity. Low-viscosity fluids have low internal resistence to flow and behave like ideal fluids. Assume conservation of energy in low-viscosity fluids with laminar flow

A simple mercury barometer

Measures incident (usually atmospheric) pressure. As pressure increases, more mercury is forced into the column, increasing it height. as pressure decreases, mercury flows out of the column under it own weight, decreasing its heigh

Medical ethics

Medical ethics generally refers to the four principles of beneficence, nonmalefience, respect for patient autonomy, and justice

Meiosis 1 vs. Mitosis

Meiosis 1 is different from mitosis. the chromosome number is halved (reductional division) in meiosis 1, and the daughter cells have the haploid number of chromosomes (23 in humans) . Meiosis 2 is similar to mitosis in that sister chromatids are separated from one another; therefore, no change in ploidy is oberseved

Melting point depression

Melting point depresses upon solute addition because solute particles interfere with lattice formation

Menopause

Menopause occurs when the ovaries stop producing estrogen and progesterone, usually between ages 45 and 55. menstruation stops and FSH and LH levels rise. Physical and physiological changes accompanying menopause include flushing, hot flashes, bloating, headaches and irritability

What pathway mediate drugs addiction?

Mesolimbic pathwy mediates drug addiction, which includes the nucleus accumbens, medial forebrain bundle and ventral tegmental area; Dopamine is the main neurotransmitter in this pathway

Vitamine D (Cholecalciferol)

Metabolized to calcitriol in the kidneys and regulates calcium and phosphorus homeostasis in the intestines (increasing calcium and phosphate absorption). Promoting bone formation. A deficiency of Vita. D causes rickets

Vitamin A (Carotene)

Metabolized to retinal for vision and retinoic acid for gene expression in epithelial developemtn

what doe some enzymes require to be active?

Metal cation Cofactors or small organic coenzymes

Experimental approach: randomization

Method used to control for differences between subject groups in biomedical research, it uses an algorithm to determine the placement of each subject into either a control group or a shame treatment, or one or more treatment group

Km

Michaelis constant, can be understood to be the substrate concentration at which half of the enzyme's active sites are full (1/2 Vmax). Low Km= high affinity of enzyme to substrate; High Km= low affinity

The cytoskeleton: Microfilaments

Microfilaments are composed of actin. They provide structural protection for the cell and can cause muscle contraction through interactions with myosin. They also help form the cleavage furrow during cytokinesis in mitosis.

The cytoskeleton: Microtubules

Microtubules are composed of tubulin. They create pathways for motor proteins like kinesin and dynein to carry vesicles. They also contribute to the structure of cilia and flagella, where they are organized into nine pairs of microtubules in a ring with two microtubules at the center (9+2 structure). Centrioles are found in centrosomes and are involved in microtubule organization in the mitotic spindle

Somatic cells

Mitosis produces two genetically identical diploid daughter cells from a single cell and occurs in somatic cells or cells that are not involved in sexual reproduction

Saponification

Mixing long-chain carboxylic acids (fatty acids) with a strong base results in the formation of a salt we call soap. This process is called saponification: - Soaps contain hydrophilic carboxylate heads and hydrophobic alkyl chain tails - Soaps organize in hydrophilic environments to form micelles. A micelle dissolves nonpolar organic molecules in its interior and can be solvated with water due to its exterior shell of hydrophilic groups

Histone acetylation and DNA methylation

Modification of chromatin structure affects the ability of transcriptional enzymes to access the DNA through histone acetylation (increases accessibility) or DNA methylation (decreases accessibility)

Serotonin

Modulates mood, sleep patterns, eating patterns and dreaming

What are the three main reactions can monosaccharides undergo?

Monosaccharides are single carbohydrate units, with glucose as the most commonly observed monomer, they can undergo 3 main reactions: oxidation-reduction, esterification and glycoside formation

Morbidity

Morbidity is the burden or degree of illness associated with a given disease

Secondary Traits

More personal characteristics and are limited in occurrence,

Transferases

Move a functional group from one molecule to another molecule . Kinases catalyze the transfer of a phosphate group, generally from ATP to another molecule.

Glycogenolysis: Debranching enzyme

Moves a block of oligoglucose from one branch and connects it to the chain using an alpha-1,5 glycosidic link. It also removes the branch point, which is connected via an alpha-1,6 glycosidic links, releasing a free glucose molecule - debranching enzyme is made up of two enzymes with different functions: alpha-1,4 transferase and alpha-1,6 glucosidase

Polyvalent acid and base titrations

Multiple buffering regions and equivalences points are observed in polyvalent acid and base titrations

common examples of Motor proteins

Myosin- interacts with actin; Kinesins and dynein are the motor proteins associated with microtubulues: kinesins move along microtubulues in a steppin gmotion such that one or both heads remain attached at all times.

Gauge Pressure

Name for the difference between absolute pressure and atmospheric pressure. In liquid, gauge pressure is caused by the weight of the liquid above the point of measurement, depends only on the density

Endorphine and enkephalins

Natural painkillers

Net ionic equations

Net ionic equations ignore spectator ion to focus only one the species that actually participate in the reaction. To obtain a net ionic reaction, subtract the ions appearing on both side of the reaction, which are called spectator ions (look for compounds such as polyatomic anions that retain their charge before and after reactions; these are usually spectator ions and will not be found in the net ionic equation): - for reactions that contain no aqueous salts, the net ionic equation is generally the same as the overall balanced reaction - for double displacement (metathesis) reactions that do not form a solid salt, there is no net ionic reaction because all ions remain in solution and do not change oxidation number

Neuroglia or Glial cells:

Neuroglia or glial cells are other cells within the nervous system in addition to neurons

Neurons and neuron communication

Neurons are highly specialized cells responsible for the conduction of impulses; neurons communicate using both electrical and chemical forms of communication: - electrical communication occurs via ion exchange and the generation of membrane potentials down the length of the axon - chemical communication occurs via neurotransmitters to the postsynaptic cells

Breakdown of a neurotransmitter

Neurotransmitters must be cleared from the postsynaptic receptors to stop the propagation of the signal: - the neurotransmitters can be enzymatically broken down - the neurotransmitter can be absorbed back into the presynaptic cell by reuptake channels or transporter - the neurotransmitter can diffuse out the synaptic cleft

Neurulation

Neurulation or development of the nervous system, begins after the formation of the three germ layers: - the notochord induces a group of overlying ectodermal cells to form neural folds surrounding a neural groove - the neural folds fuse to form the neural tube, which becomes the central nervous system - the tip of each neural fold contains neural crest cells, which becomes the peripheral nervous system (sensory ganglia, autonomic ganglia, adrenal medulla and Schwann cells) as well as specific cell types in other tissues (calcitonin-producing cells of the thyroid melanocyte in the skin and other)

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions: Imines and enamines

Nitrogen and nitrogen derivatives react with carbonyls to form imines, oximes, hydrazones, and semicarbazones. Imine can tautomerize to form enamine

Physical properties

No change in composition of matter; examples including melting and boiling point, solubility , odor, color and density

Nomenclature of all sugars

Nomenclature of all sugars is based on the D- and L- forms of glyceraldehyde; sugars with the highest numbered chiral carbon with the -OH group on the right (in a fischer projection) are D-sugars; those with -OH group on the left are L-sugars. D and L forms of the same sugar are enantiomers.

Diastereomers

Non-mirror-image steroisomers. They differ at some but not all chiral centers. Have different chemical and physical properties.

Socialization: Norms

Norms are what determine the boundaries of acceptable behavior within society

Neuroglia or Glial cells: Astrocytes

Nourish neurons and form the blood-brain barrier, which controls the transmission of solutes from the blood stream into nervous tissue

Nuclear binding energy

Nuclear binding energy os the amount of energy that is released when nucleons (protons and neutrons) bind together - the more binding energy per nucleons released, the more stable the nucleus - the 4 fundamental forces of nature are the strong and weak nuclear force, which contribute to the stability of the nucleus, electrostatic forces and gravitations

Nucleophiles

Nucleophiles are "nucleus-loving" and contain lone pairs or pi bonds.T hey have increased electron density and often carry a negative charges (look for carbon, hydrogen, oxygen or Nitrogen with a minus sign or lone pair) - nucleophilicity is similar to basicity; however, nucleophilicity is a kinetic property, while basicity is thermodynamic - charge, electronegativity, steric hindrance, and the solvent can all affect nucleophilicity - amino groups are common organic nucleophiles

Nucleophilic acyl substitution

Nucleophilic acyl substitution is a common reaction in carboxylic acids: 1. a nucleophile attacks the electrophilic carbonyl carbon, opening the carbonyl and forming a tetrahedral intermediate 2. elimination of the leaving group and reformation of the carbonyl: the carbonyl reforms, kicking off the leaving group,

The placenta barrier

Nutrient, gas and waste exchange occurs at the placenta; the placenta barrier also serves as immune protection against many pathogens and antibodies are transferred from mother to child; the placenta serves endocrine functions, secreting estrogen, progesterone and human chronic gonadotropin (hCG)

The Big Five Traits of Personality

OCEAN: Openness, Conscientiousness(hard working and organized), Extraversion, Agreeableness and Neuroticism

Socialization: obedience

Obedience is change in behavior based on a command from someone seen as an authority figure

The zeroth law of Thermodynamics

Objects are in thermal equilibrium when they are at the same temperature, they experience no net exchange of heat energy: the transitive property in thermal system: if a=b and b=c than a=c.

Obsessive-Commpulsive disorder

Obsessive-Commpulsive disorder is characterized by obsessions (persistent, intrusive thoughts and impulses) and compulsions (repetitive tasks that relive tension but cause significant impairment in a person's life_

Intermolecular forces:Dipole-dipole interactions

Occur between the oppositely charged ends of polar molecules, stronger than London forces; these interactions are evident in the solid and liquid phases but negligible in the gase phases due to the distance between particle

Combustion reactions

Occur when a fuel and an oxidant (typically oxygen) react, forming the products water and carbon dioxide (if the fuel is a hydrocarbon); involves oxidation (using O2) of a fuel( typically a hydrocarbon); carbon dixoide and water is almost always present in combustion reactions.

Decomposition reactions

Occur when one reactan is chemically broken down into two or more products, it will have more products than reacts.

Combination reactions

Occur when two or more reactants combine to form one product, it will have more reactants than products

Interference: Partially constructive and partially destructive interference

Occur when two waves are not quite perfectly in or out of phase with each other. the displacement of the resultant wave is equal to the sum of the displacement of the two interfering waves

Translational equilibrium

Occurs in the absence of any net forces acting on an object, has a constant velocity and may or may not also be in rotational equilibrium.

Single displacement reactions

Occurs when an ion of one compound is replaced with another element

Attribute substitution

Occurs when individuals must make judgments that are complex but instead substitute a simpler solution or heuristic ; attributions are highly influenced by the culture in which one resides.

Displacement reactions

Occurs when one or more atoms or ions of one compound are replaced with one or more atoms or ions of another compound

Resistance: Ohm's law

Ohm's law states that for a given resistance, the magnitude of the current through a resistor is proportional to the voltage drop across the resistor, electrical resistance results in an energy loss, which reflects a drop in electrical potential, and the voltage between any two points in a circuit can be calculated according to ohm's law: V=IR - V=voltage drop - I=current - R= magnitude of resistance in Ohms

Ohmmeters

Ohmmeters are inserted around a resistive element to measure resistance; they are self-powered and have negligible resistance

Translation

Once the mRNA transcript is created and processed it can exit the nucleus through nuclear pore. once in the cytoplasm, mRNA finds a ribosome to begin the process of translation- involves mRNA, tRNA, ribosome, amino acids and energy from GTP; tRNA translate the codon into the correct amino acids; ribosomes are the factories where translation (protein synthesis) occurs.

One calorie (little c) vs. One Calorie (big C)

One calorie (little c) is the amount of heat required to raise 1g of water one degree Celsius. one Calorie (big C) is the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of water 1 degree Celsius, equal to 1000 calories.

Glycogen vs. amylopectin

Only polysaccharide that demonstrate branching structure making them most similar in linkage, both use alpha 1,4 and alpha-1,6

Compliance: Door-in-the-face technique

Opposite of the foot in the door technique, wherein a large request is made at first and if refused, a second, smaller request is made

Freud's phases

Oral, anal, phallic, latent and genital are based on the erogenous zones that are the focus of each phase of development

Elements of social interaction: Organizations

Organizations are bodies of people with a structure and culture designed to achieve specific goals. They exist outside of each individual's membership within the organization. -ex: Burecraucy - characteristics of burecraucy: paid officials on a fixed salary, nonelected officials, requirementf of officials to hold advance degree, regular salary increase, Rigid defined work procedures

Membrane transport: osmotic pressure

Osmosis is a sepcfic kind of simple diffusion that concerns water- water will move from lower solute concentration to one of higher solute concentration (low water concentration to high water concentration); Osmotic pressure is a colligative property (a physical property of a solution that is dependent on the concetration of dissolved particles but not on the , is the pressure applied to a pure solvent to prevent osmosis and is used to express the consternation of the solution: or a "sucking" pressure in which a solution is drawing water in, proportional to its concentration - hypotonic (swell, waters in) - isotonic(equal concentration) Hypertonic solution ( shrink, waters out)

Horney

Other Psychoanalysts (unconscious is motivated by social rather than sexual urges) , Basic anxiety caused by inadequate parenting that can cause vulnerability and helplessness and while neglect and rejection cause anger known as basic hostility.

Alfred Alder

Other Psychoanalysts (unconscious is motivated by social rather than sexual urges), originator of the concept of the interiority complex: an individual's sense of incompleteness, imperfection and inferiority both physically and socially, according to him striving for superiority drives the personality. the creative self, style of life, fictional finalism ( motivated more by expectations of the future than by past experience)

Self-esteem

Our evaluation of ourselves. Generally, the closer our actual self is to our ideal self (who we want to be) and our ought self (who others want us to be) the higher our self-esteem will be (fundamentally change the person's attitudes in the short term)

Reference group

Our self-concept depends in par on our reference group or the group to which we compare ourselves. Two individuals with the same qualities might see themselves differently depending on how those qualities compare to their reference groups.

Oxidation and reduction

Oxidation is a loss of electrons, and reduction is a gain of electrons; the two are paired together in what is known as an oxidation-reduction (redox reaction) *Mnemonic: OIL RIG

Oxidation

Oxidation is an increase in oxidation state and is assisted by oxidizing agents: - oxidizing agents accept electrons and are reduced in the process. They have a high affinity for electrons or an unusually high oxidation states. They often contain a metal and a large number of oxygens - primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes by pyridinium chlorochromate (PCC) or to carboxylic acids by stronger oxidizing agents, like chromium trioxide (CrO3) or sodium or potassium dichromate - secondary alchols can be oxidized to ketons by most oxidizing agents - aldehyde can be oxidized to carboxylic acids by most oxidizing agents

Oxidation numbers

Oxidation numbers are assigned to atoms in order to keep track of the redistribution of electrons during chemical reactions. - we know that metals form cations and nonmetals form anions. Tor form a cation, a metal must lose electrons. Threfore, metals like to get oxidized (loss electrons) and act as good reducing agents. Nonmetals, on the other hand, like to get reduced (gain electrons) and act as good oxidizing agent - electrons are rewarded to the more electronegativie atoms - The conventions of formula writing ut cation first and anion second. Thus HCl implies H+, and NaH implies H-

Oxidation-reduction titrations

Oxidation-reduction titrations are similar in methodology to acid-base titrations. These titrations follow transfer of change: - indicators used in such titrations change color when certain voltages of solutions are achieved - Potentiometric titration is a form of redox titration in which a voltmeter or external cell measures the electromotive force (emf) of a solution. No indicator is used and the equivalence point is determined by a sharp change in voltage

Ideal gas law: Combined gas law

P1V1/T1 = P2V2/T2 - subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two states of the gas - the combined gas law is a combination of Boyle's, Charle's and Gay-Lussac's laws; it showes an inverse realtionship between pressure and volume along with direact relationship between pressure and volume with temperature

p53

P53 plays a role in the two major checkpoints of the cell cycle G1 to S, and G2 to M; if there has been damage to the DNA, the cell cycle goes into arrest until the DNA has been repaired and p53 is the main protein that controls this

Biological basis of nervous system disorder: Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease is associated with bradykinesia, resting tremor, pill-rolling tremor, masklike facies, cogwheel rigidity and a shuffling gait. There is decreased production of dopamine by cells in the substantia nigra

Enzyme-linked receptors

Participates in cell signaling through extracellular ligand binding and initiation of second messenger cascades

Membrane transport: Passive transport

Passive transport does not require energy because the molecule is moving down its concentration gradient or from an area of low concentration until equilibrium is achieved

State Functions

Pathway independent and are not themselves defined by a process. Pressure, density, temperature, volumes, enthalpy, internal energy, Gibbs free energy and entropy are all state functions.

Peptide hormone

Peptide hormones are composed of amino acids and derived from larger precursor proteins that are cleaved during posttranslational modification - insulin is a peptide hormone

Personality disorders (PD)

Personality disorder are patterns of inflexible, maladaptive behavior that cause distress or impaired functioning in at least two of the following: cognition, emotions, interpersonal functioning, or impulse control. They occur in three clusters: A (odd, eccentric, "weird"), B (dramatic, emotional, erratic, "wild") and C (anxious, fearful, "worried)

phase changes

Phase changes exist at characteristic temperature and phase; as with equilibria the rate of the forward and reverse processes will be the same when considering phase change:

Phase diagram

Phase diagram for a system graphs the phases and phase equiblib as a function of temperature and pressure

Phenols

Phenols are benzene rings with hydroxyl groups. They are named for the relative positions of the hydroxyl groups: ortho- (adjacent carbons), meta-(separated by one carbon), or para- (on opposite sides of the rings). Phenols are more acidic than other alcohols because the aromatic ring can delocalize the charge of the cojugate base

Phosphorylation

Phosphate ester is formed by transferring a phosphate group from ATP onto a sugar

movement of phospholipids

Phospholipids move rapidly in the plane of the membrane through simple diffusion

Phosphorylation or Glycosylation

Phosphorylation- covalent modification with phosphate or Glycosylation- covalent modification with carbohydrate can alter the activity of selectivity of enzymes

spherical mirrors: Plane mirrors

Plane mirrors also produce virtual, upright images; theses images are always the same size as the object. they may be thought of as spherical mirror with infinite radii of curvature

Point charges

Point charges may undergo uniform circular motion in a uniform magnetic field where in the centripetal force is the magnetic force acting on the point charges; the fireaction of the magnetic force on a moving charge or current-carrying wire is determined using the right-hand rule

Polyvalence and normality: Polyvalent

Polyvalent acids and bases are those that can donate or accept multiple electron. The normality of a solution containing polyvalent species is the molarity of the acid or base times the number of protons it can donate or accept ; each mole of acid and base liberates more than one acid or base equivalents

Magnetism: Ferromagnetic materials

Possess some unpaired electrons and become strongly magnetic in an external magnetic field

Magnetism: paramagnetic materials

Possess some unpaired electrons and become weakly magnetic in an external magnetic field

Electric potential: Potential difference (voltage)

Potential difference (Voltage) is the change in electric potential that accompanies the movement of a test charge from one position to another: ∆V=Vb-Va= Wab/q - Wab= the work needed to move a test charge q through an electric field from point a to point b - potential difference is path independent and depends only on the initial and final positions of the test charges - the units for both electric potential and voltage are volts

Poverty

Poverty is a socioeconomic condition. in the US., the poverty line is determined by the government's calculation of the minimum income requirements for families to acquire the minimum necessities of life

Measuring power of resistor

Power is measured as the ratio of work (energy expenditure) to time: P= W/t = ∆E/t

Valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory

Predicts the three-dimensional molecular geometry of covalently bonded molecules. In this theory, electron-where bonding or nonbonding-arrange themselves to be as far apart as possible from each other in 3 dimensional space, leading to characteristic geometries; non bonding electrons exert more repulsion than bonding electrons because they reside closer to the nucleus

Triacylglycerols (Triglycerides)

Preferred method of storing energy for long-term use; they contain 1 glycerol attached to 3 fatty acids by ester bonds; carbon atoms in lipid are more reduced than carbohydrates giving twice as much energy per gram during oxidation; triacylglycerols are very hydrophobic so they are not hydrated by body water and do not carry additional water weight

Prejudice

Prejudice is defined as an irrational positive or negative attitude toward a person, group, or thing prior to an actual experience

calculation of isobaric process

Pressure remains constant, W= P∆V

Prestige

Prestige is the respect and importance to a specific occupations or association

Biosignaling

Process in which cells receive and act on signals, biosignaling can take advantage of either exisiting gradients (ion channels) or second messenger cascades (enzyme-linked receptors and G-protein coupled receptors)

Weber's law

States that the jnd for a stimulus is proportional to the magnitude of the stimulus, and that this proportion is constant over most of the range of possible stimuli.

Thermodynamic process (4)

Processes can be characterized based on a single constant property and are associated with a change of the state of a system and it also allows to simplifie first law of thermodynamics: ∆U=Q-w: 1. isothermal processes occur at a constant temperature; 2. Adiabatic processes exchange no heat with the environment; 3. isobaric processes occur at a constant pressure; 4. isovolumetric (isochoric) processes occur at constant volume

important Glycolytic enzymes: Phosphofructokinase -2 (PFK-2)

Produces F 2,6-BP that activates PFK-1. it is activated by insulin and inhibited by glucagon

The Ciliary body

Produces aqueous humor, which drains through the canal of Schlemm

DNA replication in Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes

Prokaryote have a circular chromosome that contain only origin of replication, Eukaryotes have the linear chromosomes that contain many origins of replication

Prokaryotes

Prokaryotes do not contain membrane-bound organelles; they organize their genetic material in a single circular molecule of DNA concentrated in the nucleoid region

Binary Fission

Prokaryotes multiply though binary fission, in which the chromosome replicates while the cell grows in size, until the cell wall begins to grow inward along the midline of the cell and divides it into two identical daughter cells

Polycistronic genes

Prokaryotic cells can increase the variability of gene products from one transcript through polycistronic genes (in which starting transcription in different sites within the gene leads to different gene products)

Common name for propanal

Propionaldehyde

Chemical mechanisms

Propose a series of steps that make up the overall reaction

Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences

Proposes 7 areas of intelligence including: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, visual-spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal; variation in intellectual ability can be attributed to combinations of environemnt, education and genetics.

Meninges

Protect the brain and keep it anchored within the skull, and resorb cerebrospinal fluid (produced by ventricles).

Cell adhesion molecules (CAMs)

Proteins found on the surface of most cells and aid in binding the cell to the extracellular matrix or other cells.

Proteins in cell membrane

Proteins located within the cell membrane act as transporters cell adhesion molecules and enzymes

Measure of central tendency

Provide a single value representation for the middle of a group of data

pyruvate dehydrogenase

Pryuvate dehydrogenase refers to a complex of enzymes that convert pyruvate to acetyl-CoA, which can be used in citric acid cycle to produce CO2+ H2O or go into the fatty acid synthesis ; it is stimulated by insuline and inhibited by acetyl-CoA;

Aromatic compounds

Purines and Pyrimidines are biological aromatic heterocycles; aromatic compounds are cyclic, planar and conjugated(altering single and multiple bonds or lone pairs) and contain 4n+2π electrons (where n is any integer; Huckel's rule). Heterocycles are ring structures that contain at least two different elements in the ring; delocalization makes aromatic molecule fairly unreactivie. Carbohydrate does not have aromatic compounds (cause its all single bonds)

Comparison of Q to Keq

Q is a calculated values that related the reactant and product concentration at any given time during the reaction; comparison of Q to Keq provides information bout where the reaction is with respect to tis equilibrium state: - if Q < Keq, ∆G < 0, and the reaction proceed in the forward reaction - if Q = Keq, ∆G = 0, and the reaction is in dynamic equilibrium - If Q > Keq, G > 0, and the reaction proceeds in the reverse direction

Hills Coefficient

Quantified Cooperatively: Hills coefficient > 1= positive cooperatively; Hill coefficient <= Negative cooperatively; Hill coefficient (n) = 1, enzyme does not exhibit cooperative binding

Henderson-Hasselbalch equation

Quantifies the relationship between pH and pKa for weak acids and between pOH and pKb for weak base; when a solution is optimally buffered, pH=pKa and pOH=pKb - pH= pKa + log [A-] /[HA] - pOH= pKb + log [B+]/[BOH] - Ka = [H30+][A-] / [HA

Quantum numbers

Quantum numbers describe the size, shape, orientation and number of atomic orbitals an element possesses

Quinones

Quinones are synthesized through oxidation of phenols: - quinones are resonance-stabilized electrophiles - Vitamin K1 (phylloquinone) and vitamin K2 (the menaquinones)

Calculation of resistance

R (ohms)= pL/A - p is the resistivity (mxohms) - L is the length of the resistor (m) - A is its cross-sectional area (m^2) *Most conductors have greater resistance at higher temperatures

Synthesis of RNA

RNA is synthesized by a DNA-dependent RNA polymerase; RNA polymerase locates genes by searching for specialized DNA regions known as promoter regions. In eukaryotes, RNA polymerase II is the main player in transcribing mRNA and its binding site in the promoter region is known as the TATA box, named for its high concentration of thymine and adenine base.

RNA polymerase

RNA polymerase travels along the template strand in the 3' to 5' direction which allows for the construction of transcribed mRNA in the 5' to 3' direction; RNA polymerase does not proofread its work

Raoult's law of idea solution

Raoult' law states that ideal solution behavior is observed when solute-solute, solvent-solvent and solute-solvent interactions are all very similarMixtures that have a higher vapor pressure than predicted by Raoult's law have stronger solvent-solvent and solute-solute interactions than solvent-solute interactions . Therefore, particles do not want to stay in solution and more readily evaporate creatinga higher vapor pressure than ideal solution

Law of constant composition

States that any pure sample of a compound will contain the same elements in the same mass ratio; for example, every sample of water will contain two hydrogen atoms for every one oxygen atom

Colligative properties: Raoult's law

Raoult's law accounts for vapor pressure depression caused by solutes in solution. as solute is added to a solvent, the vapor pressure of the solvent decreases; proportionately: P _A = X_ A . P˚ _A - P_ A= vapor pressure of solvent , X_A is the mole fraction of the solvent A in solution and P˚_A is the vapor pressure of solvent A in its pure state - the presence of other solutes decreases the evaporation rate of a solvent without affecting its condensation rate, thus decreasing its vapor pressure - lowering of vapor pressure means that a higher temperature is required to match atmospheric pressure, thereby raising the boiling point

measurements of reaction rate

Reaction rates are measured in terms of the rate of disappearance of a recantant or appearance of product

Chemical properties

Reactivity of molecule, resulting in change in composition; generally attributable to functional groups in the molecule.

Rechargeable batteries

Rechargeable batteries are electrochemical cells that can experience charging (electrolytic) and discharging (galvanic) states. Rechargeable batteries are often ranked by energy density- the amount of energy a cell can produce relative to the mass of battery materisl - Lead-acid batteries - Nickel-cadmium batteries (Ni-Cd) - Nickel-metal Hydride (NiMH) batteries

Observational: Cohort studies

Record exposures throughout time and then assess the rate of a certain outcome, it is a form of longitudinal study which is an observational research method that follows the same subjects over time

Glycolysis in Erythrocytes

Red blood cells have bisphosphoglycerate mutase, which produces 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3 BPG) from 1,3-BPG in glycolysis. Mutases are enzymes that move a functional group from one place in a molecule to another

Reduction

Reduction is a decrease in oxidation state and is assisted by reducing agents: - reducing agents donate electrons and are oxidized in the process. they have low electronegativity and ionization energy. they often contain a metal and a large number of hydrides - Aldehydes, ketones and carboxylic acids can be reduced to alcohols by Lithium aluminum hydride - amides can be reduced to amines by LiAlH4 - esters can be reduced to a pari of alcohol by LiAlH4

Osmotic pressure

Refers to a "sucking" pressure generated by solutions in which water is drawn into a solution: osmotic pressure= i . M . R . T - i = van't Hoff factor - M= molarity of solution - R= gas constant

Adaptation

Refers to decreasse in response to a stimulus over time.

Displacement (x) in a wave

Refers to how far a point is from the equilibrium positions, expressed as a vector quantity

Perceptual organization

Refers to our synthesis of stimuli to make sense of the world, including integration of depth, form, motion and constancy

Bottom-up (data-driven) processing

Refers to recognition of objects by parallel processing and feature detection. It is slower but less prone to mistakes

Kinesthetic sense (proprioception)

Refers to the ability to tell where one's body is in three-dimensional space

Signal detection theory

Refers to the effects of non sensory factors, such as experience, motives and expectations, on perception of stimuli

Gestalt principles: subjective contours

Refers to the perception of nonexistent edges in figures, based on surrounding visual cues

Tautomerization

Refers to the rearrangement of bonds in a compounds, usually by moving hydrogen and forming a double bound: Ketose sugar undergo tautomerization to undergo keto-enol shifts, this resultst in aldose that can act as reducing sugar, ketone group by itself cannot be oxidized

Bond Order

Refers to whether a covalent bond is a single bond, double bond, or triple bond. As bond order increases, bond strength increases, bond energy increases and bond length decreases.

Reflection

Reflection is the rebounding of incident light waves at the boundary of medium

Reflex arcs:

Reflex arc use the ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of a stimulus while simultaneously routing it to the brain

Refraction

Refraction is the bending of light as it passes from one medium to another

Lens

Refracts incoming light to focus it on the retina and is held in place by suspensory ligaments connects to the ciliary muscle

Variable-ratio schedules

Reinforce a behavior after a varying number of performances of the behavior

Variable-interval schedules

Reinforce a behavior the first time that behavior is performed after a varying interval of time.

Fixed-interval schedules

Reinforce the first instance of behavior after a specified time period has elapsed.

when is relative and absolute configuration retained?

Relative configuration is retained because the bonds of the stereocenter are not broken thus the positions of groups around the chiral carbon are maintained. The absolute configuration is retained when both the reactant and products are R or L.

Parts of the Forebrain: Thalamus

Relay station for sensory information

The anterior pituitary

Releases hormones in response to stimulation from the hypothalamus. Four of these (FSH, LH, ACTH and TSH) are tropic hormones, while three (prolactin, endorphin and growth hormone) are direct hormones. the anterior pituitary is controlled by hypothalamus, which is located directly above it

Looking-glass self

Relies on others reflecting ourselves back to ourselves

Chromatography: Size-exclusion chromatography

Relies on porous beads, larger molecule elute first because they are not trapped in the small pores.

Stress

The physiological and cognitive response to challenges or life changes is defined as stress

Glycogenolysis: glycogen phosphorylase

Removes single glucose 1-phosphate molecules by breaking alpha-1,4 glycosidic links. in the liver, it is activated by glucagon to prevent low blood sugar; in exercising skeletal muscle, it is activated by epinephrine and AMP to provide glucose for the muscle itself

Central traits

Represent major characteristics of the personality

Repression vs. Suppression

Repression is unconscious forgetting and suppression is a conscious form of forgetting.

Problem solving

Requires identification and understanding of the problem, generation of potential solutions, testing of potential solutions, and evaluation of results

Belmont report

Research ethics were established by belmont report: 1. respect for persons includes autonomy, informed consent, and confidentiality; 2. Justice dictates which study questions are worth pursuing and which subjects to use; 3. Beneficence requires us to do the most good with the least harm. we cannot perform an intervention without equipoise- a lack of knowledge about which arm of the research study is better for the subject

Resistance

Resistance is the opposition within any material to the movement and flow of charge

resistors

Resistors are conductive materials with a moderate amount of resistance that slow down electrons without stopping them

Resistors in parallel

Resistors in parallel cause a decrease in equivalent resistance of a circuit; R_p decreases as more resistors are added: V_p = V1 = V2 =V3= ... = Vn, remember Kirchhoff's loop rule states that if every resistor is in parallel, then the voltage drop across each pathway alone must be equal to the voltage of the source The equivalent resistance- R_p: 1/R_p = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3+ .... + 1/Rn - when n identical resistors are wired in parallel, the total Resistance= R/n; voltage is also the same across parallel resistors, the current flowing though is also equal

Resistors in series

Resistors in series are additive and sum together to create the total resistance of a circuit and for resitors in series the current has no choice but to travel through each resistor , and when there is only one path for the current to take, the current will be the same at every point in the line, including though every resistor, once you know the current of the whole circuit you can use V=IR to solve for the voltage drop across each resistor; R_S (equivalent or resultant resistance) increase as more resistors are added V_s = V1 + V2 + V3+ ... +Vn R_s = R1 + R2 + R3 ... + Rn because V=IR

Resonance

Resonance describes the delocalization of electrons in molecules that have conjugated bonds - conjugation occurs when single and multiple bonds alternate, creating a system of unhybridized p-orbital down the backbone of the molecule through which pi electrons can delocalize - resonance increase the stability of a molecules - the various resonance forms all contribute to the true electron density of the molecule; the more stable the resonance form, the more it contributes. resonance forms are favored if they lack formal charge, form full octets on electronegative atoms or stabilize charges through induction and aromaticity

Resonance of waves

Resonance is the increase in amplitude that occurs when a periodic force is applied at the natural (resonant) frequency

RNA Polymerase II

Responsible for hnRNA and snRNA

Nociceptors

Responsible for pain perception; the gate theory of pain states that pain sensation is reduced when other somatosensory signals are present.

RNA polymerase III

Responsible for tRNA and 5s rRNA

Coordinate covalent bonds

Result when a single atom provides both bonding electrons while the other atom does not contribute any; coordinate covalent bonds are most often found in Lewis acid-base chemistry

Bias: Hawthorne effect

Results from changes in behavior by the subject, experiment or bother- that occur as a result of the knowledge that the subject is being observed

Frameshift mutations

Results from nucleotide addition or deletion, and change the reading frame(3 nucleotides of a codon) of subsequent codons

Nonpolar covalent bonds

Results in molecules in which both atoms have exactly the same electronegativity share electron pairs with equal distribution of the electrons; some bonds are considered nonpolar when there is a very small difference in electronegativity between the atoms (∆EN<0.5), even through they are technically slightly polar

Retro-aldol reactions

Retro-aldol reactions are the reverse of aldol condensations: - retro-aldol reactions are catalyzed by heat and base - in these reactions, the bond between alpha and beta carbon is cleaved, forming 2 aldehydydes, two ketones or one aldehyde and one ketone

Prosthetic groups

Rightly bound cofactors or coenzymes that are necessary for enzyme function.

what does the retina contains?

Rods and cones: Rods detect light and dark; cones come in 3 forms (short-, medium, and long-wavelength) to detect colors

Rounding number in division

Round both numbers in the same direction to compensate

Rounding number in multiplication

Round one number up and one number down to compensate

Specific gravity

SG= p/ 1(g/cm^3)

Dimensions of the System for multiple level observation of groups (SYMLOG)

SYMLOG is a method for analyzing group dynamics and considers groups along three dimensions: dominant vs.submissive, friendly vs.unfriendly, and instrumentally controlled vs. emotionally expressive

Isomers

Same molecular formula but different structures

Solution Equilibria

Saturated solutions are in equilibrium at the particular temperature

Gestalt principles: Law of proximity

Says that elements close to one another tend to be perceived as a unit

Gestalt principles: law of similarity

Says that objects that are similar appear to be grouped together

Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia is the prototypical disorder with psychosis as a feature; it contains positive and negative symptoms: - Positive symptoms add something to behavior, cognition, or affect; it includes delusions(delusions must be considered deviant from the society in which an individual lives) , hallucinations (perceptions not due to external stimuli but have a complelling sense of reality), disorganized speech and disorganized behavior. - Negative symptoms are the loss of something from behavior, cognition or affect, it includes disturbance of affect (bluntint and flat affect-emtional flattening) and avolition (marked by decreased engagement in pruposeful, goal-dorected actions) *The doward drift hypothesis states that schizophrenia cause a decline in socioeconomic status, leading to worsening symptoms, which sets up a negative spiral for the patient toward poverty and psychosis. This is why schizoprenia are much higher among the homeless and indigents

Biological basis of nervous system disorder: Schizophrenia

Schizophrenia may be associated with genetic factors, birth trauma, adolescent marijuana use, and family history. There are high levels of dopaminergic transmission

Scientific notation

Scientific notation takes the format [significant] x 10^[exponent] - Significant must be greater than or equal to 1 and less than 10 - the exponent must be an integer

Zymogens

Secreted in inactive form and are activated by cleavage.

Pineal Gland

Secretes a hormone called melatonin which regulates circadian rhythms, receive direct signal from the retina for coordination with sunlight

Locus of Control

Self-evaluation that refers to the way we characterize the influences in our lives. People with an internal locus of control see their successes and failures as a result of their own characteristics and actions, while those with an external locus of control perceive outside factors as having more of an influence in their lives.

Piaget's stages of cognitive development: Sensorimotor stage

Sensorimotor stage starts at birth and lasts until about 2 years of age; it focuses on manipulating the environment to meet physical needs though circular reactions, which contains primary circular reactions- repetition of body movement that occurred by chance and secondary circular reaction- occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body ; development of Object permanence ends in the sensorimotor stage, which is the understanding that objects continue to exits even when out of view; Object permanence marks the beginning of representational though, in which the child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events

What are the three types of neurons in the nervous system?

Sensory (afferent) neurons, Motor (efferent) neurons and interneurons

Sensory ganglia

Sensory neurons are associated with sensory ganglia: collections of cell bodies outside the central nervous system

Projection areas

Sensory stimuli are transmitted to projection areas in the brain, which further analyze the sensory input

Replisome (replication complex)

Set of specialized proteins that assist the DNA polymerases

Sexual motivation

Sexual motivation is related to hormones as well as cultural and social factors

Significant figure

Significant figures include all nonzero digits and any trailing zeros in a number with a decimal point" - Measurements are an exception in that the last digit provided is not significant; - In addition and substation, reduce the answer to have the same number of decimal places as the number with the fewest number of decimal places; - In multiplication and division, reduce the answer to have the same number of decimal places as the number with fewest number of significant digits' - The entire number should be maintained throughout calculations minimize rounding errors

Membrane transport: passive transport-simple diffusion

Simple diffusion does not require a transporter. small, nonpolar molecules passively move from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration until equilibrium is reached

Epithelial cells: identified by number of layers and shape of cells

Simple epithelia- single layer; stratified epithelial-many layers; pseudo-stratified epithelia- appear to have multiple layers because of difference in cell heights, but actually have only one layer. Cuboidal-cube-shaped, columnar-long and narrow and squamous cells- falt and sclae like

Primase

Since DNA cannot be synthesized without an adjacent nucleotide to hook onto, a small RNA primer is put down by primase.

Sine

Sine is calculated as the ratio between the side opposite the angle of interest and the hypotenuse - sinø= opposite/ Hypotenuse= a/c

Single bond

Single bonds are sigma bonds, which contain two electrons; sigma bonds are formed by head-to-head or tail-to-tail overlap of atomic orbitals - a single bond is stronger than a pi bond because s-orbitals have more overlaps than p-orbitals

Skewed distributions

Skewed distributions have difference in their mean, median and mode; the skew direction is the direction of the tail of the distribution; - negatively skewed distribution has mean lower than the median - positively skewed distribution has mean higher than the median

Smell

Smell is considered one of the chemical senses, which means that it responds to incoming chemicals from the outside world.

Social capital

Social capital is the investment people make in their society in return for economic or collective rewards. Social networks, either, situational or positional, are one of the most powerful forms of social capital and can be achieved through establishing strong and weak social ties

Sociology- Theories and institutions: social constructionism

Social constructionism explores the ways in which individuals and groups make decisions to agree upon a given social reality

Newton's third law

States that any two objects interacting with one another experience equal and opposite forces as a result of their interaction: Fab= -Fab

The pineal gland

The pineal gland releases melatonin, which helps to regulate circadian rhythams

Social facilitation

Social facilitation describes the tendency of people to perform at a different level based on the fact that other are around - according to Yerkes-Dodson law of social facilitation: being in the presence of others will significantly raise arousal, which enhances the ability to perform tasks one is already good at (simple tasks), and hinder the performance of less familiar tasks (or complex tasks)

Sociology- Theories and institutions: Social institutions

Social institutions are well-established social structure that dictate certain patterns of behavior or relationships and are accepted as a fundamental part of culture. common social institutions include the family, education, religion, government and the economy and health and medicine

Social perception or social cognition

Social perception or social cognition is the way by which we generate impressions about people in our social environment. it contains a perceiver, his or her target and the situation or social context of the scenario

Social support

Social support is the perception or reality that one is cared for by a social network: - Emotional support includes listening to, affirming, and empathizing with someone's feelings - Esteem support affirms the qualities and skills of the person - material support is providing physical or monetary resources to aid a person - informational support is providing useful information to a person - network support is providing a sense of belonging to a person

Socialization

Socialization is the process of developing and spreading norms, customs and beliefs. The agenst of socialization include family, peers, scholl, religious affiliation, and other groups that promote socialization

Solubility

Solubility is the maximum amount of a solute that can be dissolved in a given solvent at a given temperature; it is often expressed as molar solubility- the molarity of the solute at saturation

Solutions

Solutions are homogenous mixtures composed of two or more substances; they combine to form a single phase, generally the liquid phase; Solvent particles surround solute particles via electrostatic interactions in a process called solvation or dissolution; aqueous solutions are most important for the MCAT; solvation in water can also be called hydration; most dissolutions or solvations are endothermic, although the dissolution of gas into liquid is exothermic

somatic symptom and related disorders

Somatic symptom and related disorders involve significant bodily symptoms: - Somatic symptom disorder involves at least one somatic symptom, which may or may not be linked to an underlying medical condition that causes disproportionate concern - Illness anxiety disorder is a preoccupation with thoughts about having or coming down with, a serious medical conditions - Conversion disorder involves unexplained symptoms affecting motor or sensory function and is associated with prior trauma

Sound and speed of sound

Sound is produced by mechanical disturbance of material that creates an oscillation of the molecule in the material; - sound propagates through all forms of matter (but not a vacuum) and it propagates fastest through solids, followed by liquids and slowest through gases; - within a medium, as density increases the speed of sound increases

Spatial inequality

Spatial inequality is a form of social stratification across territories and their populations, and can occur along residential, environmental and global lines: - urban areas have diverse economic opportunities and more social mobility than rurual aresa; also have more low-income racial and ethnic minority - higher-income suburbs is due to the limited mobility of lower-income groups in urban centers -

ml(magnetic quantum number )

Specifies the particular orbital within a subshell where an electron is likely to be found at a given moment in time

structure of a mature sperm

Sperm contain a head, midpiece and flagellum - The head contains the genetic material and is covered with an acrosome- a modified Golgi apparatus that contains enzymes that help the sperm fuse to and penetrate the ovum - the midpiece generate ATP from fructose and contains many mitochondria - the flagellum promotes motility

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis is the formation of haploid sperm through meiosis, occurs in the seminiferous tubules; 4 haploid sperm are produced from a spermatogonium; In males, the diploid stem cells are known as spermatogonia. - after S stage, the germ cells are called primary spermatocytes - after meiosis 1, the germ cells are called secondary spermatocyte - after meiosis 2, the germ cells are called spermatids - after maturation, the germ cells are called spermatozoa.

Neural crest cells

Spread out throughout the body, differentiating into many different tissues

Binding Proteins

Stabilizing functions: Bind a specific substrate, either to sequester it in the body hold its concentration at steady state

Olfactory pathway

Starts from the olfactory nerves and travels through the olfactory bulb and olfactory tract to get to higher-order brain areas, such as the limbic system; pheromones are chemicals given off by animals that have an effect on social, foraging, and sexual behavior in other members of that species

Continuity equation

Statement of the conservation of mass as applied to fluid dynamics; while flow rate is constant in a tude regardless of cross-sectional area, linear speed of a fluid will increase with decreaseing cross-sectional area. -Q= v1A1=v2A2 (Q= flow rate, v1&v2= fluid speed) - fluid rate= volumer per unit time -Fluid speed= measure of linear displacement in a given amount of time

Pascal's principal

States that a pressure applied to an incompressible fluid will be distributed undiminished throughout the entire volume of the fluid - P = F1/A1=F2/A2 -F2=F1(A2/A1)= m1g (πr^2/πr^2)= m1g (r1/r2)^2 - larger the area the larger the foce, although this force will exerted through a smaller distance

The collision theory

States that a reaction rate is proportional to the number of effective collisions between the reacting molecules

Newton's second law

States that acceleration is the result of the sum of the forces acting on the object and its mass: Fnet=ma

Newton's first law or the Law of inertia

States that an object will remain at rest or move with a constant velocity if there is no net force on the object: Fnet=ma=0

Stereotype threat

Stereotype threat is concern or anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype about one's social groups. This may hinder performance, which may actually create a self-fulfilling prophenecy

Stereotypes

Stereotypes occur when attitudes and impressions are made based on limited and superficial information about a person or a group of individuals.

Reactivity principle of Carboxylic acid derivatives: Steric hinderance

Steric hindrance describes when a reaction cannot proceed (or significantly slows) because of substituents crowding the reactive site. - - Protecting groups, such as acetals, can be used to increase steric hindrance or otherwise decrease the reactivity of a particular portion of a molecule

steroid hormones

Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol - estrogen and testosterone are steroid hormones that promote sexual maturation

Socialization: Stigma

Stigma is the extreme disapproval or dislike of a person or group based on perceived differences from the rest of society

Consciousness-altering drugs: Stimulants

Stimulants cause an increase in arousal in the NS, each drug increases the frequency of action potential but does so by different mechanism. Stimulants Includes amphetamine, cocaine, and ecstasy- designer amphetamine and cause hallucination when taking with amphetamine. They increase dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin concentration at the synaptic cleft and block the reuptake of those neutrotransmitter.

Distress vs. Eustress

Stressors are classified as either causing distress or eustress; Distress occurs when experiencing unpleasant stressors, whereas eustress is a result of positive conditions

Hydrostatics

Study of fluids at rest and the forces and pressures associated with standing fluids

phase changes: Sublimation and deposition

Sublimation is when a solid goes directly to the gas phase and deposition is when the gaseous phase goes to the solid phase. They occur at the boundary between the solid and gas phases

Compounds

Substance composed of two or more elements in a fixed proportion

Fluids

Substance that have the ability of flow and conform to the shape of their containers:liquids and gases are the two phases of matter that are fluid

Axial vs. Equatorial

Substituents attached to cyclohexane can be classified as axial (sticking up or down from the plane of the molecule) or equatorial (in the plane of the molecule). Axial substituents create more nonbonded strain, the largest molecules usually take the equatorial position to minimize strain. during a chair flip axial components become equatorial and vice versa.

Cis-trans

Subtype of diastereomers in which groups differ in position about an immovable bond (double bond or in cycloalkane)

what are some common disaccharides?

Sucrose (glucose- alpha1,2-fructose), lactose (galactose-beta-1,4 glucose) and maltose (glucose-alpha 1,4- glucose)

Esterification

Sugars can react with carboxylic acids and their derivatives forming esters.

Reducing sugars

Sugars that can be oxidized are reducing agents themselves, and can be detected by reacting with Tollen's or Benedict's reagents

Self-Concept

Sum of the ways in which we describe ourselves: in the present (self-schemata), who we used to be and who we might be in the future.

What does Supercoiling causes?

Supercoiling causes torsional strain on the DNA molecule, which can be released by DNA topoisomerases, which create nicks in the DNA molecule

Synthesis of an anhydride

Synthesis of an anhydride via carboxylic acid condensation: two molecules of carboxylic acid come together and lose a molecules of water in the formation of anhydride

Thermodynamic Systems (3)

Systems are classified based on what is or is not exchanged with the surrounding; 1. isolated system: exchange neither matter nor energy with the environment; 2. closed system: can exchange energy but not matter with the environment; 3. open system: can exchange both energy and matter with the environment.

Hypothalamus: Thyroid-releasing hormone (TRH)

TRH promotes the release of thyroid-stimulating hormone (ACTH)

Hydraulic systems

Take advantage of the near-incompressibility of liquids to generate mechanical advantage (operate based on Pascal's principal)

The biomedical approach to psychological disorder

Take into account only the physical and medical causes of a psychological disorder. Thus, treatments in this approach are of a biomedical nature

Reality Principal

Taking into account objective reality as it guides or inhibits the activity of the id and the id's pleasure principle and this guide is referred to as the secondary process, The ego operates on this principal

Taste

Taste is the detection of dissolved compounds by taste buds in papillae. It comes in five modalities: sweet, sour, salty, bitter and umami (savory)

DNA Cloning

Technique that can produce large amounts of a desired sequence, it introduces a fragment of DNA into a vector plasmid. A restriction enzyme (restriction endonuclease) cuts both the plasmid and the fragment, which are left with sticky ends. Once the fragment binds to the plasmid, it can be introduced into a bacterial cell and permitted to replicate, generating many copies of the fragment of interest.

Recombinant DNA

Technology that allows DNA fragment from any source to be multiplied by either gene cloning or polymerase chain reaction (PCR); cloning allows producion of recombinant proteins, or identification and characterization of DNA by increase its volume and purity

Isothermal Processes

Temperature is constant, and the change in internal energy is therefore is 0

Teratogens

Teratogens are substances that interfere with development, causing defects or even death of the developing embryo. Teratogens including alcohol, virus, bacteria and environment factors

Electric potential: Test charges

Test charges will move spontaneously in whichever direction results in a decrease in their electric potential energy - positive test charges will move spontaneously from high potential to low potential - negative test charges will move spontaneously from low potential to high potential

Sphingolipids

The ABO blood typing system is based on cell surface antigens and Cell surface antigens are sphingolipids. Contains a sphingosine or sphingoid backbone; many (but not all) sphingolipids are also phospholipids, containing a phosphodiester bond; there are termed sphingophospholipids. Can be glycolipids or phospholipids

collision theory: arrhenius equation

The Arrhenius equation is a mathematical way to representing collision theory - A= The frequency factor or attempt frequency of the reaction is a measure of how often molecules in a certain reaction collide with the units S^-1; frequency factor A is increased by increase concentration - what's important to remember of this equation is: low activation energy and high temperature make the negative exponent of the Arrhenius equation smaller in magnitude and thus increase the rate constant K; a direct relationship between frequency factor and rate constant k;

Histones

The DNA that makes up a chromosome is wound around a group of small basic proteins called histones forming chromatin

FINER method

The FINER method assess the value of a research question on the basis whether or if it is feasible, interesting, novel, ethical, and relevant

Jacob-Monod Model

The Jacob-Monod Model of repressors and activators explains how operons work. - operons include both inducible and repressible system and offer a simple on-off switch for gen control in prokaryotes; there are inducible or repressible clusters of gens transcribed as single mRNA

The Lorenz Force

The Lorenz force is the sum of the electrostatic and magnetic forces acting on a body

The peripheral nervous system

The PNS is divided into somatic (voluntary) and autonomic (automatic) nervous systems: - the autonomic nervous system is further divided into parasympathetic (rest-and-digest) and sympathetic (flight-or-fight) branches; the first neuron in the autonomic NS is called the preganglionic neuron and the second neuron is the postganglioic neuron

Charged particles

The SI unit of charge is the Coulomb; Protons have a positive charge (q=+e) and electrons have a negative charge (q=-e); both protons and electrons possess the fundamental unit of charge (e=1.60 x10^-19 C); protons and electrons have different masses; opposite charge exert attractive force and like charges exert repulsive forces

Theory of mind

The ability to sense how another's mind works

The acid dissociation constant (Ka)

The acid dissociation constant, ka, is a measure of acidity. it is the equilibrium constant corresponding to the dissociation of an acid, HA, into a proton (H+) and its conjugate base (A-). - pKa is the negative logarithm of Ka. A lower (or even negative) pKa indicated a stronger acid -pKa decrease down the periodic table and increases with electronegativity

Bradford Protein Assay

The acidic form (left) has a brown-green hue; the basic form, (right), which is created by interactions with proteins in solution has a brilliant blue hue

The adrenal cortex (3 steroid hromones)-

The adrenal cortex produces three classes of steroid hormones: 1. Glcucocorticoid such as cortisol and cortisone increase blood glucose concentration, reduce protein synthesis, inhibit the immune system, and participate in the stress response. Glucocorticoid release is stimulated by ACTH 2. Mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone promote sodium reabsorption in the distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct, thus increasing water reabsorption. Aldosterone also increase potassium and hydrogen ion excretion. it is regulated by renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, not ACTH 3. cortical sex hormones include androgens (like testosterone) and estrogen in both males and females. *functions of the corticoseroids- 3 S - Salt (mineralocorticoid) - Sugar (glucocorticoids) - Sex (cortical sex homones0

The Adrenal medulla

The adrenal medulla is derived from the nervous system and secretes catecholamines into the bloodstream: - catecholamines include epinephrine and norepinephrine, which are involved in the fight-or-flight (sympathetic) response - these hormones promote glycogenolysis, increase the basal metabolic rate, increase heart rate, dilate the bronchi, and alter blood flow

Specific Heat

The amount of energy necessary to raise one gram of a substance one degree Celsius or one Kelvin, the specific heat of water is 1 cal/gxK or 4.184 J/ gxK

Electrochemical cell: anode and cathode

The anode is always the side of oxidation- it attracts anions; The cathode is always the site of reduction-it attract cations; - electron flow from the anode to the cathode - current flows from the cathode to the anode * Mnemonic: AN OX and a RED CAT: the ANode is the site of OXidation; REDuction occurs at the CAthode

The doppler effect: when 2 objects move in the same direction

The apparent frequency can be higher, lower, or equal to the emitted frequency when the two objects are moving in the same direction, depending on their relative speeds

The doppler effect: source and detector moving toward each other

The apparent frequency will be higher than the emitted sound when the source of the sound and detectors are moving toward each other

The doppler effect: source and detector moving away from each other

The apparent frequency will be lower than the emitted frequency when the source and detector are moving away from each other

Neuron anatomy: axon

The axon is a long appendage down which an action potential travels, it carries neural signals away from the soma

The azimuthal quantum number (l)

The azimuthal quantum number (l), determines the subshell in which an electron resides. its possible values range from 0 to n-1. The subshell is often indicated with a letter: l=0 corresponds to s, 1 is p, 2 is d and 3 is f.

The pitch of a sound

The pitch of a sound is related to tits frequency

The blastula (blastocyst): placenta and developing organism

The blastula has a fulid-filled center called a blastocoel and has two different cell types, including trophoblasts (which become placental structures) and the inner cell mass (which becomes the developing organisms): - the blastula implants in the endometrial lining and forms the placenta - the chorion contains chorionic villi, which penetrte the endometrium and create the interface between maternal and fetal blood - before the placenta is established, the embryo is supported by the yolk sac - the allantois is involved in early fluidexchange between the embryo and the yolk sac - the amnion lies just inside the chorion and produces amniotic fluid - the developing organism is connecte to the placenta via the umbilical cord

Alpha carbon

The carbon adjacent to the carbonyl carbon is termed an alpha-carbon

The Cell (plasma) membrane

The cell (plasma) membrane is often described as a semipermeable phospholipid bilayer that regulates movement of solute into and out of the cell ; the theory that underlies the structure and function of the cell membrane is referred to as the fluid mosaic model; carbohydrates associated with membrane-bound protenins create a glycoprotein coat

The charge on an electrode

The charge on an electrode is dependent on the type of electrochemical cell one is studying: - For galvanic cells, the anode is negatively charged and the cathode is positively charged - For electrolytic cell, the anode is positively charged and the cathode is negatively charged, because an external source is used to reverse the charge of an electrolytic cells - For both cells, reduction occurs at the cathode and oxidation occurs and the anode

Sensation

The conversion, or transduction, of physical, electromagnetic, auditory, and other information from the internal and external environment into electrical signals in the nervous system

Associative learning

The creation of a pairing, or association, either between two stimuli or between a behavior and a response or behaviors and consequences

The cytoskeleton

The cytoskeleton provides stability and rigidity to the overall structure of the cell, while also providing transport pathways for molecules within the cell

The cytosol

The cytosol suspends the organelles and allows diffusion of molecules throughout the cell

The mode

The data point that appears most often; there maybe multiple (or zero) modes in a set.

Self-efficacy

The degree to which we see ourselves as being capable at a given skill or in a given situation. when placed in a consistently hopeless scenario, self-efficacy can be diminished to the point where learned helplessness results

direction of current flow

The direction of current is opposite to the direction of actual electron flow; the two patterns of current flow are direct current (DC)- charge flows in one direction only, and alternating current (AC) in which the flow changes direction periodically

Buoyant Force

The direction of the buoyant force is always opposite of the direction of gravity; an object will float if its average density is less than the average density of the fluid; it will sink if it's average density is greater than that of the fluid. - Fbuoy= P(fluid) x V (fluid displaced) x g= P(fluid) x V (submerged) x g

The doppler effect

The doppler effect is a shift in the perceived frequency of a sound compared to the actual frequency of the emitted sound when the source of the sound and its detector are moving relative to one another

B-DNA

The double helix of most DNA is a right-handed helix, forming what is called B-DNA; low concentrations of Z-DNA, with a zigzag shape, may be seen with high GC-content or high salt concentration

The dramaturgical approach

The dramaturgical approach says that individuals create images of themselves i the same way that actors perform a roe in front of audience: - the front stage is where the individual is seen by the audience and strives to preserve his desired image - the back stage is where the individual is not in front of an audience and is free to act outside of his desired image

The Ear

The ear is divided into outer, middle and inner ear.

The endocrine pancreas

The endocrine pancreas produces hormones that regulate glucose homeostasis: 1. Glucagon is produced by alpha-cells and raises blood glucose level by stimulating protein and fat degradation, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis 2. Insulin is produced by beta-cells and lowers blood glucose levels by stimulating glucose uptake by cells and anabolic processes, like glycogen, fat and protein synthesis 4. somatostatin is produce by gamma-cells and inhibits insulin and glucagon secretion *Grwoth hormone, glucocorticoids, and epinephrine are also capable of increasing plasma glucose, these hormones that raise blood glucose levels are commonly called counterregulatory hormones

Kinetic energy

The energy of motion, it's when anytime an object has a speed, it is related to speed but not velocity so an object has the same kinetic energy regardless of the direction of its velocity vector: K= (1/2) mv^2

Titration: The equivalence point

The equivalence point is indicated by the steepest slope in a titration curve; it is reached when the number of acid equivalents in the original solution equals to the number of base equivalents added or vice-versa - strong acid and strong base titrations have equivalence points at pH =7 - weak acid and strong base titrations have equivalence at pH>7 - weak base and strong acid titrations have equivalence points at pH <7 - weak base and weak base titrations can have equivalence points above or below 7, depending on the relative strength of the acid and base - The stronger the acid or base the more it pulls the equivalence point into its pH territory

sign convention for a single mirror

The focal length of converging mirrors (and converging lens) will always be positive. The focal length of diverging mirror (and diverging lenses) will always be negative

what else does DNA polymerase do during DNA replication?

They proofreads its work and excise incorrectly matched bases. the daughter strand is identified by its lack of methylation and corrected accordingly

Degeneracy of the genetic code

The genetic code is degenerate because more than one codon can specify a single amino acid. The degeneracy of the genetic code allows for mutations in DNA that do not always results in altered protein structure or function. Usually, a mutation within an intron will also not change the protein sequence because introns are cleaved out of the mRNA transcript prior to translation

the gonads

The gonads produce hormones that are involved in development and maintenance of the reproductive systems and secondary sex characteristics: 1. the testes secretes testosterone 2. the ovaries secrete estrogen and progesterone

Titration: The half-equivalence point

The half-equivalence point is the midpoint of the buffering region, in which half of the titrant has been protonated (or deprotonated); Thus [HA]=[A-] and a buffer is formed

The head group

The head group is attached by a phosphodiester linkage, and because it interacts with the environment, determine the function of the phospholipid

What provides the suffix of the molecule when naming?

The highest-priority functional group

alpha hydrogen

The hydrogens attached to the alpha-carbon are called alpha-hydrogens; Alpha-hydrogens are relatively acidic and can be removed by a strong base: - the electron-withdrawing oxygen of the carbonyl weakens the C-H bonds on alpha-carbons; - The enolate resulting from deprotonation can be stabilized by resonance with the carbonyl *Electron-withdrawing groups like oxygen stabilize organic anions; electron-donating groups like alkyl groups destabilize organic anions

Endocrine organs and hormones: Hypothalamus and how how are hormones mediated

The hypothalamus is the bridge between the nervous and endocrine system: - the release of hormones from the hypothalamus is mediated by number of factors, including projections from other parts of the brain, chemo- and baroreceptors in the blood vessels, and negative feedback from other hormones

Hypothalamus: anterior pituitary gland

The hypothalamus stimulated the anterior pituitary gland through paracrine release of hormones into the hypophyseal portal system, which directly connects the two organs - hypophysis=pituitary once hormones have been released from the hypothalamus into portal bloodstream, they travel down the pituitary stalk and bind to receptors in the anterior pituittary, stimulating the release of other hormones

Primary process

The id's response to frustration: obtain satisfaction now, not later. Mental imagery such as daydreaming or fantasy that fulfills this need for satisfaction is termed wish fulfillment. Ego comes in play when this mental image cannot be effectively reuce tension on a permanent basis

Idea Gas law

The idea gas law describes the relationship between the four variables of the gas state for an ideal gas: PV= nRT - R= idea gas constant= 8.21x10^-2 L.atm/mol.K or it could be 8.314 J/k.mol - equation of ideal gases assume negligible mass and volume of gas molecule; regardless of the identity of the gas, equimolar amounts of two gases will occupy the same volume at the same temperature and pressure. At STP, one mole of an ideal gas occupies 22.4L.

Hybridization

The joining of complementary base pair sequences

The kinetic enolate and thermodynamic enolate

The kinetic enolate is favored by fast, irreversible reactions at lower temperatures with strong, sterically hindered bases. The thermodynamic enolate is favored by slower, reversible reactions at higher temperatures with weaker, smaller bases, its more stable.

The kinetic molecular theory

The kinetic molecular theory attempts to explain the behavior of gas particles: - Gas particles have negligible volume - gas particle do not have intermolecular attractions or repulsions - Gas particles undergo random collisions with each and the walls of the container - collisions between gas particles (and with the walls of the container) are elastic - the average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional to temperature

The law of reflection

The law of reflection states that incident angle will equal to the angle of reflection, as measured from the normal: ø1 = ø2

Attitudes: The learning theory

The learning theory states that attitudes are developed through forms of learning: direct contact, indirect interaction, and conditioning

Gluconeogenesis

The liver maintains glucose levels in blood during fasting through either glycogenolysis or gluconeogenesis; Gluconeogensis occurs in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria, predominantly in the liver. There is a small contribution from the kidneys

Two-Pulley system

The load (weight) is balanced by the total tension in the ropes, tensions on the two vertical ropes are equal to each other, so only half the effort (fore) is lift the cate. when considering simple machines, load and effort are both forces. The load determines the necessary output force. Fnet= 2T-mg

Secondary structure of amino acids

The local structure of neighboring amnio acids, and is stabilized by hydrogen bonding between amino group and nonadjacent carboxyl groups. alpha-helices: clockwise coils around a central axis; beta- pleated sheets are rippled strands that can be parallel or antiparallel; Proline can interrupt second structure and it can be found in between the turns (glycine too).

The magnetic quantum number (m_l)

The magnetic quantum number (m_l), determines the orbital in which an electron resides. its possible values range from -l to +l. Different orbitals have different shapes: s-orbitals are spherical, while p-orbitals are dumbbell-shaped and located on the x-,y-,z-axis

magnitude of current (I)

The magnitude of the current (I) is the amount of charge Q passing though the conductor per unit of time ∆t: I (ampere) = Q/∆t - unit of current is ampere, 1A= 1C/s)

The mass defect

The mass defect is the difference between the mass of the unbounded nucleons and the mass of the bonded nucleons within the nucleus: - the unbounded constituents have more energy and therefore more mass than the bonded constituents - the mass defect is the amount of mass converted to energy during nuclear fusion

Language: Nativist (biological theory)

explains language acquisition as being innate and controlled by language acquisition device (LAD)

The menstrual cycle (3 phases)

The menstrual cycle is a periodic growth and shedding of the endometrial lining: 1. in the follicular phase, GnRH secretion stimulates FSH and LH secretion, which promotes follicle development. Estrogen is released, stimulating vascularization and glandualrization of the decidua 2. Ovulation is stimulated by a sudden surge in LH. this surge occurs because estrogen stops having negative feedback effects at a certain threshold and begins to have positive feedback effects 3. in the luteal phase, LH promotes the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum, which secretes progesterone that maintains the uterine lining. High estrogen and progesterone levels cause negative feedback on GnRH, Lh and FSH

The difference threshold or just-noticeable difference (jnd)

The minimum difference in magnitude between two stimuli before one can perceive this difference

Two-point threshold

The minimum distance necessary between two points of stimulation on the skin such that the points will be felt as two distinct stimuli

Absolute threshold

The minimum of stimulus energy that is needed to active a sensory system, it is the minimum intensity at which a stimulus will be tranduced (converted into action potentials).

Threshold

The minimum stimulus that causes a change in signal transduction

Concentration: Mole fraction

The mole fraction (X_A)= moles of A/ total mole of all species - the sum of the mole fractions in a system will always equal 1

The morula

The morula is a solid mass of cells seen in early development

Retrieval

The name given to the process of demonstrating that something that has been learned has been retained; it is also termed recall, or the retrieval and statement of previously learned information . Retrieval of information is often based on priminf interconnected nodes of the semantic netowrk

Acid-Base Nomenclature for anions ending in -ide

The names of most acids are related to the names of their parent anions (the anion that combines with H+ to form the acid); acids formed from anions with names that end in -ide have the prefix hydro- and the ending -ic

Effective Nuclear Charge (Z-eff) trend

The net positive charge experienced by electrons in the valence shell (the strength with which the protons in the nucleus can pull on electrons). It increases from left to right and n increased from top to bottom causing valence e- become more separated from the nucleus.

Normal Distribution

The normal distribution is symmetrical. The mean, median, and mode are all the same in the normal distribution

Frictional Force vs. Normal force vs. angle of plane

The normal force and frictional force decreases as the angle of the incline increases

Physiological zero

The normal temperature of the skin to which objects are compared to determine if they feel "warm" or "cold"

Concentration: Normality

The normality (N) of a solution is equal to the number of equivalents of interest per liter of solution

Eukaryotic organelles: The nucleus

The nucleus contains DNA organized into chromosome. it is surrounded by the nuclear membrane or envelope, a double membrane that contains nuclear pores for two-way exchange of materials between the nucleus and cytosol. DNA is organized into coding regions called genes

Balancing chemical reactions

The number of atoms of each element on the reactant side equals the number of atoms of that element on the product dues to laws of conservation of mass and charge; stoichiometric coefficients are the number placed in front of each compound; when balancing equations, focus on the least represented elements first and work up your way to the most represented element of the reaction (usually oxygen or hydrogen).

Coordination number

The number of atoms that surround and are bonded to a central atom, is relevant when determine molecular geometry

kcat

The number of substrate molecules "turned over: or converted to product.

Naturally occurring Diatomic compounds

The only bonds between atoms of the same element that will have exactly the same electronegativity and therefore exhibit a purely equal distribution of electrons: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2

Uniform Circular motion

The only force is centripetal force and No work is done

The ought self

The ought self is who others think we should be: the expectations imposed by others on us. This is similar to tactical self, which is the self we present to other when we adhere to their expecatations.

The oxidation state

The oxidation state of an atom is the charge it would have if all its bonds were completely ionic: - CH4 is the lowest oxidation state of carbon (most reduced); CO2 is the highest (most oxidized) - carboxylic acids and carboxylic acid derivatives are the most oxidized functional groups; followed by aldehydes, ketones, and imines; followed by alcohols, alkyl halides and amines

The parathyroid glands

The parathyroid glands release parathyroid hormone (PTH) , which increase blood calcium concentration: - PTH decreases excretion of calcium by the kidneys and increases bone resorption directly to increase blood calcium concentration; - PTH activates vitamin D, which is necessary for calcium and phosphate absorption from the gut -PTH promotes resorption of phosphate from bone and reduces reabsorption of phosphate from the gut; these two effects on phosphate concentration somewhat cancel each other *just like glucagon and insulin, PTH and Calcitonin are antagonistic of each other

Percent composition

The percent composition of an element (by mass) is the percent of a specific compound that is made up of a given element; Percent composition= mass of element in formula/molar mass x 100%

The period (T)

The period (T) of wave is the number of seconds it takes to complete a cycle. It is the inverse of frequency - T = 1/ƒ

The photoelectric effect

The photoelectric effect is the ejection of an electron from the surface of a metal in response to light

Hypothalamus interaction with posterior pituitary

The posterior pituitary does not receive tropic hormones through the hypophyseal portal system Rather, neurons in the hypothalamus send their axons down the pituitary stalk directly into the posterior pituitary, which can release Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin- increase reabsorption of water in the collecting ducts o the kidney, respond to increased concentration of solutes) and oxytocin (stimulated uterine contraction during labor) are synthesized in the hypothalamus and then travel down these axons to the posterior pituitary, where they are released into the bloodstream

The principal quantum number (n)

The principal quantum number (n), describes the energy level (shell) in which an electron resides, and indicates the distance from the nucleus to the electron. it's possible value ranges from 1 to infinity

Probability of dependent event

The probability of a dependent event changes depending on the outcomes of other events

Probability of independent events

The probability of independent events does not change based on the outcomes of other events; for indepedent events, the porbability of two or more events occurring at the same time is the product of their probailities along

Habituation

The process of becoming used to a stimulus- a repeated exposure to the same stimulus can cause a decrease in response called habituation

Oogenesis

The production of female gametes is known as oogenesis; In oogenesis, one halpoid ovum and a variable number of polar bodies formed from an oogonium: - at birth, all oogonia have already undergone replication and are considered primary oocyte. they are arreste in prophase 1 - the ovulted egg each moth is a secondary oocyte, which is arrested in metaphase 2 - if the oocyte is fertilized, it will complete meiosis 2 to become a true ovum. - cytokinesis is uneven in oogenesis. the cell receiving very little cytoplasm and organeeles is called a polar body - oocytes are surrounded by zona pellucida, an acellular mixture of glycoproteins that protect the oocyte and contain the compounds necessary for sperm binding, and the corona radiata, which is a layer of cells that adhered to the oocyte during ovulation

Motivation

The purpose, or driving force behind our actions

Electric power

The rate at which energy is dissipated by a resistor is the power of the resistor ad can calculated from: P= IV= I^2 . R = V^2/R - I= current though the resistor - V= the voltage drop across the resistor - R= resistance of the resistor( ohm's law: V=IR)

Power

The rate at which is done or energy s transferred , SI unit for power = W (watt): P = W/t=∆E/t - W= work

How does the ideal temp. change with or without enzyme?

The rate of reaction increases with temperature because of the increased kinetic energy of the reaction but reaches a peak temperature because the enzyme denatures with the disruption of hydrogen bond at high temp. The peak temp. is hotter in the absence of enzyme.

Normality (N= equivalents/L)

The ratio of equivalents per liter; it is related to molarity by multiplying the molarity by the number of equivalents resent per mole of compound - Molarity = Normality/ n - n= # of protons, hydroxide ions, electrons or ions produced or consumed by the solute

The reactivity of a carbonyl (C=O)

The reactivity of a carbonyl(C=O) is dictated by the polarity of the double bond. The carbon has a partial positive charge and is therethreo electrophilic

Dishabituation

The recovery of a response to a stimulus, usually after a different stimulus has been presented; it refers to changes in response to the original stimulus, not the new one.

Snell's law

The refracted rays of light obey snell's law as they pass from one medium to another: n1sinø1= n2sinø2; the Snell's law states that there is an inverse relationship between the index of refraction (n) and the sin of the angle of refraction (measured from the normal) - n1 and ø1 refer to the medium from which the light is coming - n2 and ø2 refer to the medium into which the light is entering * when light enters a medium wiht a higher index of refraction, it bends toward the normal (smaller angle). when light eneters a medium with a lower index of refraction, it bends away from the normal (bigger angle).

Compliance: lowball technique

The requestor will get an initial commitment from an individual, and then raise the cost of the commitment.

Bias: selection bias

The sample differs from the population, is most common in human subjects research

Scientific method

The scientific method is a series of eight steps for the generation of new knowledge: 1. Generate a testable question; 2. Gather data and resources 3. form a hypothesis: a hypothesis is the proposed explanation to testable question 4. collect new data 5. analyze the data 6. Interpret the data and existing hypothesis 7. publish 8. Verify results: replication

What did Jung symbolized self as ?

The self strives for unity, Jung symbolized the self as a mandala- the promoter of unity, balance and harmony between the conscious mind, personal unconscious and collective unconscious.

The sleep cycle

The sleep cycle is approximately 90 minutes for adults; the normal cycle is stage 1-2-3-4-3-2-REM or just 1-2-3-4-REM, although REM becomes more frequent toward the morning

rate-limiting step

The slowest step, limits the maximum rate at which the reaction can be proceed; the rate of the whole reaction is only as fast as the rate-determining step.

Empirical formula

The smallest whole-number ratio of the elements in a compound; the simplest whole number ratio for each compound is obtained by dividing the number of mole for each compound by the smallest number out of all obtained

Gibbs Free energy (G)

This state function is a combination of temperature, enthalpy and entropy. The change in Gibbs free energy (∆G) is a measure of the change in enthalpy and the change in entropy as a system undergoes a process and it indicates whether a reaction is spontaneous or non-spontaneous. ∆G = ∆H-T∆S: T∆S represents the total amount of energy that is absorbed by a system when entropy is increasing reversibly - mnemonic: Goldfish are (equals sign) without (minus sign) Tartar Sauce

Solubility product constant (Ksp) vs. ion product (IP)

The solubility product constant (Ksp) is simply the equilibrium constant for a dissociation reaction (Ksp is a specialized form of Keq);comparison of the ion product to Ksp determines the level of saturation and behavior of the solution: - if IP < Ksp: the solution is unsaturated and if more solute is added, it will dissolve - if IP=Ksp: the solution is saturated (at equilibrium), and there will be no change in concentration; - if IP > Ksp: the solution is supersaturated and a precipitate will form - every sparingly soluble salt of general formula MX will have Ksp=X^2, MX_2 will have Ksp=4x^3, MX_3 will have Ksp = 27x^4

The spin quantum number (m_s)

The spin quantum number (m_s), describes the spin of an electron. It's possible values are + or - .5

The standard state

The standard state of an element is most prevalent form under standard conditions; standard enthalpy(∆H˚), standard entropy(∆S˚) and standard free energy (∆G˚) are all calculated under standard conditions

States of Consciousness : Alertness

The state of being awake and able to think, perceive, process and express information. Fibers from the prefrontal cortex communicate with the reticular formation, a neural structure located in the brainstem to keep the cortex awake and alert

Neuron anatomy: Synapse

The synapse consists of the nerve terminal of the presynaptic neuron, the membrane of the postsynaptic cell, and the space between the two, called the synaptic cleft

specificity of the active site

The three-dimenstional shape of the active site

The Thyroid (secrete 3 hormones )

The thyroid is located at the base of the neck in front of the trachea; it produces 3 key hormones: 1. Triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) are produced by follicular cells and contain iodine. they release basal metabolic rate and alter the utlization of glucose and fatty acids. Thyroid homones are required for proper neurological and physical developmen in children 2. Calcitonin is produced by parafolliclar (C) cells. it decreases plasma calcium concentration by promoting calcium excretion in the kidneys, decreasing calcium absorption in the gut, and promoting calcium storage in bone

Total mechanical energy

The total mechanical energy of the system is the sum of the kinetic energy and potential energy E= U+ k

The umbilical arteries

The umbilical arteries carry deoxygenated blood from the fetus to the placenta; the vein carries oxygenated blood from the placent back to the fetus

Real gases: Van der Waals equation of state

The van der waals equation of state is used to correct the ideal gas law for intermolecular attractions (a) and molecular volume (b): (P+ n^2 . a )(V-n. b) = nRT - if a and b are both zero the van der Waals equation of state reduces to the ideal gas law. - a is the van der waals term for the attractive force - b is the van der Waals term for big particles

The visible spectrum

The visible spectrum runs from approximately 400nm (violet) to 700 nm(red)

Describe the visual pathway

The visual pathway starts from the eye, and travels through the optic nerves, optic chiasm, optic tracts, lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) of the thalamus, through radiations in the temporal and parietal lobes to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe. There are also inputs into the superior colliculus, which controls some responses to visual stimuli and reflexive movements - Optical chiasm contains fibers crossing from the nasal side of the retina (temporal visual fields) of both sides; the visual radiation run through the temporal and parietal lobes; the visual cortex is in the occipital lobe

The wavelength

The wavelength of a wave is the distance between two crest (max. point) or two trough (min. point)

Intermolecular forces: London Dispersion forces

The weakest interactions, but are present in all atoms and molecules. As the size of the atom or structure increases, so does the corresponding London dispersion forcer

Threshold frequency: work funtion

The work function is the minimum energy necessary to eject an electron from a given metal. its value depends on the metal used and can be calculated by multiplying the threshold frequency by Planck's constant - the ejected electrons create a current; the magnitude of this current is proportional to the intensity of the incident beam of light W= hf_T

The only two amino acids that also have chiral carbon in their side chain

Thereonine and isoleucine

Incomplete octet

These elements are stable with fewer than eight electrons in their valence shell and include hydrogen (stable with 2 electrons) , Helium (2), Lithium (2), Be(4) and B (6)

Freud's psychosexual stages of Personality are based on what?

They are based on the tensions caused by the libido. Failure at any given stage leads to fixation that causes personality disorders.

Rows on periodic table are?

They are called the periods and are based on the same principal energy level, n.

Defense mechanism (8)

They are ego's recourse for relieving anxiety caused by the clash of the id and superego

How are Ionic bonds formed?

They are formed through unequal sharing of electrons, it occurs because the electron affinities of the bonded atoms differ greatly.

Olfactory chemoreceptors (olfactory nerves)

They are located in olfactory epithelium in the upper part of the nasal cavity; chemical stimuli must bind to their respective chemoreceptors to cause a signal

what is the bulk of the eye supported by?

They are supported by vitreous on the inside and the sclera and choroid on the outside.

What group does carboxylic acid contain and how is it named?

They are the highest-priority functional group and they are always terminal. named with the suffix -oic acid.

what can base do?

They can catalyze peptide bond hydrolysis

Regulatory enzymes

They can experience activation as well as inhibition: allosteric, phosphorylation and zymogens

Tertiary structure of amino acids

Three dimenstional shape of a single polypeptide chain and is stabilized by hydrophobic interactions (hydrophobic side chains inside that creates a negative Gibbs free energy), acid-base interactions (salt bridges-) and hydrogen bonding and disulfide bonds (only occurs when two cysteine molecules are oxidized and a covalent bond to form cystine).

Threshold frequency

Threhold frequency is the minimum light frequency necessary to eject an electron from a given metal

The threshold of conscious perception

Threholds can also be called limina, thus subliminal perception refers to the perception of stimulus below a given threhold. The minimum of stimulus energy that will create a signal large enough in size and long enough in duration to be brought into awareness

How do children learn from others?

Through imitation and role-taking, children first reproduce the behaviors of role models and later learn to see the perspectives of others and practice taking on new roles.

Membrane components: tight junctions

Tight junctions form a watertight seal to prevent solutes from leaking into the space between cells via a paracellular transport, but do not provide interceullar transport; hey are found in epithelial cells and function as a physical link between the cells as they form a single layer of tissue

Titration

Titration is a procedure used to determine the concentration of a known reactant in a solution - The titrant has a known concentration is added slowly to the titrand to reach the equivalence point - The titrand has an unknown concentration but a known volume

Parasympathetic Nervous system functions

To conserve energy, associated with resting and sleeping states and acts to reduce heart rate and constrict the bronchi and managing digestion (acetylcholine is the NT responsible for this)

Formal charges

To determine if a Lewis structure is representative of the actual arrangement of the atoms in a compound one must calculate formal charge. Formal charge exist when an atom is surrounded by more or fewer valence electrons than it has in its neutral state (assuming equal sharing of electrons in a bond); Formal charge = V-Nnonbonding- (.5)Nbonding - V- normal number of electrons - Nbonding= the number of bonding electrons

ray diagram for convex m(diverging) mirrors

To find where the image is (for a mirror) , draw the following rays and find a point where any two intersect. This point of intersection marks the tip of the image. if the rays you draw do not appear to intersect, extend them to the other side of the mirror, creating a virtue images. - ray parallel to axis (green)----- reflects back through focal point - ray though focal point (red)------- reflects back parallel to axis - ray to center of mirror (purple)------ reflects back at the same angle relative to normal

Experimental approach: Blinding

To prevent bias of subject and investigator: 1. single blind experiments- only the patient or the assessor (the one who makes measurements on the patient or perform the evaluations) are blinded; 2. Double blind experiment- the investigator, subject and assessor all do not know the subject's group - without blinding the placebo effect would be greatly reduced in the control group but still present in the treatment group

1st step in DNA replication

To replicated DNA, it is first unwound at an origin of replication by helicase, this produces 2 replication forks on either side of the origin.

Cardinal Traits

Traits around which a person organizes his or her life; not everyone develops a cardinal traitn

Trans regulators

Transcription factor have to be produced and translocated back to the nucleus; thus they are called trans regulators because they travel through the cell to their point of action

Bacterial genetic recombination: Transduction

Transduction is the transfer of genetic material from one bacterium to another using a bacteriophage as a vector

Nucleophilic Acyl substitution reaction: Transesterification

Transesterification is the exchange of one esterifying group for another on an ester. The attacking nucleophile is an alcohol

Motor (efferent neurons)

Transmit motor information from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands

Sensory neuron (Afferent neurons)

Transmit sensory information from receptors to the spinal cord and brain

Bacterial genetic recombination: Transposons

Transposons are genetic elements that can insert into or remove themselves from the genome

Traveling waves

Traveling waves have continuously shifting points of maximum and minimum displacement

Erikson's stages of psychosocial development stem from conflicts that occur throughout life, what are those conflicts?

Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs.shame and doubt, initiative vs.guilt, industry vs. inferiority, identity vs. role confusion, intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, integrity vs. despair. These conflicts are the result of decisions we are forced to make about ourselves and the environment around us at each phase of our lives.

Critical Speed

Turbulent flow arise when speed of the fluid exceeds a certain critical speed. - NR is Reynolds number - n= viscosity of fluid - D= tube diameter

Special cases in Electrostatics: Tric dipole

Two charges of opposite sign separated by a fixed distance d generate an electric dipole: - in an external electric field, an electric dipole will experience a net torque until it is aligned with the electric field vector - an electric field will not induce any translational motion in the dipole regardless of its orientation with respect to the electric field vector - Electric potential near a dipole: V= kqd/r^2cosø = kp/r^2 cosø - dipole moment (C . m): p=qd -perpendicular bisector of the dipole: E=1/4πEo x p/r^3 - Torque on a dipole: T = pE sinø

The 4 histones found in eukaryotic cells

Two copies each of the histone proteins H2A, H2B, H3 and H4 form a histone core and about 200 base pairs of DNA are wrapped around this protein complex forming a nucleosome. The last histone, H1, seals off the DNA as it enters and eaves the nucleosome, adding stability to the structure; nucleosomes are composed of DNA wrapped around histone proteins- histones are one example of nucleoproteins.

Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q)

Ubiquinone (coenzyme Q) is another biologically active quinone that acts as an electron acceptor in complexes I, II, III of the electron transport chain,. it is reduced to ubiquinol

Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN1) reaction

Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution (SN1) reactions proceed in two steps : 1. the leaving groups leaves, forming a carbocation, an ion with a positively charged carbon atoms; 2. the nucleophile attacks the planar carbocation from either side, leading to a racemic mixture of products - SN1 reactions prefer more substituted carbons because alkyl groups can donate electron density and stabilize the positive charge of the carbocation - the rate of an SN1 reaction is dependent only on the concentration of the substrate: rate= k[R-L]

Transition metals

Unique because take on multiple oxidation states, so Transition metals can often form more than one ions, they can form complexes and when transition metal forms complexes its solubility within the solvent will increase.

Chromatography: Ion exchange chromatography

Use a charge column and a variably saline elutent: 1. anion exchange chromatography: the column is positive so negative charged proteins will bind and positive charged proteins will elute first; 2. Cation exchange chromatography: the column is negative so positive proteins will bind and negative charged proteins will elute first

Reflex Arcs

Use ability of interneurons in the spinal cord to relay information to the source of stimuli while simultaneously routing it to the brain

Inverse trigonometric functions

Use the calculated value from a ratio of side lengths to calculate the angle of interest, useful for determining the direction of a resultant from its component

Antibodies (or immunoglobulins, Ig)

Used by Immune system to target a specific antigen which may be a protein on the surface of antigen (invading organism) or toxin: have constant and variable region; the variable region is reponsible for antigen binding and two identical heavy and two identical light chains form a single antibody; they are held together by disulfide linkages and nocovalent interactions.

box plots (box and whisker plots)

Used to compare numerical data

Chromatography: Affinity chromatography

Uses a bound receptor or ligand and an eluent with free ligand or a receptors for the protein of interest

Electrophoresis

Uses a gel matrix to observe the migration of proteins in response to an electric field: electrophoresis moves charged particles toward their respective opppositely charged electrodes; the larger the particle the more slowy it migrates

Lineweaver-Burk Plots

Usuaful when determining the type of inhibition because Vmax and Km can be compared without estimation

Michaelis-Menten equation

V= Vmax [S] / Km + [S]

Kinematic (no displacement)

V= Vo + at

Kinematics (no time)

V^2= Vo^2 + 2ax

Psychoanalytic Perspective

Views personality as resulting from unconscious urges and desires

Virus

Viruses contain genetic material, a protein coat (capsid) and sometimes a lipid-containing envelope; viruses are obligate intracellular parasites, meaning that they cannot survive and replicate outside of a host cell. individual virus particles are called virions

Viruses infection and reprduction

Viruses infect cells by attaching to specific receptors and then either fusing with the plasma membrane, being brought in by endocytosis or injecting their genome into the cell; the virus reproduces by replicating and translating genetic material using the host cells's ribosomes, tRNA, amino acids and enzymes; viral porigency are released through cell death, lysis or extrusion

Visual processing

Vision like all senses, is processed through parllel processing: the ability to simultaneously analyze and combine information regarding color, shape and motion. Color is detected by cones

what are the fat soluble vitamins?

Vitamins A,D,E and K

The water dissociation constant Kw

Water dissociation constant (Kw) is 10^-14 at 298 K. Like other equilibrium constants, Kw is only affected by changes in temperature. Therefore , isolated changes in concentration, pressure or volume will not affect Kw.

Gestalt principles

Ways that the brain can infer missing parts of a picture when a picture is imcoplete

Denatured vs. reannealed DNA

When DNA strand is pulled apart and brought back together. Heat, alkaline PH and chemicals like formaldehyde and urea can cause denaturation of DNA; removal of these conditions may result in rennealing of the strands

Laminar Flow

When a fluid is moving, its flow can be laminar or turbulent. Laminar flow is smooth and orderly, and is often modeled as layers of fluid that flow parallel to each other.

Exhaustive

When a set of outcomes is exhaustive, there are no other possible outcomes

Balancing redox reactions

When balancing redox reactions, the half-reaction method, also called the ion-electron method, is the most common: 1. Separate the two half-reactions 2. Balance the atoms of each half-reaction. Start with all the elements besides H and O. In acidic solution, balance H and O using water and H+. In basic solution, balance H and O using water and OH- 3. balance the charges of each half-reaction by adding electrons as necessary to one side of the reaction 4. Multiply the half-reactions as necessary to obtain the same number of electrons in both half-reactions 5. add the half reactions, canceling out terms on both sides of the reaction arrow 6. confirm that the mass and charge are balanced *if you determine one ion to be an oxidizing agent then the other must be a reducing agent *neutral charges cancel each other out

what happens to the electron configuration when electrons are removed?

When cation is formed electrons will be removed from the sub-shell with the highest n value first

Incentive theory

explains motivation as the desire to pursue rewards and avoid punishments

Work-energy theorem

When net work is done on or by a system, the system's kinetic energy will change by the same amount. In more general applications, the work done on or by a system can be transferred to other forms of energy as well. The total work done by any object is equal to the change in kinetic energy for that object Wnet=∆K=Kf-Ki

Competitive Inhibition

When the inhibitor is similar to the substrate and binds at the active site of enzyme, it can be overcome by adding more substrate, Vmax is unchanged and Km is increased.

Oncogenes vs. mutated tumor suppressor genes

While the outcome of oncogenes and mutated tumor suppressor genes is the same (cancer), the actual cause is different Oncogenes promote the cell cycle while mutated tumor suppressors can no longer slow the cell cycle

Electrical vs. chemical transmission

Within a neuron, electricity is used to pass signals down the length of the axon. Between neurons, chemicals (neurotransmitter) are used to pass signals to the subsequent neuron (or gland or muscle)

Negative vs. Positive work

Work can be expressed as the area under a pressure-volume curve: when work is done by a system (gas expands) the work is said to be positive, when work is done on a system (gas compress) the work is said to be negative,

Kinematics (no final velocity)

X= Vot + (at^2)/2

Pythagorean theorem

X^2 + Y^2 = V^2, to calculate the magnitude of displacement, for total distance you just add up the distance

Average acceleration

a = ∆v / ∆t

Reduction potential

a Reduction potential quantifies the tendency for a species to gain electrons and be reduced. The higher the reduction potential, the more a given species wants to be reduced - Standard Reduction potential are calculated by comparison to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) under the standard conditions of 298K, 1 atm pressure and 1 M concentrations - The standard hydrogen electrode has a standard reduction potential of 0V

A complete ionic equation

a complete ionic equation accounts for all of the ions present in a reaction. To write a complete ionic reaction, split all aqueous compounds into their relevant ions. Keep solid salt intact

How is the peptide bond formed?

a condensation or dehydration reaction (releasing one molecule of water): the nucleophilic amino group of one amino acid attacks the electrophilic carbonyl group of another amino acids, amide bonds are rigid because of resonance.

a culture barrier

a culture barriers is a social difference that impedes interaction

A mating system

a mating system describes the way in which a group is organize in terms of sexual behavior: - Monogamy consists of exclusive mating relationships - Polygamy consists of one member of one sex having multiple exclusive relationships with members of the opposite sex, including polygyny (a male with multiple females) and polyandry (a female with multiple mates) - Promiscuity allows a member of one sex to mate with any member for the opposite sex without exclusivity

Demographic transition

a model used to represent drops in birth and death rates as a result of industrailization; during demographic transition, mortality rate drops before birth rate. Therefore, the population grows at first while mortaility rate is dropping, and then plateaus as the birth rate decreases as well; - at stage 1 both mortality and birth rates are high; at stage 2 mortality rate drops; stage 3 birth rate drops and then at stage 4 both mortality and birth rate are low

Expressed mutation: Missense mutation

a mutation where one amino acid substitutes for another

Expressed mutation: Nonsense mutation

a mutation where the codon now encodes for a premature stop codon (also known as a truncation mutation)

Elements of social interaction: A network

a network is an observable pattern of social relationships between individuals or groups

Normal distribution: Standard distribution

a normal distribution with a mean of zero and a standard deviation of one; it is used for most calculations; 68% of data points occur within one standard deviation of the mean, 95% within two, and 99% within three.

Temperature

a physical property of matter related to the average kinetic energy of the particles. Differences in temperature determine the direction of heat transfer -The Kelvin and Celsisus are the same size (change in 10k= change in 10˚C) - ∆1˚C=∆1.8˚F

a ritual

a ritual is a formalized ceremonial behavior in which members of a group or community regularly engage. it is governed by specific rules, including appropriate behavior and a predetermined order of events

position of dark fringes(minimum) in slit-lens setup

a sinø = n • (wavelength)

Compliance: Foot-in-the-door technique

a small request is made, and after gaining compliance, a larger request is made

Social Class

a social class is a category of people with shared socioeconomic characteristics. the three main social classes are upper, middle and lower class. these groups also have similar lifestyles, job opportunities, attitudes and behaviors.

Stimulus

a stimulus can be defined as anything to which an organism can respond.

Gene

a unit of DNA that encodes a specific protein or RNA molecule, and through transcription and translation, the gene can be expressed

values and beliefs

a values is what a person deems important in life, a belief is something a person considers to be trure

Dipole moment

a vector quantity given by the equation: p= qd - p= dipole moment - q= magnitude of the charge - d= displacement vector separating the two partial charges - Debye units (coulomb-meters)

Pythagorean theorem: sin cos tan

a^2 + b^2 = c^2

important Glycolytic enzymes: Glyceradlehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase

produces NADH, which can feed into the electron transport chain

Piaget and adaptation

according to Piaget, adaptation to information comes about by two complementary process: assimilation- process of classifying new information into existing schemata and accommodation- the process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass this new information.

Pleasure Principle

according to this principle the aim is to achieve immediate gratification to relieve any pent-up tension, id functions according to this principle,

Acid-Base Nomenclature for oxyacids

acids formed from oxyanions are called oxyacids; if the anion ends in -ite (less oxygen) then the acid will end with -ous acid; if the anion ends in -ate (more oxygen) then the acid will end with -ic aicd

what phases are Mismatch repair mechanism active?

active during S phase (proofreading) and G2 phase (MSH2 and MLH1, nucleotide and base excision pair mechanism are most active during G1 and G2 phase

Controlled (effortful) processing

active memorization, with practice, controlled processing can become automatic.

Arrhenius vs. Bronsted-Lowey and Lewis acid and bases

all arrhenius acids and bases are bronsted-lowry acids and bases, and all bronsted-lowry acids and bases are Lewis acids and basess; however, the converse of these statements are not necessarily true ( that is, not all Lewis acids and bases are bronsted-Lowry acids and bases, and not all bronsted-Lowry acids and bases are arrhenius acids and bases.

Signal detection epxeriments

allow us to look at response bias. In this experiment, a stimulus may or may not be given and the subject is asked to state whether or not the stimulus was given. there are 4 possible outcomes: hit, misses, false alarms, or correct negative.

Social mobility

allows one to acquire higher level employment opportunities by achieving required credentials and experiences. social mobility can either occur in a positive upward direction or a negative downward direction depending on whether one is promoted or demoted in status

Selective attention

allows one to pay attention to a particular stimulus while determine if additional stimuli in the background require attention; cocktail party phenomoneon

Coefficient of linear expansion

alpha= coefficient of linear coefficient

Pentose Phosphate pathway (PPP)

also known as the hexose monophosphate (HMP) shunt, occurs in the cytoplasm of most cells, generating NADPH and sugars for biosynthesis (derived from ribulose 5-phosphate) - NADPH and NADH are not the same thing. NAD+ is an energy carrier; NADPH is used in biosynthesis in the immune system and to help prevent oxidative damage - the rate limiting eznyme is glucose-6p-phosphate dehydrogenase, which is activated by NADP+ and insuline and inhibited by NADPH

Nucleophilic Acyl substitution reaction: amides

amides can be hydrolyzed to carboxylic acids under strongly acidic or basic conditions. The attacking nucleophile is water or the hydroxide anion.

Ionization energy def. and trend

amount of energy necessary to remove an electron from the valence shell of a gaseous species. It increases from left to right and decreases from top to bottom. first IE will always be smaller than the second IE, which will always be smaller than the 3rd IE

Electron affinity def. and trend

amount of energy released when a gaseous species gains an electron in its valence shell; increases from left to right and decrease from top to bottom.

Amphoteric molecules

amphoteric molecules can act as either acids or base, depending on reaction conditions. water is a common example of an amphoteric molecule

Polysaccharide role: starches

amylose and amylopectin, function as a main energy storage form for plants: starches are polymers of 1,4-linked alpha-D-glucose

Stoichiometry

an application of dimensional analysis, is often simplified to a series of 3 fractions, which demonstrate and underlying 3-step process: 1. convert from the given units to moles; 2. use the mole ratio; 3. convert from moles to the desired units. - common converstions: 1mole of idea gas at STP=22.4L, 1 mole of any susbtance= 5.022x10^23 particles (avogadro's number), 1 mole of any substance= its molar mass in grams (from periodic table)

Compliance: That's not-all technique

an individuals is made an offer, but before making a decision, is told the deal is even better than she expected

Membrane components: desmosomes and hemidesmosomes

anchor layers of epithelial tissue together; desmosomes bind adjacent cells by anchoring to their cytoskeletons and it is formed by interactions between transmembrane proteins associated with intermediate filament inside adjacent cells l Hemidemosomes's main function is to attach epithelial cells to underlaying structures, especially the basement membrane

Adipocytes

animal cells used for storage of large triacylglycerol deposits

Anomie

anomie is a state of normlessness. anomic conditions erode social solidarity by means of excessive individualism, social inequality and isolation

Inclined planes

another ex. of two-dimensional movement. it is often easiest to consider the dimensions as being parallel and perpendicular to the surface of the plane.

Ray diagrams for concave (converging) mirrors

any time an object is at the focal point of a converging mirror, the reflected rays will be parallels and thus, the image will be at infinity

Lewis Dot Symbols

are a chemical representation of an atom's valence electron; drawing a complete Lewis dot structure requires a balance of valence, bonding, and non-bonding electrons in a molecule or ion

Confidence interval

are a range of values about a sample mean that are used to estimate the population mean. a wider interval is associated with a higher confidence level (95% is common).

Disproportionation (dismutation) reactions

are a type of redox reactions in which one element is both oxidized and reduced, forming at least two molecules containing the element with different oxidation states

Inducible systems (such as lac operon)

are bonded to a repressor under normal condition; they can be turned on by inducer pulling the repressor from the operator site. Such a system in which the binding of protein reduces transcriptional acitivity are called negative control.

Antibonding orbitals

are created by head-to-head or tail-to-tail overlap of atomic orbitals that have opposite signs and are energetically unfavorable

Standard conditions in thermodynamics

are defined as 298K, 1atm and 1M concentrations; standard temperature and pressure (STP) used in gas law is different: STP= 0˚C (273K), 1 atm pressure.

Neuron anatomy: nodes of Ranvier

are exposed areas of myelinated axons that permit saltatory conduction , critical for rapid signal conduction

Consciousness-altering drugs

are grouped by effect into depressant, stimulants, opiate and hallucinogens

Kinetic products

are higher in free energy than thermodynamic products and can form at lower temperature. these are sometimes termed "fast" products because they can form more quickly under such conditions

Prions

are infectious proteins that trigger misfolding of other proteins, usually converting an alpha-helical structure to a beta-pleated sheet. this decreases the solubility and degradability of the misfolded protein.

primary factor that influence emotion (4)

are instincts, arousal, drives and needs

Thermodynamic products

are lower in free energy than kinetic products and are therefore more stable. despite proceeding more slowly than the kinetic pathway, the thermodynamic pathway is more spontaneous (more negative ∆G)

Intermediates

are molecule that exist within the course of a reaction but are neither reactant nor products overall

Enhancer

are more than 25 base pairs away from the transcription start site; enhancers are also transcriptional regulatory sequence that functions by enhancing RNA polymerase at a single promotor site

Membrane components: embedded proteins

are most likely part of a catalytic complex or involved in cellular communication

Neologisms

are newly invented words

Neuroglia or Glial cells: Microglia

are phagocytic cells that ingests and breakdown waste products and pathogen in the central nervous system

Viroids

are plant pathogens that are small circles of complementary RNA that can turn off genes, resulting, in metabolic and structural derangements of the cell and-potentially0cell death

Ionic Charges

are predictable by group number and type of element (metal or nonmetal) for respective elements, but are generally unpredictable for non representative elements: metal from positively charged cations based on group number(group 1 and group 2 have charges +1 and +2 ); nonmetals from negatively charged anions based on the number of electrons needed to achieve an octet (group 17 = -1)

Lipids: waxes

are present in verysmall amounts, if at all; they are most prevalent in plants and function in waterproofing and defense.

Steroids: Steroid hormone

are secreted by endocrine glands into the bloodstream and then travel on protein carriers to distant sites, where they can bind to specific high affinity receptors, work at low concentrations and affect gene expression and metabolism

Piaget's stages of cognitive development (4)

are sensorimotor, preoperational, concreter operational and formal operational.

Correlation and causation

are separate concepts that are linked by Hill's criteria, data must be interpreted in the context of the current hypothesis and existing scientific knowledge, statistical and practical significance are distinct

Factors involved in decision making: Heuristics

are shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions

Mixed-order reactions

are those have a rate order that changes over time.

Broken-order reactions

are those with noninteger orders

Bacteriophages

are viruses that target bacteria. in addition to the other structures, they contain a trail sheath, which injects the genetic material into a bacterium, and tail fibers, which allow the bacteriophage to attach to the host cell

Promoters

are within 25 base pairs of the transcription start site

Bias: detection bias

arrises from educated professionals using their knowledge in an inconsistent way by searching for an outcome disproportionately in certain populations

Microstates

as the number of available microstate increases the potential energy of a molecule is distributed over that larger number of microstates, increasing entropy

Observational: Cross-sectional studies

assess both exposure and outcome at the same point in time

Observational: case-control studies

assess outcome status and then assess for exposure history

phase changes: critical vs. triple point

at temperatures above the critical point, the liquid and gas phases are indistinguishable; at the triple point, all three phases of matter exist in equilibrium

Bohr model

attempt to describe the behavior of the single electron in a hydrogen atom

Electronnegativity def and trend

attractive force of the nucleus for electrons within a bond; it increases from left to right and decreases from top to bottom.

n (principle quantum number)

average energy of a shell (1,2,3,etc.)

The 3 important enzymes in gluconeogenesis: Glucose-6-phosphatase

converts glucose 6-[hosphate to free glucose, by-passing glucokinase. it is found only in endoplasmic reticulum of the liver.

pI of charged amino acids

averaging the two pKa values that correspond to protonation and deprotonation of the zwitterion. (ex: Because Lysine has a basic side chain we ignore the pKa of the carboxyl group and average the pKa of the side chain and the amino group)

Reinforcement schedules

behaviors learned through variable-ratio schedules are the hardest to extinguish

Babinski reflex

big toe is extended and the other toes fan in response to the brushing of the sole of the foot

Neuroplasticity

both learning and memory rely on changes in brain chemistry and physiology, the extent of which depends on neuroplasticity which decreases as we age

Capacitance base on parallel plate geometry

c = e_o (A/d)

speed of light

c= Frequency x wavelength

cDNA

cDNA results from the reverse transcription of processed mRNA

Linear graphs

can be distinguished by their axes, linear graphs show the relationships between two variables, it can be linear parabolic, exponential or logarithmic. - slope= rise/run= ∆y/∆x

semilog and log-log plots

can be distinguished by their axes, the axes on a graph will determine which type of plot is being used and provide key information between the relevant variables

Membrane components : extracellular ligands

can bind to membrane receptors, which function as channels or enzymes in second messenger pathways; membrane receptors activate or deactivate transporters for faciliated dissusiion and active transported

Micelle

can dissolve a lipid-soluble molecule in its fatty acids core and washes away with water because of it shell of carboxylate head groups; micelles organize in aqueous solution by forcing hydrophobic tails to the interior, allowing the hydrophilic heads to interact with water in the environment

Membrane components: transmembrane proteins

can have one or more hydrophobic domains and are most likely to function as receptors or channels

Cancer and cell cycle

cancer occurs when cell cycle control becomes deranged allowing damaged cells to undergo mitosis without regard to quality or quantity of the new cells produced. Cancerous cells may begin to produce factors that allow them to escape their site and invade or metastasize elsewhere

Mutually Exclusive outcomes

cannot occur simultaneously

Capacitors in parallel

capacitors in parallel sum together to crease a larger equivalent capacitance

Membrane components : carbohydrates

carbohydrates can form a protective glycoprotein coat and also function in cell recognition

Amides

carboxylic acid derivatives where it replae the -OH group with an amino group. it use the suffix -amide or the prefix carbamoyl or amido- and substitutes are designated with a capital N-

mRNA

carries the message from DNA in the nucleus via transcription of the gene by RNA polymerase enzymes in the nucleus; it travels into the cytoplasm to be translated; mRNA is the messenger of genetic information, DNA codes for proteins but cannot perform any of the important enzymatic reactions that proteins are responsible for, mRNA takes the information from the DNA to the ribosomes, where creation of the primary protein structure occurs. antiparallel to DNA.

peptidyl transferase

catalyze formation of peptide bond

Cell communication

cells communicate through a number of different signaling methods. An inducer release factors to promote the differentiation of a competent responder - autocrine signals act on the same cell that released the signal - paracrine signals act on cells in the localarea - Juxtacrine signals act through direct stimulation of the adjacne tcells - Endocrine signals act on distant tissues after traveling though the bloodstream. These are often grwoth factors, which ar epeptides that promote differentiation and mitosis in certain tissues - if 2 tissues both induce further differnetiation in each other, this is termed recirporacal inducation; signaling often occurs via gradients

Alpha-amylose

cleaves randomly along the chin to yield shorter polysaccharide chains, maltose and glucose

Lipid rafts

collections of similar lipids with or without associated proteins that serve as attachment points for other biomolecules, often serve riles in signaling

Lenses: Concave lenses

concave lenses are diverging systems and will only produce virtual, upright images

spherical mirrors: concave mirror

concave mirror are converging system and can produce real, inverted images or virtual, upright images, depending on the placement of the object relative to the focal point

Socialization: Conformity

conformity is changing beliefs or behaviors in order to fit into a group or society

The arcuate fasciculus

connects Wernicke's area and Broca's area. Damage results in conduction aphasia, marked by inability to repeat words heard despite intact speech generation and comprehension

The Biopsychosocial approach

considers the relative contributions of biological psychological, and social components of an individual's disorder; treatment also fall into these three areas

Thematic apperception test (ex of projection)

consists of a series of pictures that are presented to the client, who is asked to make up a story about each one. The story presumably will elucidate the client's own unconscious thoughts and feelings

Long-term memory: Implicit (non declarative or procedural) memory

consists of our skills and conditioned responses

Long-term memory: Explicit (declarative) memory

consists of those memories that requires conscious recall, it can be further divided into semantic memory (the facts that we know) and episodic memory (our experiences); flashbulb memories are the detailed recollection of stimuli surrounding an important event, it is a combination of episodic and semantic memory.

The 3 important enzymes in gluconeogenesis: Pyruvate carboxylase

converts pyruvate into oxaloacetate, which is converted to phosphoenolpruvate carboxykinase (PEPCK. togerther , these two enzymes bypass pyruvate kinase. Pyruvate carboxylase is activated by acetyl-coA from beta-oxidation; PEPCK is activated by glucagon and cortisol.

spherical mirrors: convex mirrors

convex mirror are diverging systems and will only produce virtual upright images

Correspondent inference theory

correspondent inference theory is used to describe attribution made by observing the intentional (especially unexpected) behaviors performed by another people

Knockout mice

created by deleting a gene of interest

Cultural Relativism

cultural relativism refers to the recognition that social groups and cultures should be studied on their own terms

Current carrying wires

current-carrying wires create magnetic fields that are concentric circles surrounding the wire; Todertermine the direction of the field vectors, use a right-hand rule (point your thumb in the direction of the current and wrap your fingers around the current-carrying wire. th your fingers then mimic the circular field lines, curling aroud the wire_

why might uracil be excluded from DNA but not RNA?

cytosine degradation results in uracil

position of dark fringes(minimum) in double-slit setup

d sinø = (n+ 1/2) • (wavelength)

Pressure (Pa, 1pa= 1N/m^2)

defined as a measure of forcer per unit areas; exerted by a fluid on the walls of its container and objects placed in the fluid; pressure exerted by gas is always perpendicular to container

Kinetic molecular theory: Graham's law

describes the behavior of gas diffusion or effusion, stating that gases with lower molar masses will diffuse or effuse faster than gases with higher molar mass at the same temperature: r1/r2 = √M2/M1 - The higher the temperature the faster the molecules move; larger the molecules they slower they move. -KE= .5 MV^2 = 3/2 KbT where Kb= Boltzman constant - Diffusion is the spreading out of particles from high to low concentrations - effusion is the movement of gas from one component to another though a small opening under pressure

Membrane transport: passive transport- osmosis

describes the diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane

The Nernst equation

describes the relationship between the concentration of species in a solution under nonstandard conditions and the electromotive force

l (azimuthal quantum number)

describes the subshells within a given principal energy level (s, p, d, and f)

The change in Gibbs Free energy (∆G)

determines whether or not a reaction is spontaneous, however, the spontaneous reaction (-∆G) does not mean it will run quickly; high substrate conditions saturate the active sites of the zyme leading to a maximal turnover

Proximal stimuli

directly interact with and affect sensory receptors, and inform the observer about the presence of distal stimuli

Independent vs. Dependent variable

during research, we manipulate independent variables and observe changes in the dependent variable, on a graph the independent variable belong on the x-axis and the dependent variable belongs on the y-axis.

Anticodon

during translation, the codon of the mRNA is recognized by a complementary anticodon on a tRNA; the anticodon sequence allows the tRNA to pair with the codon in the mRNA

important Glycolytic enzymes: 3-phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase

each perform substrate-level phosphorylation, placing an inorganic phosphate (Pi_ onto ADP to form ATP

Electron- donating groups & electron withdrawing groups and acidity

electron donating groups like alkyl-groups decrease acidity because they destabilize negative charges. resonance or Electron-withdrawing groups, such as electronegative atoms and aromatic rings, increase acidity because they stabilize negative charges

Hund's rule

electrons fill empty orbitals first before doubling up electrons in the same orbital.

Electrophiles

electrophiles are "electron-loving" and contain a positive charge or are positively polarized: - more positive compounds are more electrophilic - alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, carboxylic acids and their derivative can act as electrophiles

Intermolecular forces:

electrostatic attractions between molecules. They are significantly weaker than covalent bonds (which are weaker than ionic bonds)

Electric field (E)

every charge generates an electric field, which can exert forces on other charges; the electric field is the ratio of the force that is exerted on a test charge to the magnitude of that charge; Electric fields are produced by source charges (Q) and when a test charge (q) is placed in an electric field (E) it will experience an electrostatic force: E= Fe/q= kQ/r^2 -Q= source charge magnitude - q= manitude of the force left by test charge - electric field vectors can be represented as field lines that radiate outward from positive source charges and radiate inward to negative source charges; the denser the field lines the stronger the electric field, note that field lines of a signel charge never cross each other - positive test charges will move in the direction of the filed lines; negative test charges will move in the direction opposite the field lines

External magnetic fields

exert forces on charges moving in any direction except parallel or antiparallel to the field

Primitive Reflex

exist in infant and should disappear with age, serves as a protective role .

Factors involved in decision making: Biases

exist when an experimenter or decision maker is unable to objectively evaluate information

Preconventional

expected in children

Language: Learning (behaviorist) theory

explains language acquisition as being controlled by operant conditioning and reinforcement by parents and caregivers

Short term memory

fades quickly, over the course of approximately 30 seconds without rehearsal, it also has limited capacity to approximately 7 items: 7+/- 2 rules; short-term memory is housed primarily in the hippocampus, which is also responsible for the consolidation of short term memory into long term memory

Sociology- Theories and institutions: feminist theory

feminist theory explores the ways in which one gender can be subordinate, minimized, or devalued compared to the other

when approaching a circuit problem

find total circuit values: R_s = R1 + R2 + R3 ... + Rn or 1/R_p = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3+ .... + 1/Rn then I= V/R

Sensory memory

fist and most fleeting kind of memory storage, it consists of both iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory) memory, based on neurotransmitter activity

Base excision repair

fixes non-deforming lesion of the DNA helix (such as cytosine deamination) by removing the base, leaving the apurinic/apyrimidimic (AP) site. and AP endonuclease then removes the damaged sequence, which can be filled in with the correct bases

Collision theory: activation energy

for a collision to be effective, molecules must be in proper orientation and have sufficient kinetic energy to exceed the activation energy; activation energy Ea or the energy barrier is the minimum energy of collision necessary for a reaction to take place - rate of reaction = Z x f - Z= total number of collision occurring per second -f= fraction of collitions that are effective

boiling point elevation

freezing point depression and boiling point elevation are shifts in the phase equilibria dependent on the molality of the solution - boiling point elevation: ∆Tb= i . K_b . m, where ∆Tb= the increase in boiling point, i is the van't Hoff factor- corresponds to the number of particles into which a compound dissociates in solution, Kb is a proportionality constant and m is molality of solution

Noble gases

fully filled valence shell and prefer to not to give up to take on electrons. Very high ionization energies and nonexistent elctronegativits and electron affinities

half life

half life is the amount of time required for half of a sample of radioactive nuclei to decay

The 7 universal emotions

happiness, sadness, contempt, surprise, fear, disgust and anger

first- order reactions

have a nonconstant rate that depends on the concentration of one reactant, such that doubling the concentration of that reactant results in a doubling of the rate of formation of the product: rate= K[A]^1 or rate =k[B]^1; a concentration vs. time curve of a first order reaction is nonlinear; the slope of a ln[A] vs. time plot is -k for a first order reaction

Common Logarithms

have base of 10 and base e(Euler's number about 2.718). Base-10 Logarithms are called common logarithms, whereas those based on Euler's number (loge or ln) are ca;;ed natural logarithms: Logx≈lnx/2.303

Hair cells

have long tuffs of stereocilia on their top surface, movement of the fluid inside the cochlea leads to depolarization of the neurons associated with the hair cell

Motor Proteins

have one or more heads capable of force generation through conformational change, have catalytic activity acting as ATPases to power movement.

Power's role in significance

if a study has low power, it is more difficult to get results that are statistically significant

Nucleophilic acyl substitution: Formation of amide

if the nucleophile is ammonia or amine, an amide is formed. Amides are given the suffix -amide. Cyclic amides are called lactams

Nucleophilic acyl substitution: Formation of Anhydride

if the nucleophile is another carboxylic acid, an anhydride is formed both linear and cyclic anhydrides are given the suffix anhydride

Circularly polarized light

in Circularly polarized light, all of the light rays have electric fields with equal intensity but constantly rotating direction; circularly polarized light is created by exposing unpolarized light to special pigments

Meiosis 2

in meiosis 2, sister chromatids are separated from each other in a process that is functionally identical to mitosis. sister chromatids are copies of the same DNA held together at the centromere

Hypothalamus: Negative feedback

in negative feedback, the final hormone (or product) of a pathway inhibits hormones (or enzymes) earlier in the pathway, maintaining homeostasis

In probability: words and, or

in probability when using the word: and-multiply the probabilities; or- add the probabilities (and subtrac the probability of both happening together)

Primary Factors that influence motivation: Arousal theory

in the arousal theory, people perform actions to maintain arousal, the state of being awake and reactive to stimuli, at an optimal level. The Yerkes-Dodson law shows that performance is optimal at a medium level of arousal

Operant conditioning: reinforcement

increases the likelihood of a behavior

Self-serving bias Theoretical approaches

individuals views their own success based on internal factors and their own failure as external factors

Moro reflex

infant extends the arms then slowly retracts them and cries in response to a sensation of falling

Automatic processing

information gained without effort

Hypothalamus: Prolactin-inhibiting factor (PIF or dopamine)

inhibits the release of prolactin; whereas most of the hormones in the anterior pituitary require a factor from the hypothalamus to be released, prolactin in the exception. as long as the hypothalamus releases PIF (which is actually dopamine),no prolactin will be released. it is the absence of PIF that allows prolactin to be released

The cytoskeleton: intermediate filaments

intermediate filaments are involved in cell-cell adhesion or maintenance of the integrity of the cytoskeleton; they help anchor organelles. common examples include keratin and desmin.

The limbic system: Prefrontal cortex

involved with planning, expressing personality and making decisions. - the ventral prefrontal cortex is critical for experiencing emotion - the ventromedial prefrontal cortex is involved in controlling emotional responses from the amygdala and decision-making - the left frontal lobe is associated with psotive feelings and the right fronta lobe such as happy is associated with negative feelings such as sadness and disgust

Factors involved in decision making: Intuition

is a "gut feeling" regarding a particular decision. however, intuition can often be attributed to experience with similar situations; emotional state often plays a role in decision making.

spherical aberration

is a blurring of the periphery of an image as a result of inadequate reflection of parallel beams at the edge of a mirror or inadequate refraction of parallel beams at the edge of a lense

Inclusive fitness

is a measure of an organism's success in population this is based on the number of offspring, success in supporting offspring, and the ability of the offspring to then support others

social exclusion

is a sense of powerlessness when individual feel alienated from society

Eukaryotic organelles: The necleolus

is a subsection of the nucleus in which ribosomal RNA (rRNA) is synthesized

Loosening of associations

is a type of disordered thought in which the patient moves between remotely related ideas

A stressor

is anything that leads to a stress response and can include environment, daily events, workplace or academic settings, social expectations, chemical and biological stressors. psychological stressors include pressure, control, predictability , frustration and conflict

Percent yield

is calculated by dividing actual yield by theoretical yield and converting to a percentage

Body dysmorphic disorder

is characterized by an unrealistic negative evaluation of one's appearance or a specific body parts. The individual often takes extreme measures to correct the perceived imperfection

Echopraxia

is imitations of others' actions

NADH produced in glycolysis

is oxidized by the mitochondrial electron transport chain when oxygen is present, but if oxygen in mitochondria is absent then the NADH produced in glycolysis is oxidized by cytoplamic lactate dehydrogenase (fermentation) . examples include red blood cless, skeletal muscle and any cell deprived of oxygen

Glycogenolysis

is the breakdown of glycogen using two main enzymes: Glycogen phosphorylase and debranching enzyme

Free energy of the reaction (∆Grxn)

is the difference between the free energy of the products and the free energy of the reactant: +∆G= endergonic= energy absorbed -∆G=exogernoic= energy released - kinetics and thermodynamics are different, free eenergy of the product can be raised or lowered thereby changing the value of ∆G without affecting the value of forward activation energy-Ea

Standard electromotive Force (E˚_cell)

is the difference in standard potential between the two half-cells: E˚_cell = E˚_red, cathode - E˚_red, anode - for galvanic cells, the difference of the reduction potentials of the two half-reactions is positive; for electrolytic cells, the difference of the reduction potentials of the two half-reactions is negative

Neuron anatomy: nerve terminal or synaptic bouton

is the end of the axon from which neurotransmitters are released

culture: Assimilation

is the process by which a group or individual's culture begins to melt into another culture

Mate choice or intersexual selection

is the selection of mate based on attraction and traits; direct benefit provide adavantage to the mate. Indirect benefits provide advantages to offspring

The rate order of a reaction

is the sum of all individual rate orders in the rate law

Functional fixedness

is the tendency to use objects only in the way they are normally utilized, which may create barriers to problem solving

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders

is used to diagnose psychological disorder. its current version is DSM-5; it categorizes mental disorders based on symtpom patterns

Neuron anatomy: axon hillock

is where the cell body transitions to the axon, and where action potentials are initiated

what are made up of structural proteins?

it compose the cytoskeleton, anchoring proteins and much of the extracellular matrix

Theories of emotion: Schachter-Singer theory (or cognitive arousal/ two factor- theory)

it states that both arousal and the labeling of arousal based on enevionment must occur in order for an emotion to be experienced;

The octet Rule

it states that elements will be most stable with eight valence electrons. However there are many exceptions to this rule.

Equation for specific rotation

l is always in dm: 1cm=.1dm Dextrorotatory= clockwise= +

Wernicke's area

language comprehension is controlled by Wernicke's area. damage results in Wernick's aphasia, a fluent, nonsensical aphasia with lack of comprehension

Magnification equation

m= - i/o - i = the distance between the image and the mirror - o = the distance between object and mirror

Concentration: Molality

m= moles of solute / kilograms of solvent

Monocistronic vs. Polycistronic

mRNA is read in 3-nucleotide segments termed codons; in eukaryotes mRNA is monocistronic meaning that each mRNA molecule translates into only one protein product; in prokaryotes, mRNA is monocistronic meaning that mRNA can result in different proteins.

GABA and Glycine

produces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials and Act as brain "stabilizers"; exert effects by causing hyper polarization of the postsynaptic membrane

rRNA (ribosomal RNA)

makes up the ribosome and is enzymatically active; synthesized in nucleolus and functions as an integral part of the ribosomal machinery, many rRNA molecules function as ribozymes, that is enzymes made of RNA molecules instead of peptides

Myelin

many axons are coated in myelin, an insulating substance that prevents signal loss: - myelin is created by oligodendrocytes in the central nervous system and Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system - Myelin prevents dissipation of the neural impulse and crossing of neural impulses from adjacent neurons -it increases the speed of conduction in the axon,

Density (kg/m^3 or g/mL or g/cm^3)

mass per unit volume of a substance (fluid or solid). Density of water is 1g/cm^3 = 1000 kg/m^3

Membrane: components Membrane-associated proteins

may act as recognition molecules or enzymes

Specialized membranes: membrane potential

membrane potential is maintained by the sodium-potassium pump and leak channels: - the electrical potential created by one ion can be calculated using the Nernst equation (z= charge of the ion) - the resting potential of a membrane at physiological temperature can be calculated using the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz voltage equation

Electrodeposition equation:

mol M = I. t / nF - M= about of metal ion deposited - t =time I= current -n= number of electron equivalents for a specific metal ion *Mnemonic Calculating moles of metal It is Not Fun

Standard deviation

most useful information, it is the measurement of variability about the mean. standard deviation is calculated by taking the difference between each data point and the mean, squaring this value, dividing the sum of all of theses squared values by the number of point in the data set point minus one, and then taking square root of this result; another definition of outlier is any value that lies more than three standard deviations from the mean

Electrophoresis: Native PAGE

most useful to compare the molecular size or the charge of proteins but are limited by varying mass-to-charge and mas-to-size ratios of cellular proteins because multiple different proteins may experience the same level of migration

silent or degenerate mutation

mutations in the wobble position, there is no effect on the expression of the amino cid and therefore no adverse effects on the polypeptide sequence

Sensory receptors

nerves that respond to stimuli and trigger electrical signals

Theories of emotion: James-Lange theory

nervous system arousal leads to a cognitive response in which the emotion is labeled= a stimulus results first in physiological arousal which leads to a secondary response in which the meotion is labeled

Adiabatic process

no heat is exchanged

Enantiomers

non-superimposable mirror image thus have opposite stereochemistry at every chiral carbon. They have same chemical and physical properties except for rotation of plane-polarized light and reactions in the chiral environment. (R OR S, + or -

Diastereomers

nonsuperimposable configurations of molecules with similar connectivity. They differ at at least one but not all chiral carbons.

Norms

norms are social rules that define the boundaries of acceptable behavior

Z-mass number (superscript)

number of protons + neutrons. Almost all atoms with Z>1 have at least one neutron

Frequency of a standing wave (closed pipes)

nv/4L

phase changes: vaporization (evaporation or boiling) and condensation

occur at the boundary between the liquid and the gas phases

phase changes: Fusion (melting) and freezing (crystallization or solidification)

occur at the boundary between the solid and liquid phases

Glycolysis

occurs in the cytoplasm of all cells, and does not require oxygen. it yields 2 ATP per molecule of glucose

Fluorescence

occurs when a species absorbs high-frequency light and then returns to its ground state in multiple steps. Each step has less energy than the absorbed light and is within the visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum

Double displacement reactions

occurs when elements from two different compounds trade places with each other to form two new compounds.

DNA replication is Semiconservative

one old parent strand one new daughter strand is incorporated into each of the two new DNA molecules.

pH and OH

pH and OH can be calculated given the concentrations of H3O+ and OH- ions, respectively. In aqueous solutions, pH +pOH =14 at 298 K or 25˚C

important Glycolytic enzymes: Phosphofructokinase -1 (PFK-1)

phosphoraltes fructose 6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-bisphosphate in the rate-limiting step of glycolysis. PFK-1 is activated by AMP and Fructose 2,6 bisphosphate and is inhibited by ATP and citrate

Power

power is the capacity to influence people through real or perceived rewards and punishments. it often depends on the unequal distribution of value resources. power differentials create social inequality

Power (P)

power of lenses are measured in terms of diopters, where ƒ (focal length) is in meters and is given by the equation: P = 1/ƒ - nearsighted need diverging lens - farsighted need converging lens

Lipids: Cholesterol

present in large amounts and contributes to mmebrane fluidity and stability

Isobaric processess

pressure is hold constant

Prevalence

prevalence is calculated as the number of cases of a disease per population in a given period of times: for example, cases per 1000 people per year

Reactions of alcohols: primary alcohols

primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydes only by Pyridinium chloro-chromate (PCC); they will be oxidized all the way to carboxylic acids by any stronger oxidizing agents

Cognitive process theory

propose in the cognitive process dream theory that wakeful and dreaming states use the same mental system within the brain, particularly stream-of consciousness

Radioactive decay

radioactive decay is the loss of small particle from the nucleus

Real gases

rate gases deviate from ideal behavior under high pressure (low volume) and low temperature conditions - at moderately high pressures, low volumes, or low temperatures, real gases will occupy less volume than predicted by the ideal gas law because the particles have intermolecular attractions - at extremely high pressures, low volumes or low temperatures, real gases will occupy more volume than predicted by the ideal gas law because the particles occupy physical space

rate law

rate laws take the form of rate= K [A]^x[B]^y; where k= reaction rate coefficient or rate constant and the exponent x and y are the orders of the reaction - the rate orders usually do not match the stoichiometric coefficients - rate laws must be determined from experimental data: consider a reaction with two reactnatns, A and B forming product c; Imagine two trails in which the concentration of A is constant while the concentration of B doubles; if the rate of the formation of product C has subsequently quadruped then the exponent on [B] must be two because 2^y=4, y=2 ([B] here is the proportionality or the factor that it is increased by) and then you repeat this process for the other reactants. - remember that rate is always measure in units of concentration over time= molarity/second - note that product concentrations never appear appear in a rate law; - the expression for equilibrium includes the concentrations for all the species in the reaction both reactant and products but the expression of chemical kinetics- the rate law expression- include only the reactant; Keq indicated where the reactions's equilibrium position lies and the rate indicate how quickly the reaction will get there

Efficiency

ratio of the machine's work output to work input when nonconservative force are taken into account

Sociology- Theories and institutions: rational choice theory

rational choice theory states that individuals will make decisions that maximize potential benefit and minimize potential harm; exchange theory applies ration choice theory within social group

culture: subcultures

refers to a group of people within a culture that distinguish themselves from the primary culture to which they belong

Meritocracy

refers to a society in which advancement up the social ladder is based on intellectual talent and achievement

Mortality

refers to deaths caused by a given diseases

Top-down (conceptually driven) processing

refers to recognition of an object by memories and expectations, with little attention to detail. it is faster, but more prone to mistakes

Optical activity

refers to the ability of a molecule to rotate plane-polarized light: d- or + molecules rotate to the right; l- or - rotate to the left.

Language: Phonology

refers to the actual sound of speech

Language: Morphology

refers to the building blocks of words, such as rules for pluralization (-s in English) and past tense (-ed) and so forth

Language: pragmatics

refers to the changes in language delivery depending on context

culture: Multiculturalism

refers to the encouragement of multiple cultures within a community to enhance diversity

Somatosensation

refers to the four touch modalities: pressure, vibration, pain and temperature - pacinian corpuscles :responds to deep pressure and vibration - meissner corpuscles: respond to light touch - Merkle cells (discs) : respond to deep pressure and texture - Ruffini endings: responding to stretch - Free nerve ending: respond to pain and temperature

Nondisjunction

refers to the incorrect segregation of homologous chromosome during anaphase 1 or of sister chromatids during anaphase 2. in either case, one daughter cell ends up with two copies of related genetic material, while the other receives 0

Language: semantics

refers to the meaning of words

Urbanization

refers to the process of sense area of population creating a pull for migration; in other words, creating cities

Peer pressure

refers to the social influence placed on individuals by others they consider equals - The urge toward conformity could outweigh the desire to provide the correct answer

Social loafing

refers to the tendency of individuals to put in less effort when in a group seeting than individually

Regenerative capacity

regenerative capacity is the ability of an organism to regrow certain parts of the body. the liver has high regenerative capacity, while the heart has low regenerative capacity

Fixed-ratio schedules

reinforce a behavior after a specific number of performance of that behavior; continuous reinforcement is a fixed-ration schedules

Neurotransmistters

released by neurons to carry a signal to another neuron or effector (a muscle fiber or a gland)

The limbic system: hypothalamus

releases neurotransmitters that affect mood and arousal

Roeschach inkblot test (ex of projection)

relies on the assumption that the client project his or her unconscious feelings into the shape

Long-term memory

requires elaborative rehearsal and is the result of increased neuronal connectivity

Membrane transport: active transport

requires energy in the form of ATP or an existing favorable ion gradient, active transport may be primary or secondary depending on the energy source; secondary active transport can be further classifies as symport or antiport

Working memory

requires short-term memory, attention and executive function to manipulate information, it enables us to keep a few pieces of information in our consciousness simultaneously and to manipulate that information

Long-term potentiation

responsible for the conversion of short-term to long-term memory, is the strengthening of neuronal connections resulting from increased neurotransmitter release and adding of receptor sites.

Actor-observe asymmetry (or bias)

results from the self-serving bias (by the actor) and the fundamental attribution error (by the observer) . Actor-observer bias holds that. due to our unique knowledge about our own actions, we are more likely to make situational attributions for the self as compared to others (ex: forget homework)

Reversible reactions and Dynamic equilibria

reversible reactions eventually reach a state in which energy is minimized and entropy is maximized, when reaction do not proceed all the way to the right and any reaction at equilibrium has equal forward and reverse rate of reaction; chemical equilibria are dynamic- the reactions occurring at a constant rate; the concentration of reactants and products remain constant because the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction.

Bipolar cells

rods and cones synapse on bipolar cells, which synapse on ganglion cells. Integration of the signals from ganglion cells and edge-sharpening is performed by horizontal and amacrine cells.

Language: syntax

rules of dictating word order

Primary Factors that influence motivation: needs and Maslow's hierarchy of needs

satisfying needs may also drive motivation. Maslow's hierarchy of needs prioritizes needs into five categories :physiological needs (highest priority), safety and security, love and belonging, self-esteem and self-actualization (lowest priority).

Gestalt principles: Law of good continuation

says that elements that appear to follow the same pathway tend to be grouped together

Gestalt principles: Law of pragnanze

says that perceptual organization will always be as regular, simple and symmetric as possible.

Gestalt principles: Law of closure

says that when a space is enclosed by a group of lines, it is perceived as a complete or closed lines

The Kensey score

score of 6= full homosexual

Control of gene expression: Transcription factors

search for promoter and enhancer regions in the

Second-order reactions

second-order reaction has rate that is proportional to either the concentrations of two reactnat or to the square of the concentration of s single reactant: rate=k[A]^1[B]^1=k[A]^2 or k[B]^2; have a nonconstant rate that depends on the concentration of reactant; a concentration vs. time curve of a second-order reaction is nonliner; the slope of a 1/[A] vs. time plot is k for a second-order reaction

Reactions of alcohols: secondary alcohols

secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones by any common oxidizing agent

senescence

senescence is the result of multiple molecular and metabolic processes; most notably, the shortening of telomeres during civil division

The limbic system: Thalamus

sensory processing station

Chromatography

separate protein mixture on the basis of their affinity for a stationary or a mobile phase except for the size-exclusion chromatography

Electrophoresis: isoelectric focusing

separates proteins by their isoelectric point; the protein migrates towards an electrode until it reaches a region of the gel where pH=pI of the proteins. The mixture of proteins is placed in gel with pH gradient (acidic gel at the positive anode, basic gel at the negative cathode and neutral in the middle

how to calculated percentage of isotopes of an atom?

set up two algebraic equations: isotope 1 +isotope 2= 1 (100%) mass number of atom 1+ mass number of atom 2 = atomic weight calculation of the original atom. and then substitute the first equation into the second one

Young's double-slit experiment

shows the constructive and destructive interference of waves that occur as light passes through parallel slits resulting in minima (dark fringes) and maxima *bright fringes) of intensity

Parts of the Forebrain: Basal Ganglia

smoothen movements and help maintain postural stability. It coordinates muscle movement as they receive information from the cortex and relay this information via the extrapyramidal system ( gathers inf. about body position and carries this info, to the CNS but does not function directly through motor neurons) to the brain and spinal ord. Parkinson diesease is associated with destruction of portions of the basal ganaglia

Social action and social interaction

social action refers to the effects of a group on an individual's behavior; social interaction refers to the effects that multiple individuals all have on each other

social movements

social movements are organized to either promote (proactive) or resist (reactive) social change

social reproduction

social reproduction refers to the passing on of social inequality, especially poverty, from one generation to another

Social stratification

social stratification is based on socioeconomic status (SES); socioeconomic status depends on ascribed status and achieved status

ultrasound

sound is used medically in ultrasound machines for both imaging (diagnostic) and treatment (therapeutic) purpose; used to detect different densities of materials

sp- hybridized orbitals

sp-hybridized orbitals have 50% s character and 50% p character. They form linear geometry with 180˚ bond angles. Carbons with triple bond or with two double bonds are sp-hybridized

sp^2- hybridized orbitals

sp^2 hybridized orbitals have 44% s character and 67% p character. they form trigonal planar geometry with 120˚ bond angles. Carbons with one double bond are sp^2-hybridized

sp^3- hybridized orbitals

sp^3- hybridized orbitals have 25% s character and 75% p character. They form tetrahedral geometry with 109.5˚ bond angles. carbons with all single bonds are sp^3- hybridized

Intermolecular forces:Hydrogen bonds

specialized subset of dipole-dipole interaction involved in intra- and intermolecular attraction; hydrogen bonding occurs when hydrogen is bonded to one of three very electronegative atoms- fluorine, oxygen and nitrogen

Broca's area

speech areas in the brain are found in the dominant hemisphere (which is usually the left); the motor function of speech is controlled by Broca's area; damage results in Broca's amphasia, a nonfluent aphasia in which generating each word requires great effort

Spherical mirrors

spherical mirror have centers and radii of curvature as well as focal points

ms(spin quantum number)

spin orientation (+ or - 1/2) of an electron in an orbital (parallel or antiparallel)

Standford-Binet IQ test

standardized test; IQ= mental age/Chronological age x 100

Standing waves

standing waves are produced by the constructive and destructive interference of two waves of the same frequency traveling in opposite directions in the same space: - Antinode are points of maximum oscillation - nodes are points where there is no oscillation

Piaget's stages of cognitive development: Formal operational stage

starts around 11 years of age and is marked by the ability to think logically about abstract ideas and problem solving

Hypnosis

state of consciousness in which individual appear to be in control of their normal faculties but ar ein highly suggestible state. Hypnosis is often used for control, psychological therapy, memory enhancement, weight loss and smoking cessation

Central dogma

states that DNA is transcribed to RNA, which is translated to protein

Attitudes: The elaboration likelihood model

states that attitudes are formed and changed through different routes of information processing based on the degree of elaboration (central route processing, peripheral route processing).

Attitudes: The social cognitive theory

states that attitudes are formed through observation of behavior, personal factors and environment

Paivio's dual-coding theory

states that both verbal association and visual image are used to process and store information, which increase the chance that the information can be retrieved.

Kirchhoff's laws: Kirchhoff's loop rule

states that in a closed loop, the sum of voltage sources is always equal to the sum of voltage drops, this conservation of energy, all the electrical energy supplied by a source gets full used up by the other elements within that loop: V_source = V_drop

The transition state theory

states that molecules form a transition state or activated complex during a reaction in which the old bonds are partially dissociated and the new bonds are partially formed; from the transition state the reaction can proceed toward products or revert back to reactant; the transition state is the highest point on a free energy reaction digram indicating they have the highest energy; transition state are only theoretical and cannot be isolated

Implicit personality theory

states that people make assumptions about how different types of people, their traits, and their behavior are related

Kirchhoff's laws : Kirchhoff's junction rule

states that sum of currents directed into a point within a circuit equal the sum of the currents directed away from that point, this is conservation of electrical charge: I_into the junction = I_leaving the junction

Expectancy-value theory

states that the amount of motivation for task is based on the individual's expectation of success and the amount that success is valued

The information processing model

states that the brain encodes, stores, and retrieve information much like a computer: 1. thinking requires sensation, encoding, and storage of stimuli; 2. stimuli must be analyzed by the brain to be useful; 3. situational modification; 4. Problem solving is dependent not only on the person's cognitive level but also on the context and complexity of the problem

Language: The Whorfian (linguistic relativity) Hypothesis

states that the lens through which we view and interpret the world is created by language b

The functional attitudes theory

states that there are four functional areas of attitudes that serve individuals in life: knowledge, ego expression, adaptability and ego defense

Le Chatelier's principal

states that when a chemical system experiences a stress, it will react so as to restore equilibrium

statistical significance vs. Clinical significance

statistical significance refers to the low likelihood of the experimental findings being due to chance; Clinical significance refers to the usefulness or importance of experimental findings to patient care or patient outcomes

Relative configuration

stereochemistry of a compound in comparison to another molecule

Absolute configuration

stereochemistry of a compound without having to compare to other molecules

self fulfilling prophecy

stereotypes can lead to expectations of certain groups, which can create conditions that lead to confirmation of the stereotypes, a process referred to as self fulfilling prophecy

Distal stimuli

stimuli originate outside of the body prior reaching the body, they are part of the "outside" world

Strings and open pipes

strings and open pipes (open at both ends) support standing waves, and the length of the string or pipe is equal to some multiple of half-wavelengths

Epimers

subtype of diastereomers that differ at exactly one chiral carbon

Anomers

subtype of epimers that differ at the anomeric carbon

Deoxy sugar

sugars with a -H replacing an -OH group

Absolute Pressure

sum of all pressures at a certain point within a fluid; it is equal to the pressure at the surface of the fluid (usually atmospheric pressure) plus the pressure due to the fluid itself, depends only on the density - z= depth of the object

Surge current

surge current is an above-average current transiently released at the beginning of the discharge phase; it wanes rapidly until a stable current is achieved

Sociology- Theories and institutions: symbolic interactionism

symbolic interactionism is the study of the ways individuals interact through a shared understanding of words, gestures and other symbols

Tangent

tanø=opposite/adjacent= a/b; value of both sine and cosine range from -1 to 1. the values of tangent however, range from -∞ to +∞

shRNA

targets mRNA to be degraded in the cytoplasm

Tension

tension = Fg-Fbuoy

Cis regulators

the DNA regulatory base sequences such as promoters, enhancers and response elements are known as cis regulators because they are in the same vicinity as the gene they control.

observational learning or modeling

the acquisition of behavior by watching others

Neuron anatomy: soma

the cell body or soma is the location of the nucleus as well as organelles such as the endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes

The electromagnetic spectrum

the electromagnetic spectrum is the range of frequencies and wavelengths found in EM waves; The EM spectrum includes, from lowest to highest energy, radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, x-rays and gamma waves

The female reproductive system

the female reproductive system only contains internal structures: - ova (eggs) are produced in follicles in the ovaries - once each moth, an egg is ovulated into the peritoneal sac and is drawn into the fallopian tube or oviduct - the fallopian tubes are connected to the uterus, the lower end of which is called the cervix. - the vaginal canal lies below the cervix and is the site where sperm are deposited during intercourse, birth also occurs through the vaginal canal - the external female anatomy is known as the vulva

The frequency (f)

the frequency of a wave is the number of cycles it makes per second. It is expressed in Hertz (Hz); the angular frequency is another way of expressing frequency and is expressed in radians per second

Noncompetitive inhibition

the inhibitor binds with equal affinity to the enzyme and the enzyme-substrate complex. Vmax is decreased and Km is unchanged

The law of mass action

the law of mass action states that if the system is at equilibrium at a constant temperature, then the following ratio is constant: Keq = [C]^c [D]^d / [A]^a [B]^b; at equilibrium the rate of the forward reaction equals the rate of the reverse reaction, entropy is at a maximum, and Gibbs free energy is at a minimum. This links the concepts of thermodynamic and kinetics - Keq is the ratio of products to recants at equilibrium, with each species raised to its stoichiometric coefficient, Keq for a reaction is constant at a constant temperature, - pure solids and liquids do not appear in the law of mass action; only gases and aqueous species do, for dilute solution Keq=Kc and both are calculated in units of concentration: Kc=Keq=K_forward/ K_reverse

Molecular weight (amu/molecue)

the mass (in amu) of the constituent atoms in a compound as indicated by the molecular formula

Molar mass (g/mol)

the mass of one mole (Avogadro's number or 6.022x10^23 particles) of a compound; usually measured in grams per mole - moles= mass of sample (g) / molar mass (g/mol)

Theoretical yield

the maximum amount of product generated if all of the limiting reactant is consumed with no side reactions.

Outer Ear

the outer ear consists of the pinna (auricle), external auditory canal, and tympanic membrane

Constant-pressure and constant-volume calorimetry

the pressure remains constant throughout the process and the temperature can be measured as the reaction progresses; bomb calorimeter or more accurately decomposition calorimetry q system = -q surroundings or qcold = -qhot m steel . C steel . ∆T + m oxygen . C oxygen . ∆T = -m water . Cwater . ∆T

The limbic system

the primary nervous system component involved in experiencing emotion

Globalization

the process of integrating global economy with free trade and tapping of foregin labor markets

Recognition

the process of merely identifying a piece of information that was previously learned, is far easier than recall.

exponential decay

the rate at which radioactive nuclei decay is proportional to the number of nuclei that remain

Poiseuille's Principal

the rate of laminar flow is determined by the relationships in. Incompressible fluids are assumed to have laminar flow and very low viscosity while flowing, allowing to assume conservation of energy.

Reflex arcs: Monosynaptic reflex arc

the sensory (afferent, presynaptic) neuron fire directly onto the motor (efferent, postsynaptic) neuron

Reflex arcs: Polysynaptic arc

the sensory neuron may fire onto a motor neuron as well as interneurons that fire onto other motor neurons

Theories of emotion: Cannon-Bard theory

the simultaneous arousal of the nervous system and cognitive response leads to action

The median

the value that lies in the middle of the data set. Fifty percent of data points are above and below the median - Median position= (n+1) / 2, n= number of data values - unaffected by outliers

Third-order reactions

there are few processes with third-order rates because it is far more rare for three particles to collide simultaneously with correct orientation and sufficient energy to undergo a reaction

Electromotive force (EMF)

there is no charge moving between two terminals of a cell that are at different potential values, it is not a actual force, it is a potential difference (voltage) and has a units of J/C, think of emf as a "pressure to move" that results in current.

Columns are called?

they are called groups, elements in the same group have the same valence shell electron configuration.

Change in potential energy and change in potential are related by what?

they are related by W=∆U= q∆V - V= voltage

Total internal reflection

total internal reflection occurs when light cannot be refracted out of a medium and is instead reflected back inside the medium: - This happens when light moves from a medium with a higher index of refraction to a medium with a lower index of refraction with high incident angle - The minimum incident angle at which total internal reflection occurs is called the critical angle: ø critical = sin^-1 (n2/n1)

Bacterial genetic recombination: Transformation

transformation is the acquisition of genetic material from the environment, which can be integrated into the bacterial genome

Transverse waves

transverse waves have oscillations of wave particles perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation (examples: "the wave", electromagnetic waves)

Triple bonds

triple bonds contain one sigma bond and two pi bonds * multiple bonds are less flexible than single bonds because rotation is not permits in the presence of a pi bond. multiple bonds are shorter and stronger than single bonds, although individual pi bonds are weaker than sigma bonds. *

Purines and Pyrimidines

two families of nitrogen-containing base found in nucleotides; Purines contain two rings in their structure: Adenine(A) and Guanine (G), both are found in DNA and RNA; Pyrimidines contain only one ring in thier structure: Cytosine (C), Thymine (T) and Uracil (U), while cytosine is found in both DNA and RNA, thymine is only found only found in DNA and Uracil is only found in RNA - PURe As Gold (as A and G are purines) - CUT the PYe (as C, U and T are pyrimidines)

Resonance structure

two or more Lewis structure that demonstrate the same arrangement of atoms but differ in the specific placement of the electron: represented b y the double- headed arrows; represent all possible configurations

Actual Yield

typically lower than theoretical yield

Chromatography: column chromatography

use beads of a polar compound with nonpolar solvent (mobile phase), the more similar the sample is to the solvent (mbile phase) the more quickly it will elute; the more similar it is to the alumina or silica (stationary hase) the more sllowly it will elute -if at all.

bar charts

used to compare categorical data,

Pie charts (circle charts)

used to compare categorical data, frequently used to present demographic information

Histogram

used to compare numerical dat and to display the distribution of a data set

Divided attention

uses automatic processing to pay attention to multiple activities at one time

X-ray diffraction

uses the bending of light rays to create a model of molecules, dark and light fringes do not take on a linear appearance, but rather a complex two dimensional image

Average Velocity

v = ∆x / ∆t

wave speed

v= frequency . wavelength

Voltameters

voltmereters are inserted in parallel in a circuit to measure a voltage drop; they have very large resistance

isovolumetric (isochroic) process

volume is held constant and the work done by or on the system is 0.

Isovolumetric or isochoric process

volume stays constant as pressure changes, then no work is done

angular frequency

w = 2πƒ= 2π/T

Weak acids and bases

weak acids and bases do not completely dissociate in solution ave corresponding dissociation constant: Ka and Kb respectively. HA(aq)+ H2O (l) ---- H3O+ (aq) + A- (aq) -Acid dissociation constant (Ka)= [H3O+][A-]/ [HA] BOH (aq) ------- B+ (aq) + OH- (aq) - Base dissociation constant (Kb)= [B+][OH-] / [BOH]

Point mutation

when a mutation occurs and it affect one of the nucleotides in a codon

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions

when a nucleophile attacks and forms a bond with a carbonyl carbon, electrons in the pi bond are pushed to the oxygen atoms: - if there is no good leaving groups (aldehydes and ketones), the carbonyl will remain open and is protonated to form an alcohol - if there is a good leaving groups( carboxylic acid and derivatives), the carbonyl will reform and kick off the leaving group

Index of refraction

when light is in any medium besides a vacuum, its speed is less than the speed of light in a vacuum: n = c/v - n= index of refraction of the medium - c= the speed of light in a vacuum - v= speed of light in medium *the larger the refractive index the smaller the angle of refraction

Nucleophilic Addition Reactions: hemiacetal and hemiketal

when one equivalent of alcohol reacts with n aldehyde (via nucleophilic additions), a hemiacetal is formed. when the same reaction occurs with a ketone, a hemiketal is formed. when another equivalent of alcohol reacts with a hemiacetal (via nucleophilic addition), an acetal is formed. when the same reaction occurs with a hemiketal, a ketal is formed

Estimating Scale Values

when the ordinal value is power of ten, the operation is relatively straightforward: changing the sign on the exponent gives the corresponding p scale values directly. For example, if [H+]=0.001 or 10^-3, then the pH=3, and pOH= 11. Or if Kb= 1.0x10^-12 then pKb=12. - if nonlogarithmic value is written in proper scientific notation it will be n x 10 ^-m, taking the negative logarithm and simplifying, the p value will be -1og(n x 10 ^-m)= -log (n) - log(10^-m) = m- log (n) - because n is a number between 1 and 10, its logarithm will be a decimal between 0 and 1 (log1=0, log 10=1), therefore p ≈ m- 0.n 0.n represents sliding the decimal point of n one position to the left (dividing by 10)

Expressed mutation

when the point mutation affect the primary amino acid sequence of the protein

The doppler effect: shock waves

when the source is moving at or above the speed of sound, shock waves (sonic booms) can form

Dispersion

when various wavelengths of light separate from each other, a common example is the splitting of white light into its component colors using a prism

Meiosis

whereas itosis occurs in somatic issue and results in two identical daughter cells, Meiosis occurs in gametocytes (germ cells) and produces up to four nonidentical halpoid sex cells (gametes); meiosis has one round of replication and two rounds of division (the reductional and equational divisions) whereas mitosis consists of one roudn of each of replication and division; Meiosis has meiosis 1 and meiosis 2

p-value

whether or not a finding is statistically significant is determined by the comparison of a p-value to the selected significance level (alpha), a significance level of .05 is commonly used

Glycogenesis: Glycogen synthase

which creates alpha-1,4 glycosidic links between glucose molecules, it is activated by insulin in liver and muscle: liver glycogen is broken down to maitain a constant level of glucose in blood whereas muscle glycogen is broken down to provide glucose to the muscle during vigorous exercise

Glycogenesis: branching enzyme

which moves a block of oligoglucose from one chain and adds it to the growing glycogen as a new branch using an alpha-1,6 glycosidic link

Refractory periods

while the axon is hyperpolarized, it is in its refractory period: - during the absolute refractory period, the cell is unable to fire another action potential. - During the relative refractory period, the cell requires a larger than normal stimulus to fire an action potential

Racemic Mixtures

will not be optically active because the two enantiomers rotations cancel each other out. Have equimolar amounts of two molecules with one having the S configuration and one with R configuration.

Kinematics (no acceleration)

x = vt

Component vectors: x and y

x= V cos ø y = V sin ø

Frequency of standing wave (string and open pipes)

ƒ= nv/2L

Standard Gibbs free energy

∆G˚rxn = ∑∆G˚f.products - ∑∆G˚f.reactants ∆G˚rxn= RTlnKeq ∆Grxn = ∆G˚rxn + RTlnQ= RTlnQ/keq - use of Q indicate that the system is not at equilibrium

Freezing point depression

∆Tf= i. Kf. m