Memory and Cognition Exam 2

Subliminal scents

subliminal odors or scents. For example, we evaluate people all day. Our sense of smell contributes to whether or not we like people. They had subjects sniff three different smells. 1) lemon scent (positive), 2) swear (negative), 3) neutral (no smell). These smells were delivered so faintly that they are not consciously aware of them. After sniffing one of those three smells, they were shown faces with neutral expressions. They had to rate them on a scale of likable or unlikeable. It turns out that the smells only affected you subliminally if you were not aware of them. So if the smell of lemon was presented subliminally, you would rate the person higher on likability. The same applies for sweat. However, when the person was aware of the smell, it didn't matter.

Availability

the info represented in memory

Accessibility

the info that is available and can be retrieved at a specific time/place. This is how tests work. You need to retrieve it when you are asked for it.

Spacing effect study

1 hour once a day for 20 days 1 hour twice a day for 10 days 2 hours once a day for 10 days 2 hours twice a day for 5 days. Who did better? Obviously, the one hour once a day for 20 days. Craving produces a false feeling of over-confidence. The two hours once a day for 5 days group was the most confident but they bombed the test. If you space out the studying, the more you process it, the more you understand and remember it.

subliminal ads

ADS DO NOT WORK. Yes, we can be affected by subliminal information on simple things, BUT ONLY ON SIMPLE THINGS. NO ADS. The ad that emphasized the word rat with Gore's campaign. Also, the ads with sex do not work, but the idea is that you can be subliminally aroused by seeing sex or sexual acts.

Clustering during input

ASK RAQUEL

Clustering in recall

ASK RAQUEL

Hyde and Jenkins (1973)

ASK RAQUEL.

Elaborative rehearsal

Additional new analyses of a stimulus is required. (focusing on the meaning will move it to long term memory).

Goodwin et al. (1969)

Alcohol study. Much better studying sober and taking test sober. SAME PRINCIPLE

Automaticity

An automatic task- how much conscious effort it involves. Example- when we first start to drive it is conscious, now it is an automatic process. An automatic process requires very low attention.

Analogical vs. Propositional representation

Analogical is like an actual photograph, what you are imagining of the world. The propositional representation is that you don't actually store the image.

Broadbent's filter theory

Argued that info enters sensory store until some bottle neck is reached. (Some point when one stream of info is only known).

Study for Broadbent (1954)

Ask raquel

Multimode Model of Attention. Could attention work both early or late?

Attention can occur both early and late. It can occur early based on physical appearances. Selective attention is flexible. Example- Different voice

Late-Selection Filter Models

Attention operates after meaning. All info that hits sensory store is fully processed for meaning but ventilated by selection.

Selective looking studies

Counting basketballs and you miss a big weird thing. Like gorilla or woman with umbrella.

Primary Task, Secondary Task

Doing two things simultaneously. The capacity that you need for the primary task is measured on how well you perform the secondary task. Example of the study: Participants are given anagrams like "croodt" and make it into a word. That would be doctor. Measuring reaction time with the secondary task. So if the primary task is a difficult one like "croft" instead of "dortoc", your response if much slower. On the hard anagram is 60-40. On the easy anagram is 10-90. Second study: they took two groups of individuals. One group thought they were very good in multitasking, and the other claimed they weren't good. They are given a visual activity, then they would be distracted with a stimulus like sound. It turns out that the people who claim they are good at multitasking were the most distracted with the stimulus. The ones who claimed they weren't good, were much better at multitasking.

Declarative

Episodic or semantic.

Long term memory

Even the easiest of activities require you to take info from your long term memory. It is virtually unlimited. Some believe that info stays there forever.

Self-reference effect

Example in class where she made us put an x by the trait we had. Then asked us to recall as many words from that list of traits. We mostly remembered the words we attributed to ourselves. The most effective form of encoding. Example: when you hear that someone talked about you behind your back, you'll remember that comment forever.

Tulving and Thompson (1973) their second study

Four different phases to the experiment: Paired Associative Learning- simply presented with word pairs. They are not strongly associated. Example: Glue- CHAIR. Bath-NEED Free Association- give me the first word that comes to mind. Example: table: desk or study or chair or lamp Want: need, desire, wishes, Recognition Task- circle words produces in step 2 that were from step 1. They scored poorly- 24%. Cued recall of Step 1- then they were presented with the word pairs in phase 1. Glue- ____(fill in the blank). They scored much higher. Probably the only test where recall is better than recognition!!!!

Orienting task

Function of orienting task is to control cognitive processes at encoding

Cocktail Party Effect

Hearing your name distracts you and draws attention to it.

Concealed object experiment:

If memories are truly like a photograph, then the object hidden shouldn't be remembered because you didn't actually see it. Example: a harp is hidden inside the torch in the statue of liberty. Then they give them a test after awhile, and they did remember the objects that were hidden although they didn't see them. So they are not stored analogically, they are generated, so they are propositional representation. HOWEVER, the sentences are distinctive. A harp in the statue of liberty> WTF Then they gave the test to people who have been blind from birth and they too performed very well. So you don't need no prior visual experience to remember.

Mood congruent memory

If you are happy, you'll remember good and positive things. If you are sad, then you'll remember sad negative things. Study: Participants come in neutral (or as they are) They give them a list of words- either negative or positive (example: vomit(negative), party (positive), clown (positive), assault (negative)). After the list of words, they would manipulate the participants mood to either happy or sad/mad. If they are happy, they remember positive words. If they are sad/mad then they remember negative words.

Incidental vs. Intentional learning

Incidental is like learning where the peanut butter is at the store. Or knowing where your sock drawer is. Intentional learning is actively engaging in the learning process because you know you are going to be tested over it. (ex. studying for a test for school, remembering your student ID).

Blindsight

Is a disorder. The individual is blind, yet they can locate the object in a probability more actual than chance. Blindsight happens when something happens to your visual cortex. They are not aware that they can sense. Ask the blind person where the teacher is holding the pen and they will know. They think they are guessing because they are not aware that their visual senses are connected to other parts of the brain.

Priming

It is exhibited in your performance. The word "doctor" priming the word "nurse". Example of Frederick the golf player who suffers from alzheimers. Semantics- know the rules of golf, how to handle equipment. Episodic- how to position yourself for the perfect hit.

Homophone Priming

It's always the less common word that is presented in the unintended ear. For example, Hare or Hair. Or Pane or Pain. Hearing those word pairs, although not conscious of them, you're more likely to think of them and write hare instead of hair, and pane instead of pain.

Semantic

Knowledge of language, general concepts of the world. Examples: who is the president, what is 2x2? These are semantics. All of the semantics are the same or very similar. What is a maiden name? BUT knowing your own mother's maiden name is episodic because it is specific to your own life.

Massed vs. Distributed practice

Massed is basically craming. Distributed is like taking breaks between studying, which will lead to LTM. If you study one hour for 10 days instead of 10 hours one night, you will do much better.

Subliminal Mere Exposure

Mere exposure effect- the more often you see something, the more you like it. The more you see someone's face, the more you like it. The more you hear a song, the more you like it. Subliminal Mere Exposure- study where subjects are sitting in front of a screen and they flash shapes for 1 millisecond (way below your threshold of awareness, as if you are staring at a blank screen). Then they give them a recognition text- to pick out which shapes were presented to them. They didn't know. But then they gave them another test- a preference test- choose the one you like more, PEOPLE WOULD CHOOSE THE SHAPE IN THAT MILLISECOND.

Triesman's Attenuation Model

Modification for Broadbent's theory. Claims that attention is not a firm gate, but rather operates like a volume interval. You turn down unattended ear but it is not completely filtered out. Attention still occurs before meaning. There is still some attention to ignore ear. We should only be affected by info that we are conscious about.

Eich, et al (1975)

Nicotine vs. Marijuana. Nicotine is better. Same principle

Attributes of automatic processes

Occurs without intention Not available for conscious monitoring- concealed from consciousness. You are not aware of the process of reading. You are not aware of the meaning that belongs to it. Consume few, if any attentional resources- should not interfere with other activities. Like a beginner doing the act of juggling doesn't apply to these characteristics because it is not yet automatic to him.

Eidetic images

Photographic memory- we know that it does exist for some children but they tend to lose it at puberty. They should be able to answer detailed questions on the photo they are shown. They would be able to see the dots superimposed. The harvard professor did do it.

Procedural

Physically knowing how to do an activity

Gray and Wedderburn (1960)

Problems for Broadbent's theory. ASK RAQUEL.

Nondeclarative types

Procedural and priming

Nondeclarative

Procedural memory. Example- knowing how to ride a bike, knowing how to wash your hair.

Importance of retrieval cues- study

Procedure: give subjects 48 words from 12 different categories Free recall: then they asked them to recall words, they could only remember 40%. Cued recall: then they gave them retrieval cues. Like sports, cars, continents, and they could remember 62%. RETRIEVAL CUES ARE IMPORTANT. The info is not lost, it is inaccessible without good cues

Subliminal Stroop Effect

Reading the word red will make it harder to say the color of think ink of the word. You flash the word red for 20 milliseconds, you don't see the word red consciously, then there is a mask (back masking), then they give you a patch of color and ask what color it is. They would say red instead of the actual color.

Study related to von restorff effect

Related word pair: beer-wine. One is supposed to list three similarities and three differences. Unrelated word pair: beer-dog. One is supposed to list three similarities and three differences. RESULTS: you remember better if you focus on the differences between the related word pairs, and the similarities in the unrelated word pairs.

Craik and Watkins (1973)

Remember the G words. Ignore all words except the words that begin with the letter G (example: garden, half book, gap, gift, table). They can manipulate how long the G words are rehearsed. The word Garden was rehearsed 3x longer than "gift", but it will be remembered the same as gift because it is shallow processing (repeating it over).

Rooms

Same context principle. But add, if they close their eyes and imagine the room where they learned material, they will do much better.

Godden & Baddeley (1975)

Scuba divers study. Some learned words under water and some on land. If the ones who learned under water took the test on land, they score lower. YOU KNOW THIS PRINCIPLE. YOU GOT THIS

Semantics

Semantically refers to meaning. If you are given a passage one week, and asked about the next week, you'll remember the list of it but not word for word. Majority of info is stored semantically.

Lackner and Garrett (1972)

Shadow sentences in one ear of the participant. They knew their memory would be tested. And on the other ear they would hear a word related to the sentence, but they can barely hear it. They are unaware of it. For example: in the shadow ear you would hear "they boy threw stones at the bank". On the ignored ear the participant either hears "money" or "river". The results show that the subliminal primers can effect you. If they heard "money", they were more likely to interpret "bank" as an actual bank.

Episodic

Specific episodes in your life (SPECIFIC)

Thomson and Tulving (1970)

Strong cue: dog-collar Weak cue: black-collar The subjects were more likely to remember collar in a strong cue rather than a weak one. HOWEVER. there are cases were weak cue are better. It all depends on how you study. Study: two study conditions: no cue and weak cue. Three testing conditions: no cue, weak cue, strong cue. In the no cue study, they scored higher with a strong cue testing condition. In the weak cue, they scored higher in the weak cue testing condition because that is the way they studied the word pairs.

Threshold--Supraliminal/subliminal

Subliminal is when something is presented to you as quickly that you don't consciously perceive it. Supraliminal is everything you are conscious of. Like the teacher's voice.

Backmasking in Music

Supposedly songs that are played backwards have a satanic or drug message. Do these songs affect our behavior? NOOOOO. There is no evidence that it can effect our behavior.

The stroop effect

The first time you get XXXXX (in the color blue)- and you are told to name the color as fast you can. Then the words would be colors with different colors as ink. Like the word "Green" but in the color blue. You are supposed to name the color of the word as quickly as you can. It is very hard because reading is an automatic process. If the test was given to a child (whose reading ability is not yet automatic) then they would do much better in reading the colors. Or if another person who speaks a different language (because reading is not an automatic process for them yet).

Development of automaticity

The more you practice something, the more automatic it becomes. Example, when we first start to read or drive, texting or typing. With practice becomes automatic. Juggling could become automatic.

Illusion of Truth

The more you see something the more you believe it. The more you look at the wrong answer, the more you'll think it is correct.

Secondary Task Technique (divided attention task)

The success of how well you do two things at once depend on how hard those things are, how conscious you need to be for it. Watching TV and studying is too hard. Having all the distraction is confusing. This is why you can't hear the radio and parallel park. Our resources are limited. Attention is allocating those resources to those activities. 60% attention to TV, only 40% left for studying.

Subliminal Semantic Priming

They can flash a primer subliminally, although you didn't consciously perceive it, it can still prime you. You can respond to "nurse" faster, because you've been primed with the word "doctor"

Imagery

Think about where the handle on the door is. your way back home. Study where participants are shown 2500 pictures for 10 seconds, then take a recognition test, 90% accuracy. Much easier to recognize images than words.

Memory during Anesthesia:

We are able to perceive what is happening under anesthesia. It can still theoretically affect you when you wake up. Surgeons said pull your lobe, 84% pulled their lobe after surgery. Then the example of the negative vs. positive comments. They can affect your recovery.

Visual Attention

We can only process a limited amount of info. The example of the video counting how many times the white shirt men pass the ball and a woman with an umbrella passes by

Context dependent memory

What happens when you learn material in one context but they you are tested in a different context?

Recognition

You are given all of the answers, and then you give a yes or no answer (multiple choice). Recognition is easier to recall. People do better in recognition that recall. Ex; the seven dwarfs. She asked us to recall all of them, and we did bad. But then she gave us options and we did much better.

Assumption for attention

You choose what you want to pay attention to, and then info gets processed. Whatever you don't pay attention to doesn't get processed for meaning. Everything that hits your senses have meaning, but you choose what you pay attention to. There should be some small effect on that info.

The generation effect

Your memory is better if you generate the word. So if they give you Fast- your generate SLOW. The study conducted had two groups, one who generated and one who just read. The ones who generated the words remembered much more.

Associative strength? not necessarily

a cue will be effective if it is strongly associated. Example: dog-collar. Strong association. Free association: grass- and you say green. Strength is associated with how many people respond that. So if many people respond green, then it is a strong association.

encoding specificity

a cue will be effective if it was encoded with the word while studying.

Dual code Hypothesis

abstract vs concrete words. We know that concrete words are easier to remember than abstract words. Concrete- table, lamp, etc. Abstract- belief, knowledge. We can visualize concrete words. We can store them verbally and visually. Abstract words can only be stored verbally. SO they are at a disadvantage.

selective attention

allows our perceptual system to select info and everything else if filtered out.

Levels of processing

alternative to modal model. What you do to that information in order to encode it.

Auditory attention- Dichotic Listening Task

attempt to stimulate crowded room, given headphones, hear two different people talking to you at the same time. Your job was to shadow (repeat everything you hear as spoken) on one ear and ignore the other. Example of three classmates doing the experiment. People had no knowledge of semantic knowledge but able to percept basic perceptual features. (male or female voice, tone, music, or human voice) but nothing about meaning.

Early-selection filter models

attention operates before meaning. You choose what you pay attention to and then it processed for meaning. The other info is thrown away and never processed.

Material-induced organization

categorized work list (20 words- 4 animals, 4 sports, 4 continents,etc)

What are the two types of clustering in material-induced organization?

clustering during input or clustering in recall.

overlearning effect

continue rehearsal, continue studying, although you already learned it. you will be able to retrieve it when you need t0.

Types of LTM:

declarative and non declarative.

Von Restorff effect

distinctiveness. Every time one item pops out or is distinctive, whether through unusual or weird spelling, will make you easier to recall. Example: first day at SMU. First day at new location. Faces that more distinct are more memorable. A sudden silence in a commercial.

Recall

give an open ended question and you are able to recall them in whatever you want.

Serial Recall

give them in the correct order

implications for education

highlighting is shallow processing. Instead try rephrasing the info. Focus on the meaning. Organize your notes. Generation effect- practice doing essays if it is an essay exam.

Cued recall

i give you 20 words but they are put in categories ( 5 sports, 5 cars, 5 furniture)

Mood dependent memory

if you are in the same mood while studying, and in the same mood while taking the test, you'll remember better.

Encoding in LTM

initial formation of that memory.

State dependent memory

internal events can also be encoded while learning material. Your state of mind should bet the same.

Disadvantages of automatic processing

it is not always good. There are situations where automatic becomes bad. It is difficult to overcome something that is automatic. When you are confronted with change, it is difficult. Like when you are going out of the country to the UK or New Zealand. You are not used to driving on the left. It can be dangerous.

Organization

learn material easier around things you already know

Paired Associate Learning

learning the associations between word pairs.

Visual Neglect

left-side neglect. People lose the ability to pay attention to anything on their left side. They will ignore left hand side in many different ways. For example, the women will only wear makeup on the right hand side. They are not blind!!! They can see just fine, they just can't focus their attention on the left side. They asked patients to draw things like a clock, or a flower and they could only sort of draw the right hand side.

Free recall

like an essay

Subjective Organization

list of 20 words, you create organization.

Two types of rehearsal

maintenance or elaborative

Odors- study

no odor vs odor. If the same odor is present while studying, then the memory will come back if the odor is released while testing. There's nothing to cue for no odor.

Item specific vs. relational processing

not sure if what i have on my notes is correct. Ask raquel.

Subliminal Semantic Priming

participants are presented with a lexical decision task. They give them letters together and see if people recognize that they are words. They measure by how quickly you can respond "yes" or "no". Example: they can show you "TREE" and you have to responds as fast as you can that that is a word. Semantic priming refers to the process that if a prime is related to the target, one will respond faster. Example, if the researcher primes you with "doctor", you'll respond much faster to the target "nurse". The priming was still attained even if they presented the primer very fast. Example from class: teacher asked to say silk eight times fast. Then she asked us what cows drink? We responded milk.... WTF NO.

Deep Processing

relating B words to yourself. The deeper it is the better your memory.

Shallow processing

remember a word with simple instruction.

types of mental representations

semantics and imagery

Maintenance rehearsal

simple rote memorization (shallow. It will maintain info in STM).

music

study with mozart or jazz. If you study with mozart and take the test with mozart, memory will come back. Same with jazz.

Mental Travel

subjects are shown a map and made them memorize it so they can know where all the landmarks are at. How quickly can one mentally travel to a distance? DEPENDS ON HOW FAR AWAY THE LANDMARKS ARE. It will take you awhile to get from Dallas Hall to Dedman Center but not to Hyer Hall. Also, everyone views the world differently. We always picture ourselves in the center.