Social Psychology Exam 4

Describe the loyalty moral foundation.

- "It is more important to be a team player than to express oneself." - Focus is on the building of strong group bonds; anything that interferes with the group and its goals must be dealt with.

Describe the fairness moral foundation.

- "Justice is the most important requirement for a society." - Focus is on karma; on people getting what they put into a situation.

Describe the harm/care moral foundation.

- "One of the worst things a person could do is hurt a defenseless animal." - Focus here is that it is wrong to harm another person or animal.

Describe the purity/sanctity moral foundation.

- "People should not do things that are disgusting, even if no one is harmed." - Focus here is on feeling physically and mentally clean or pure from corruption.

Describe the authority moral foundation.

- "Respect for authority is something all children need to learn." - Focus is on group hierarchy and respect for those who are above you. People expect those lower to be submissive and to protect those higher up.

What are the hate crime statistics as of 2012?

- 6700 hate crimes in the US identified by the FBI. - 50% racially oriented. - 20% sexual orientation bias. - 19% religious bias. - 12% ethnicity/national origin bias. - 1.5% disability bias. - These numbers are likely higher in reality. - One cost of being a target of prejudice is that people lose their lives.

Define sexual selection.

- A special case of natural selection, focuses on choosing/attracting a mate and competing with others for access to a mate. - Instead of survival, focuses on reproductive success. - Some individuals have better reproductive success than others, either from being more attractive partners to produce offspring.

Describe the frustration-aggression hypothesis.

- Aggression may be an automatic response to any blocking of goal-directed behavior. - If you see someone behaving aggressively, they were probably frustrated right before that. - If someone is frustrated, they will likely need to take that out on someone. - But sometimes we may aggress because we have negative feelings that are different from frustration.

Describe how humans may be like other animals and have an innate urge to attack.

- Aggression needs to be released (catharsis) or it will build up. - Displacement - indirect expression of an aggressive impulse away from the person or animal that elicited it (ex. punching a wall if angry at someone) - May only act aggressively if triggered.

How does alcohol relate to aggression?

- Alcoholic intoxication may temporarily turn off normal empathetic feelings. - Participants (in relationships) came to the lab and either drank alcohol or a non-alcoholic drink. - If intoxicated, had a harder time seeing their partner's side of their most recent conflict and said they felt more anger toward their partner.

Define excitation-transfer theory.

- Anger is physiologically similar to other emotional states and that any form of emotional arousal can enhance aggressive response. - Remember misattribution of arousal and the two-factor theory of emotions.

Define aggression.

- Behavior intended to injure another. - Behavior - not just the emotion of anger. - Intended - purposeful - Hurting - with malicious intent

Describe disease threat prejudice.

- Behavioral immune system: set of psychological mechanisms that helps people avoid sources of disease (other people and/or groups of people). - People who are higher in both chronic and situational pathogen avoidance motives demonstrate prejudice against groups of people that are different from their heuristic of a healthy in-group person norm; error management: better to avoid potential threats; prejudice toward obese, foreign, disabled, elderly, etc. - Actual immune system activity may be related.

Describe discrimination.

- Behaviors directed toward others because of their group membership. - If we treat two people differently although they're identical in all respects except for race, age, sex, sexual orientation, etc.

How do people act in the presence of others?

- Bicycle racers and children winding up fishing reel toys performed better in the presence of others than on their own. - Competitive instinct may be triggered. - No actual competitors needed, just observers. - Mere presence of others improves performance. - Having other people near us is physiologically arousing.

What is the relationship between cultural diversity and group performance?

- Both advantages and disadvantages for group performance. - People tend to take more thoughtful and inclusive approaches if they know their group will be diverse. - Culturally diverse groups can generate a wider variety of solutions. - But, prejudice and diverse backgrounds can lead to communication problems or lack of cohesion (not just majority vs. minority, but also minority vs. minority). - Motivation and opportunity are very important.

What is the goal-based approach for reducing prejudice?

- Changes features of the person; anxious people are more likely to stereotype --> reduce anxiety prior to contact with members of outgroup. - Changes features of the situation; social norms that disapprove of prejudice and approve of tolerance. - Give people alternative ways to satisfy their goals. - Activate goals incompatible with prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination (ex. accuracy).

Define religious fundamentalism.

- Characterized by a certainty in the absolute truth of one's religious beliefs. - More negative views of racial and religious outgroups, gays and lesbians, and women.

Describe the study on discrimination based on sexual orientation in employment.

- Confederates were trained on a script. - They didn't know if they were wearing the "Gay and Proud" hat or the "Texan and Proud" hat. - Walked into a store and asked about job opportunities. - Rated their interactions afterwards. - When confederates were wearing the "Gay and Proud" hats, the potential employers spoke less and came across as less helpful and less interested.

Define traditional discrimination.

- Discrimination that is institutionalized. - Ex. school segregation, voting rights

What does physiological arousal increase?

- Dominant responses. - Familiar, well-learned behaviors. - Sometimes makes performance worse too.

Describe how poverty relates to aggression.

- During times of economic hardship, there is more conflict in couples (insulting, anger, criticizing). - Odds of violence 6 times higher between people who lost their jobs 2 weeks prior to participating in a study vs. those who did not.

What are other tactics to reduce prejudice?

- Eliminate perceived threat. - Eliminate in-group-outgroup distinction. - Personal relevance, positive self-talk. - Internal/external motivation to avoid prejudice.

How does empathy influence violent behavior?

- Empathy: sharing emotions of others. - Aggressive behavior becomes unrewarding for empathetic people. - Empathetic people put themselves into other people's shoes and get consumed with guilt for hurting them.

Describe threat-based prejudice.

- Especially likely to be triggered by a situation that matches the threat people associate with the prejudice. - People tend to be aware that people have a threat-based prejudice toward them. - Try to counteract the threats. - Young black men who tend to be stereotyped as dangerous are more likely to smile. - Obese individuals who tend to be stereotyped as dirty are more likely to put on clean clothes/dress well.

Describe social dominance orientation (SDO).

- Extent to which a person desires that his or her own group dominate other groups and be socially and materially superior to them. - Believe in strict group hierarchy. - Usually their own group is on top and very deserving of wealth. - People higher in SDO are more likely to hold negative prejudice against people of lower-status groups. - Threat to group's status/hierarchy leads to greater SDO and negative prejudice.

How does strength of in-group identification relate to discrimination?

- French Canadian university had the job of anonymously allocating extra credit points to fellow students. - Some of the students were members of the students' own groups and some were not. - Students who had weak connections to their in-groups allocated points equally. - Students who were high-identifiers with their groups gave more points to their own group. - In-group identification leads to increased discrimination.

Define prejudice.

- Generalized attitude toward members of a social group. - Like or dislike. - Different "flavors" based on accompanying emotions.

Define stereotype.

- Generalized belief about members of social groups. - Can be positive or negative. - Can have a positive stereotype about a group person has negative prejudice toward.

What happens if groups discuss the importance of taking risks in life?

- Groups that started out more favorable toward risk-taking became more in favor of risk taking. - Groups that started out more favorable toward caution became more in favor of caution. - Group discussion polarized decisions about risk. - Discussion exaggerates and enhances the group's pre-discussion views. -Applicable to any topic. If you only hear one opinion, your opinion will become more extreme than it was originally.

Describe the cultural diverse group performance study.

- Had one homogenous group (all white) and one ethnically diverse group (each member was part of a different group). - Originally, homogeneous group performed better but as time went on the two groups performed very similarly.

Describe the Implicit Associations Task (IAT).

- Have to press a key ("D") if you see a target that's part of one of the groups on the left. - Have to press a different key ("K") if you see a target that's part of one of the groups on the right. - Then, switch group pairings. - Ex. If people are faster when they have to use the same key to categorize black faces and bad words (rather than black faces and good words), they have implicit prejudice toward black people relative to white people. - One pairing is generally easier for people than the other. - Doesn't tell you whether people have a more positive prejudice for one group or a more negative prejudice for the other group because you only get a difference score. - Does tell us how you view the groups relative to each other. - Measure of someone's prejudice because it's about attitudes.

Describe the ignorance hypothesis.

- If people only learned what members of other groups are truly like, they wouldn't stereotype, be prejudiced, or discriminate against them. - Evidence suggests that contact and education can be used to reduce intergroup antagonism; highlight similarity; disrupt perception of homogeny. - But not all prejudice is logical and people don't always listen to new/counter-attitudinal information.

Describe the heat & baseball study.

- In baseball, the hotter it was the more likely the pitchers were to throw balls directly at batters. - Over 90 degrees -> twice as many hits than at 70 degrees. - And even more likely if someone on his team was hit by the other pitcher.

Describe the greek life (person x situation interaction) study.

- In certain situations, there is a very strong desire for social approval. - Researchers examined sorority and fraternity members and pledges and looked at their private vs. public opinions. - Members didn't differ between public and private opinions. - Pledges conformed to norm of outgroup derogation only in public - because they think that will improve their status with the existing members.

Where do moral values come from?

- Internal: personal norms and self-concept - External: societal values and group/cultural norms (friends, family, people you look up to, etc.)

Describe mental short-cuts & prejudice.

- Knowledge of stereotypes can lead to cognitive bias. - Stereotyping: process of categorizing an individual as a member of a particular group and then inferring that he or she possess the characteristics generally held by members of that group. - Making this assumption helps individuals avoid effort and learning. - Often gets applied to ambiguous behaviors where people don't really know what to think. - Toddlers as young as 9 months old can create minimal groups and show bias.

Describe the archival method aggression video.

- Looked at homicide archives. - Men who live in areas with large income inequality, who are low in SES, and who are unmarried tend to be more likely to be both victims and perpetrators of murder; usually peaks in early 20s.

In terms of physical assault and murder _______ are more aggressive:

- Men - Boys are more likely to aggress using hitting, stabbing, and shooting. - Women are only responsible for 9-15% of the homicides in US.

Describe the psychological costs of prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination.

- Merely knowing that others hold negative prejudices and stereotypes about one's group already has negative effects. - Worry about being stereotyped by others. - Increased self-consciousness. - Less able to concentrate on tasks and often perform worse. - When negative stereotypes about our group are "up in the air," we are often less able to perform up to our potential. - Stereotype threat may increase arousal, mental load, feelings of dejection, and negative thoughts in general.

Can a minority opinion influence groups?

- Minority opinions are generally able to exert less social pressure. - Less able to provide social acceptance and establish social rejection. - Majority opinions seem more credible and valid. - More pressure of minority opinions to be extra credible and provide high-quality arguments. - May be easier to sway private vs. public opinions of others.

Define modern discrimination.

- More covert, subtle discrimination. - Ex. hiring practices, social interactions.

Describe realistic group conflict theory.

- Negative prejudices and stereotypes emerge out of actual competition between groups for desired resources. - Conflicts foster extra positive feelings toward in-group. - Lead to strong anti-"them" feelings as well. - Threat of physical violence or competition from another group can lead to prejudice. - ex. FSU vs. UF, political parties

How does aggression relate to sexual selection?

- One way to attract a mate is through displaying positive characteristics. - Another way is to beat out the competition. - Getting to the top of the local dominance hierarchy; generally being larger and more aggressive helps, although aggression is more of a byproduct of desire to compete for status.

When does contact help reduce prejudice?

- Outgroup members must possess traits and abilities that challenge the negative stereotypes of their group. - Contact should be supported by local authorities and norms. - Groups should be of equal status, at least within the contact setting. - Contact should occur on an individual level. - Contact should be rewarding. - Work together toward common goal.

How does media modeling affect aggression?

- Over half of prime-time television shows contain violence. - Correlational studies: children who watched a lot of violent shows and identified with aggressive characters were more likely to act aggressively. - Experimental studies: being randomly assigned to watch violent shows lead to more aggression toward an experimenter. - Evidence that seeing violence get rewarded on TV leads to more aggression.

Describe the symphony audition study.

- Participants came in and auditioned for a symphony. - Some people were visible for their audition and some were concealed. - Thought that if people had biases toward male musicians over female, maybe not seeing the person would reduce bias. - Concealed auditions increased the likelihood that female musicians would advance to the next rounds by 50%. - Almost doubled their chances of actually getting the job. - One cost of prejudice is people not being able to achieve their desired career aspirations even if they have the skill.

Describe the set-up of the Berkowitz & LePage (1967) weapons effect study.

- Participants come into the lab and perform a task (partnered with a confederate). - After participant wrote down their answer, the confederate gave them feedback in form of shocks. - Half in the annoyed condition: received 7 shocks (got angry). - Half control condition: received one shock (did not get angry). - Participants sat in a room to rate the confederates' answers - room had either guns on another table or no weapons.

Describe the Griskevicius et al. (2009) high-powered job/romantic date study.

- Participants imagined themselves either beginning their first day on a high-powered job (status competition motive) or on a romantic date (mating motive). - Later, asked what they would if they were at a party and someone rudely spilled a drink on them and did not apologize (measured aggression). - Men preferred direct aggression, women preferred indirect aggression.

Describe the Cohen et al. (1996) culture of honor study.

- Participants walked past a confederate in a tight hallway forcing the confederate to get out of the way. - When participants came back down the hallway, the confederate slammed a file drawer shut, shoved their shoulder against the participant, called the participant an a**hole, and went into a room and closed the door. - Two other confederates recorded the participants' reactions. - 65% of Northerners responded with amusement than anger (compared to only 15% of Southerners). - Southerners were generally more angry and outraged.

Describe the study on pain by Berkowitz (1993).

- Participants were given the role of supervisor - had to administer shocks and rewards to subordinates. - Participants either had to put their hand into ice cold & painful or room temperature water. - If they had felt pain, supervisors were more likely to give more shocks and fewer rewards to subordinates (showing more aggressive behavior). - When a boss is having a bad day, get out of his/her way!

Why might group polarization happen?

- People are more likely to hear one side of the argument (availability heuristic). - Discussion illuminaties group norms. - Motivated to affiliate and be liked, people want to represent these group norms. - Some arguments will be new and persuasive, pushing your opinion to become stronger (because you already had a favorable attitude).

Describe group membership.

- People have a very strong bias for their own group. - Even works with new completely meaningless groups.

Describe the video on disease threat.

- People have evolved a psychological form of preventative medicine. - Foreign people look different and may act different than us. - Cultural norms can serve as a buffer to infectious diseases. - If someone does something differently, they break our norms and could possibly pose a threat. - Foreigners may carry germs that we haven't been previously exposed to. - Threats of diseases make people more prejudice toward out-group. - People who think they are less likely to get a disease (ex. they got vaccinated) are less prejudice.

What is the relationship between prejudice and social approval?

- People may be willing to adopt a group's prejudicial norms when motivated to seek social approval. - However, people will also accept more tolerant views if that is the societal norm. - Both injunctive and descriptive norms can lead to more tolerant views.

Describe groupthink.

- People often think that groups can sift through information better in order to get at the truth. - But groups don't always make better decisions than individuals. - Discussions are not always open, thoughtful sharing of opinions and information. - Groupthink: a style of making group decisions that is driven by members' desires to get along rather than evaluate potential situations realistically; exacerbated when strong pressure to agree; more likely to ignore outsider information; may fail to examine risks associated with the decision.

- Describe the process of stereotyping.

- People see members of outgroups as more homogeneous (similar to each other) than members of in-groups; called perceived outgrip homogeneity effect. - Sharpen distinction between in-group and outgroup(s). - Makes it easier to stereotype others. - If the stereotypes are reasonably accurate, can be cognitively efficient.

Describe egalitarian values and the suppression of negative prejudices.

- People who believe that it's important to be fair and egalitarian are likely to feel guilty if they notice their own prejudice. - Motivated to reduce that guilt by suppressing, inhibiting, or override their biases. - Highlighting egalitarian goals and values may help - but only if people actually internalize those goals. - Taking perspective of others.

Define intrinsic religiosity.

- People who live their religion and internalize its teachings. - Not a path to another goal but an end in itself. - Seem less prejudiced on self-reports. - But some might be more concerned with status- appearing tolerant without actually being tolerant.

Define extrinsic religiosity.

- People who see religious worship as an opportunity to make friends, gain status, and find support during difficult times. Don't tend to adopt life teachings of the religion. - Means to another end, not adopted as a life standard. - More negative prejudice toward racial outgroups and gays/lesbians.

Describe Type A vs. Type B people in regard to aggression.

- People with Type A personality tend to be more irritable vs. Type B people who are more laid back. - Type A managers had more conflicts with their subordinates and were less accommodating in these conflicts. - Type A bus drivers in India are more likely to drive aggressively. - Type A French drivers drove more aggressively and recklessly.

What makes people more likely to stereotype?

- Personal need for structure, to simplify the world. - Positive moods increase stereotyping (pay less attention to what's around us). - Arousing emotions: anger, fear, and euphoria (reduce the amount of cognitive resources and make stereotyping more likely). - Under cognitive load or time pressure.

What were the results of the Berkowitz & LePage weapons effect study?

- Presence of guns did not increase aggression if the person wasn't annoyed. - Nonangered participants gave very few shocks that were also brief. - Annoyed subjects got more aggressive in the presence of a weapon, both length and number of shocks increased. - Presence of guns may have primed aggressive associations. - Works for anything that we associate with aggression, not only guns.

Define social facilitation.

- Presence of others hurts people's performance on new/unmastered/complex tasks, but increases performance on tasks they're good at; exaggerates your dominant response. - Ex. audience improved performance on video games but only if they were easy.

Describe morality.

- Principles concerning the distinction between right and wrong or good and bad behavior. - Sometimes motivates people to recruit others to support their moral cause. - Often aligned with an individual's lifestyle and self concept.

Define culture of honor.

- Prominent in the south. - Set of norms whose central idea is that people (men in particular) should be ready to use violence to defend their honor. - In the "old south", it was difficult to get a conviction for murder if the victim insulted the perpetrator. - Southern states have higher rates of argument-related homicides than other states.

How does being a psychopath influence violent behavior?

- Psychopath: an individual characterized by a lack of empathy for others, grandiose self-worth, and an insensitivity to punishment. - Also impulsivity and denial of responsibility. - Psychopaths are 3 times more likely to be motivated by personal gain (instrumental aggression); 10 times less likely to be motivated by emotion. - Cool and calculated violence for personal reward.

Describe the results of the Griskevicius et al. (2009) high-powered job/romantic date study.

- Regardless of whether the audience around them at the party was male or female, when male participants thought about a high-powered status job they increased direct aggression. - However, when male participants thought about mating, they only increased aggression if the audience was male (not female). - Violence is not in itself attractive to women but it is linked to perceived status among other men, which increases their attractiveness to women.

Define quest religiosity.

- Religion is a never ending personal journey toward truth. - Open-minded about spiritual matters and don't expect to find simple answers to complex spiritual and moral issues. - Exhibit few prejudices in both self-reports and actions.

Describe the playing pool social facilitation study.

- Researchers first spied on people playing pool to determine whether people were good or bad. - Then, 4 confederates came over to watch the game. - People who were good, got better (71% success to 80% success) - People who were beginners, got worse (36% success to 25% success)

Describe short-term ways that people try to cope with prejudice against them.

- Self-handicapping: put obstacles in the way of a successful performance; provides them with an excuse but increase likelihood of actually doing poorly. - Disidentification: decide that the arena in which they are expected to do poorly is no longer relevant to their self-concept and self-esteem; African American students may disconnect academic performance from their self-images; Women may no longer see math as relevant to who they are. - These strategies might be okay in the short term because it maintains positive feelings, but leaves people ill prepared for the future (self-limiting).

Describe institutionalized discrimination.

- Some discrimination is performed by society's institutions. - Legal, political, economic, social, cultural, etc. - Modern example: gay couples cannot adopt children in some states. - Sometimes it isn't intentional.

Describe the transgender hormone therapy study.

- Some transgender people undergo hormone replacement therapy that either adds or suppresses certain hormones. - A study in the Netherlands examined people's aggressive tendencies during these hormone therapies. - When people received testosterone, they became more aggressive and more responsive to sexual arousal. - When people received testosterone-suppressing drugs, they became less aggressive and had decreased sexual arousability.

Describe the standardized test stereotype threat study.

- Students (white and black) had to answer really hard questions. - Half of the students had to report their race before answering the questions. - Black students performed below their abilities when race was made salient and they believed that a poor performance would confirm the cultural stereotype others may hold about race differences in intelligence.

What are other examples of moral licensing?

- Supporting a black candidate can license some racist attitudes - Thinking about past moral behavior can decrease the likelihood of performing charitable acts - Buying green products can license people to cheat and steal - Even thinking about maybe doing something moral in the future can lead to moral licensing.

Describe diversity in groups.

- Team heterogeneity is often advantageous in sports and other groups. - In particular for situations when only one team member needs to generate the correct answer/behavior. - And in tasks that require new solutions, flexibility, and adaptation. - But heterogeneity in groups may hurt if every member needs to perform a particular task well. - Generally less connection and more turnover if people are different.

Describe the Dabbs and Morris (1990) study examining testosterone and delinquency in high and low SES men.

- Testosterone likely motivates status in all men. - High SES men have other avenues in which to compete. - Low SES men may have fewer pathways (opportunities) to respect available so they might hit someone or do other delinquent behavior.

How does testosterone affect aggression?

- Testosterone may be the driving mechanism behind the biological motivation to compete for status. - Steroid hormone linked to masculine bodily development and behavior. - Linked to both aggressiveness and social dominance. - Prison inmates with higher T-levels had more confrontations with prison authorities and had likely committed more violent crimes. - T levels rise when a person is insulted and pushed by a confederate. - Experimental studies have shown that giving T increases aggression in lab settings.

Define stereotype threat.

- The fear of confirming others' negative stereotypes about one's group. - Makes it more difficult for people to perform up to their potential, especially on difficult tasks.

When can minority opinions be successful?

- They hold steadily to their views. - They once held the majority position. - They're willing to compromise a bit. - They have at least some support from others. - They present their views as compatible with the majority view but as just a bit "ahead of the curve" - The audience wants to make an accurate decision.

Describe self-defenders.

- Triggers to everyday feelings of anger include someone else intentionally acting unreasonably toward them, insulting them, teasing them, or physically harassing them. - Self-defense and protecting others are often justified causes of aggression. - Some people are more likely to be self-defenders, react to other people as sources of physical danger; afraid that they will become victims if they don't strike first.

How do people create their own annoying situations?

- Type A people go out of they way to find situations that engage their competitiveness and time urgency. - People who are prone to act aggressively may create experiences that add to their own frustrations (ex. kid imitates teacher, gets sent to principal's office, miss class (frustrated by not being able to follow material), greater chance of unemployment)

What are the long-term strategies for coping with prejudice?

- Using humor as a coping strategy because it can reduce the anxiety. - Thinking about positive exemplars in your group (ex. women scientists, Obama) - Reminding people that negative stereotypes don't apply to everyone. - Remind people that skills can be enhanced through hard work.

What is the relationship between prejudice and managing our self-image?

- We may use other groups as scapegoats; blame other groups for our inadequacies in an attempt to preserve a favorable self-image. - Basking in reflected glory/cutting off reflected failure. - Self-Image influenced by social identity; opinions of and feelings about social groups with which we identify. - Downward social comparison: "we" are better than "them."

When are group decisions better?

- When group members are focused on the tasks rather than social harmony. - When leaders encourage people to air alternative perspectives. - When groups have procedures to ensure that members critically evaluate all proposals and gather outside feedback.

Describe the Cantor et al. (1978) women & arousal study.

- Women came into the lab; all were annoyed by a female confederate. - Half were shown a nonviolent erotic film and others watched a neutral control film. - Then, got the chance to aggress: could play nice music or horrible noise to their opponent in a battleship game. - Women who watched erotica after being annoyed were more aggressive during the battleship game.

Describe other examples of stereotype threat studies.

- Women performed worse on math tests when gender was made salient. - Latinos performed more poorly on an IQ test when they believed the test was diagnostic of intellectual ability than when they thought it was unrelated to intellectual ability. - White men performed relatively poorly on an athletic task when they thought it was related to "natural ability" whereas black men performed relatively poorly on the task when they thought it was related to "athletic intelligence." - Asian American women performed worse on a math test when gender was made salient but better if asian identity was made salient.

What is the Social Intuitionist Model?

1) Primary intuitive ("intuitions come first") 2) Rationalized, justified, or otherwise explained afterwards

What are the steps of the frustration-aggression hypothesis?

1. Frustration or unpleasant experience (pain, heat, etc.) 2. Negative feelings 3. Emotional aggression

What are the four types of atheism?

1. Mind-blind Atheism: people who may have deficits in being able to imagine what a god or religious agent may be like. 2. Apatheism: spirituality and religion is not important to people's self-concept or the way they go through the world 3. Incredulous Atheism: people who didn't grow up with exposure to religion, so they don't have the cultural background. 4. Analytic Atheism: rejection of previous religious beliefs, stems from analytic thinking about their individual concerns.

What are the goals of aggressive behavior?

1. To cope with feelings of annoyance 2. To gain material and social rewards 3. To gain or maintain social status 4. To protect oneself or members of one's group

Define defensive attributional style.

A tendency to notice threats and interpret other people's behavior as intended to do one harm. - Aggressive children are usually afraid of getting hurt rather than being psychopaths. - Not beating people up for fun, but acting aggressively in response to what they perceive as threats from others; interpret ambiguous events as hostile.

Define group polarization.

After discussing an issue, the average judgment of a group member tends to become more extreme than prior to discussion (increases/emphasizes original belief).

Define social learning theory in relation to aggression.

Aggressive behavior is caused by rewards for aggression (or modeling without punishment).

Define indirect aggression.

An attempt to hurt other person without the obvious face-to-face conflict.

Define cognitive-neoassociation theory.

Any unpleasant situation triggers a complex chain of internal events, including negative emotions and negative thoughts. - If negative feelings lead to fearful thoughts/associations -> flight - If negative feelings lead to angry thoughts/associations -> fight

In humans, when do boys increase their dominance?

At puberty.

Define intersexual competition.

Attracting a mate through displaying positive characteristics.

Define intrasexual competition.

Beating out the competition (between members of the same sex).

Define direct aggression.

Behavior aimed at hurting someone to his or her face; either physical or verbal.

What should managers of diverse groups focus on?

Communication, cohesion, coordination, commitment.

What can lead to atheism?

Disruption in: ability to imagine god/religion, personal motivation, cultural input, person is religious

Any internal arousal state can _________ aggressive activity, even exercising or watching an erotic film.

Enhance.

Define relative deprivation.

Feeling that one has less than the others to whom one compares oneself (including themselves in the past).

In Europe, Australia, and Japan, there is a dislike for what?

Foreigners/non-natives.

For indirect aggression, ________ are more likely to spread rumors and perpetuate social rejection.

Girls

What moral foundations are under individualizing?

Harm and Fairness

Which moral foundations do liberals tend to emphasize?

Harm and Fairness

What are the five moral foundations?

Harm, Fairness, Loyalty, Authority, Purity

People who are _________ committed to their religious group may be extra prejudiced against outgroups as a way to increase their status within their in-group.

Heavily

Define emotional aggression.

Hurtful behavior that stems from angry feelings.

Define instrumental aggression.

Hurting another person to accomplish some other goal.

How could have aggression evolved through natural selection?

If it paid off in terms of survival and reproduction.

Violence is most likely in men in what age group?

In their late teens and twenties, when testosterone levels are highest and when they are competing for mates.

Define the Moral Dumbfounding Effect.

Insistence on a moral judgment for which no good reasons can be given.

How can moral foundations be divided?

Into "individualizing" and "binding"

Women are __________ as men to hit, kick, or otherwise attack their romantic partner.

Just as likely.

In nonhuman animals, when does male aggressiveness increase?

Just before the mating season, when territories and females are being contested.

Define atheism.

Lack of belief in God or Gods.

What moral foundations are under binding?

Loyalty, Authority, Purity

Which moral foundations do conservatives tend to emphasize?

Loyalty, Authority, and Purity

Describe the study related to group membership.

Minimal group experiments: - Estimate number of dots projected on a screen. - Randomly told that you are an overestimator or an underestimator. - Then, in a "second" experiment you have to give money to others who are either overestimators or underestimators too. - People would give more money to in-group members. - Leads to out-group dislike. - Even toddlers show out-group dislike.

In general, are more religious people more or less prejudiced?

More

Does atheism = anti-theism?

No

Is aggression useful for all situations?

No, it can be useful for some situations but not others.

Define agnosticism.

Not knowing what is or is not true.

Define explicit attitudes.

Ones people are aware of.

Define implicit attitudes.

Ones people are not aware of and may not be able to directly report.

Describe Monin & Miller's (2001) moral licensing study.

Part 1: - Participants (all white) were given a group of candidates (not all were equally qualified) and told to hire one for a company. - Control condition: chose the white candidate (most qualified). - Experimental condition: chose the minority candidate (most qualified). Part 2: - Participants given a group of candidates (all equally qualified) and told to hire one for a police job. - People were more likely to say police job is better for a white candidate after first selecting a minority candidate for a different job.

Define moral licensing.

Past moral behavior makes people more likely to do potentially immoral things without worrying about feeling or appearing immoral.

What was Freud's theory of aggression?

People have a "death instinct", an innate pull to end one's own life that gets redirected toward destroying others.

What's the difference between stereotype and stereotyping?

Stereotype is the belief; stereotyping is the process of expecting someone to be like that belief.

Define weapons effect.

The tendency for weapons to enhance aggressive thoughts, feelings, and actions.

For animals, when can aggression be beneficial?

Through defending territory, dividing resources, and protecting their young.

A greater percentage of male murderers are motivated by what desire?

To retaliate for a previous insult.

What is a group?

Two or more individuals who influence each other.

How does heat relate to aggression?

Violent behaviors of all sorts are more likely to occur during hot weather (assaults, domestic violence, murder, rape, etc.).