MCB W61 Final QUIZ QUESTIONS, MCB C61 Final Quizzy, PSYCH / MCB C61 Final, BMB Test 3, MCB C61 Midterm 2, MCB c61 Midterm 2, Psych C 61 midterm 2
Wilder Penfield
Canadian neurosurgeon that electrically stimulated regions of cerebral cortex in patients while they were still awake and used their experiences to characterize the location of the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe and described the somatosensory map of the body
Beta-carotene
Carotenoids are precursors to retinal and retinal; easily found in nature. this gives carrots orange color (body takes it, cleaves it in half, chemically modifies it → 2 retinal molecules!)
Gregor Mendel (1822-1884)
Catholic Augustinian friar and later abbot who is known for his experiments on inheritance in plants -observed that various traits of pea plants were orderly distributed from one generation to the next -> this led to the idea that inheritance involved fundamental packets of info that had to do with specific traits
Spiral Ganglion
Cluster of cell bodies (one in each ear) where there are so-called BIPOLAR NEURONS with single myelinated dendrite receiving signal from hair cell and a myelinated axon carrying single to brainstem -- in brain stem's MEDULLA, axons of auditory nerve synapse with cells in COCHLEAR NUCLEUS (neurons of cochlear nucleus send axons to cells in regions of pons called SUPERIOR OLIVE and LATERAL Lemniscus -- majroity of hair cells sends signals to spiral ganglion = inner hair cells (about 3500 per cochlea) -- Outer hair cells = 12,000 per cochlea (receive more input from brain stem and send less signals to spiral ganglion). Contains protein called PRESTIN (named after music notation 'presto') that elongates and contracts as a function of cell membrane potential changes
Taste Bud
Clusters of receptor cells located on the tongue (some on the upper plate and pharynx) that begin the process of gustation by responding to molecules entering the mouth. 10,000 in human mouth, each with 100 taste receptors (1 million taste receptors in mouth!) Pore exposes the receptor cell to interior of the mouth, where saliva dissolves the molecular components of food and drink and swishes them about. Ends of receptor cells are composed of microvilli (filamentous structures that increase surface area exposed to tasty substances). Taste receptor proteins w/in phospholipid bilayer membrane of microvilli.
Caffeine
Coffea arabica, camellia sinesis (tea), and theobroma cacao are the 3 best plant sources of caffeine Most widely used psychoactive drug in the world Increases HR and BP (by vasoconstriction) excites CNS, can be found in coffee, tea and cacao IS A STIMULANT Theophylline (found in tea) and theobromine (found in cacao) have very similar psychoactive effects Was in Coca Cola and Pepsi with the Kola Nut at first then they started to add the pure chemical Acts on the CNS to increase wakefulness and alertness Increases heart rate and blood pressure - acts as antagonist on adenosine neurotransmitter receptor (GPCR) so that it has an excitatory effect on the CNS, increased heart rate and blood pressure, -stops the adenosine neurotransmitter that usually decreases neuronal exctiability
Timbre
Complexity of sound waveform. Most actual air pressure variations are complex waveforms w/ richness and complexity. Musical instruments have high timbre.
What drugs are often grouped together as classical psychedelics/ hallucinogens?
DMT, LSD, & psilocybin. -- DMT-containing plants are used for medicinal properties by tribes in Amazon Jungle of South America (one preparation mixes DMT containing plant with ayahuasca vine (banisteriopsis caapi) which creates a strong brew called AYAHUASCA (or yage)) -- other psychedelics identified from plants = lysergic acid amide from seeds of morning glories and ibogaine (from root of African plant called tabernanthe Iboga) NOTE = classical psychedlics bind as AGONISTS to various serotonin receptor subtypes, especially 5HT24 receptor
Hershey-Chase experiment
DNA, not protein, was carrier of genetic info. Grew bacteriophage virus in bacterial culture (sulfur= proteins; phosphorus= DNA) → bacteriophage infect e. Coli → put in blender to knock viruses off → lighter phosphorus DNA at top= not radioactive= phosphorus being injected into bacterium (DNA!) Virus attaches to bacterium→ bacterium blows up → 100s new viruses (made of DNA protein) ** Viral DNA (w phosphorous), not viral protein w sulfur, that is transferred from virus to bacteria during infection!
Adelson's Checkerboard illustion
Dark square and light square in shadow = same color but our visual system doesn't perceive it to be the same -- A visual shadow changes the apparent light falling on a surface -- the light in the illuminated area is taken as much stronger (the light in shadowed area is taken as dimmer). So correcting/ discounting for the illuminant can make 2 areas that send equal amounts of light look very different.
neurotrophins
Decade after Sperry experiments, protein molecules and mechanisms were discovered that regulate the processes of cell growth, differentiation, migration, and synaptogenesis⇒ nerve growth and guidance factors ALL promote growth or survival of neurons. Axon, dendrite guidance, other development processes. They promote cell division→ nerve/ neuron growth (neurogenesis).
aneurysm
bulge from structural weakness of blood vessel
physical materialism
material interactions create everything
hindbrain
medulla and cerebellum
what does number 7 (the lower dotted line) represent?
none of the above the line is the threshold voltage for opening voltage-gated sodium channels
feeling
nonlinguistic, intuitive quality mental experience component of emotions ex. joy, anger, fear
Does Hal have a mind?
sophisticated intentional behaviors ---> is it due to mental experience?
George Berkeley
"The only reality is in the mind" nothing exists if it is not perceived physical qualities projected on environment ideas are the only things we experience directly and are therefore the only things we can be sure of
sympathetic nervous system
"fight or flight"
Humphry Osmond (1917 - 2004)
(Osmond = psychiatrist) who in 1956 along with Aldous Huxley (1899-1963) proposed the word psychedelic (greek 'psyche' = mind; 'delos' = visible)
nucleic acids
- Largest molecules in living organisms, contain info required for constructing a living cell (genetic info)
Hebb's theorem
-"cells that fire together wire together" -simultaneous activity of a presynaptic and postsynaptic neuron will strengthen the synaptic connection between them -correlated activity increases synapse efficiency (LTP) and noncorrelated activity decreases synapse efficiency (LTD)
shaman
- healers in their communities - believed by some to communicate with animals, plants and other elements of nature in ways not explicable within the worldview of contemporary science - skilled in accessing states of mind that are sources of knowledge and power... to be used as service to others in community "introspection"
ion concentration differences inside and outside of neuron
-Na++, Ca++, and Cl- more concentrated outside -K+ more concentrated inside
Robert Oppenheimer (1904-1967)
-UC Berkeley faculty (1931-1942) -physicist part of WWII bomb development project -tried to stop bomb development after war -accused of being a communist
How many nanometers is 1 Angstrom? meters?
0.1 nm, 10^-10 meter
gene transcription
1) DNA unwinds 2) One strand is used as a template for mRNA synthesis 3) mRNA strand is produced; mRNA is complementary to DNA nucleotide sequence
1) Dorsal 2) Medial 3) Anterior 4) Ventral 5) Lateral 5) Posterior
1) Dorsal = UP 2) Medial = MIDDLE 3) Anterior = FRONT 4) Ventral = DOWN 5) Lateral = SIDE 6) Posterior = TAIL, REAR
Clarke's Three Laws
1) When a distinguished but elderly scientist states that something is possible, he is almost certainly right. When he states that something is impossible, he is very probably wrong. 2) The only way of discovering the limits of the possible is to venture a little way past them into the impossible. 3) Any sufficiently advanced technology is indistinguishable from magic.
Andreas Versalius
1514-1564 physician who created human anatomy drawings in 1543 "On Fabric of the Human Body" - disected human bodies and studied nervous system
absorption spectra of photoreceptor proteins
400 - 700 nm
William James
1842-1910 first official professor of psychology - studied mind; behavior (psychology) and biological underpinings (neuroscience) - wrote Principles of Psychology (1910)
planaria/flatworms
2 clusters of neurons at head of worm (primitive brain), extended network of interconnected neurons
How many distinct genes are there for protein building?
21,000
Visible light
400-700nm- range of energy that can engage in significant and sustainable interactions in the body. Primarily S cones (violet and blue light) If radiation is more energetic (shorter wavelength) than visible light (ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma rays), more likely to be damaging to molecular and cellular structures Results of damage: chemical bonds break & molecules fall apart, DNA damaged, leaky cell membrane, free radicals form
Which of the following drugs would NOT be considered a psychedelic?
5-hydroxytryptamine
serotonin
5-hydroxytryptamine/ 5HT Amino acid tryptophan→ amino acid decarboxylase→____ found to have effects on constriction and dilation of blood vessels in 1940s produced in raphe nuclei affects mood/appetite/sleep
earth's magnetic field
50 gauss or 0.5 teslas
In a 2011 survey of 7,000 people, ages 16 to 30 years old, across several countries: what percentage of people ages 16-22 would rather give up sense of smell than lose network accessing technology (ie. phone, tablet, computer)? What percentage of people ages 23- 30 said the same?
53 % ages 16- 22 48% ages 23 - 30 said they would rather give up sense of smell then give up technology
Sucralose
600x more sweet (branding = SPLENDA) -- Was not discovered out of Principle of Limited Sloppiness -- chemists fiddled with structure of sucrose to get something (and they tested it with rats) -- The difference between sucrose and sucralose = chlorine (3 chlorine in sucralose where there were OH groups in sucrose)
left handedness
70% have L-hem language dominance, 15% R-hem / 15% both
Lateral Geniculate Nuclei (LGN)
90% of optic nerve axons go into the thalamus in the diencephalon, where they enter pair of structures called this. They send axons into backmost region of cerebral cortex (posterior occipital lobe), where they form synapses w/ cortical neurons. Right visual field→ left-side of this (visa versa)
LGN, visual cortex (V1 etc)
90% of optic nerve head to thalamus and then the lateral geniculate nuclei V1 responds to edges of objects
Flavor
A combination of several different channels of sensory info. Mouth components of taste and pungency are crucial (texture contributes too). Most important is the aromatic molecules of olfactory system! (once food is in throat, aromatic molecules go into nasal passages)
What happens to the information represented by the neural signals after exiting the eye and traveling along the optic nerve toward the brain?
A distance behind the eyes, the two optic nerves intersect in a structure called the OPTIC CHIASM (named after the Greek letter chi, which looks like an X, a crossing) -- At the chiasm, fibers from the 2 optic nerves divide into two new groups, with axons from each of the eyes that gather info from the left half of visual space (left visual field) going to the right half of the brain, and axons from each of the eyes that gather info from the right visual field going to the left half of the brain
What are endogenous ligands?
A ligand is a protein that attaches (binds) to another protein called a receptor; receptor proteins have specific sites into which the ligands fit like keys into locks. Endogenous ligands are those that are produced in the body, not those introduced into the body, such as certain drugs.
Our 350 different functional olfactory receptors give us ability to detect and discriminate thousands (at least) or different odors. How?
A particular odorant molecule will differentially activate, to varying extents, some subset of olfactory GPCR. So we can discriminate very large numbers of odorant molecules by different patters of activation of 350 olfactory GPCRs
What receptors does allicin in crushed garlic activate?
Activates TRPA1 and TRPV1 receptors
agonist
Activates a neurotransmitter receptor when it binds to it. Like the wrong key opening a lock. ____ drug mimics neurotransmitter to fit its receptor.
How Smell Happens
Activation of olfactory GPCR→ intracellular cascade→ synthesis of cAMP→ interaction of cation channel that is gated by the binding of cyclic nucleotides→ Ca++ and Na+ depolarizes cell and signal generation!!
cortical layers and connectivity
All mammals have a layered cerebral cortex with long and short range connectivity
Lateral Geniculate Nuclei (LGN)
Almost 90% of the optic nerve axons head to the thalamus in the diencephalon, where they enter a pair of structures called the lateral geniculate nuclei (LGN) -- name comes from Latin 'genu' = knee; the LGN resembles a bendign knee-- a genuflect
What is Fourier Analysis/ Fourier Decomposition/ Fourier Series?
Any complex waveform describing a vibration can always be represented as a sum of sine waves having various frequencies and amplitudes -- named after French mathematician Joseph Fourier (1768-1830) -- components of Fourier Series = associated with specific vibratory modes of the strings and air cavities of instruments
Fourier Analysis
Any complex waveform describing a vibration can be represented as the sum of sine waves having various frequencies and amplitudes. [Central to how the ear makes sense of sound]
multiple schlerosis
Autoimmune damage to myelin → nerve conduction impaired (motor or sensory); variable symptoms--blurred vision, numbness, pains; unknown cause
Max Delbrück (1906-1981)
Berlin theoretical physicist inspired by Bohr -published "On the nature of gene mutation and gene structure" ->in the paper, he proposed that genes were likely to be large molecules and when impacted by high-energy electromagnetic radiation, the atomic configurations of the molecules could be rearranged -later used E. coli and bacteriophages to study the physical properties of heredity
blood-brain barrier
Blood vessels are constructed within the Central NS (brain and spinal cord) to regulate the passage of material from the blood into the brain (visa versa). Blood vessel walls have no gaps, pores, or holes between cells (gaps allow exchange of molecules between tissue and blood) cross by transporter proteins (glucose and some amino acids) or by dissolving through blood vessel cell walls --- molecules that do this must be highly hydrophobic/lipophilic (oxygen and drugs)
pro-social emotions
Humans have highly refined emotional abilities to preempt and resolve conflict emotions that make us want to be social
What atoms is ethanol made up of? Draw it out.
C2H5OH
top 5 psychoactive drugs
CANAC: Caffeine, alcohol, nicotine, arecoline, cannabis
retrograde signaling in cannabis
CB receptors: largely present on presynaptic axon terminals. Endocannabinoid molecules released from postsynaptic dendrites in response to glutamatergic stimulation and interacts w/ CB receptors in presynaptic axon terminal. carry signal opposite direction from way neural signals generally thought to move
Crossing over of visual fields is called what?
CONTRALATERAL CONNECTIVITY The left visual field (from both eyes) goes to the right hemisphere The right visual field (from both eyes) goes to left hemisphere REMINDER: the VISUAL FIELDS CROSS OVER, not the eyes.
What is cell migration?
Cell migration = is the process by which cells, as they differentiate, move around from to occupy specific locations
What is chemoreception?
Chemoreception is a physiological process whereby organisms respond to chemical stimuli. Humans and most higher animals have two principal classes of chemoreceptors: taste (gustatory receptors), and smell (olfactory receptors).
Pheromones
Chemicals that carry signal info related to social communications between members of the same species. Important roles in identity & social status, mate attraction, territory marking, danger signal (insects). Elicit innately programmed behaviors or biochemical changes, things not requiring learning. Ants are best studied (found in plants too!)
local anesthetics
Chemicals that produce a loss of sensation only in the region of the body near where they have been applied (altering Na+ channels). When the chemical drifts around, enters the bloodstream, and reaches other parts of the body, its concentration is too low to have any effects.
What is chemotaxis?
Chemotaxis = when bacterium interacts with amino acid (like aspartic acid and serine) which interacts with receptor protein located on cell's outer membrane, influencing bacterium to swim toward nutrients (interaction of nutrients with receptor protein reduces likelihood of tumbling and keeps them moving where nutrients are present) -- (in the case of entire organism moving toward like in the case of swimming bacterium)
Binding of GABA to its ionotropic receptor leads to:
Cl- flow into the cell, producing a hyperpolarization
What causes loss of hearing?
Could be because of infection of inner ear, or malfunctions of cochlea, acoustic trauma (or exposure to loud sounds) -- measuring sound intensity or loudness in unit called DECIBEL (dB) after Alexander Graham Bell
Gustatory neural pathways
Cranial nerve fibers carrying taste sensory info→ lower brainstem→ connect w/ cells in nucleus solitarius→ 1. Thalamus to somatosensory cortex (parietal lobe) OR 2. Hypothalamus and amygdala
_____ --> transcription--> ______ --> translation --> ______
DNA mRNA protein
Which of the following describes the typical flow of genetic information?
DNA, transcription, RNA, translation, protein
revolution in science
Darwin's revolutionary contribution to physical science someday science will transcend, laws of physics redefined, etc. possibly an intermingling of mind and other science
Vomeronasal System
Distinct olfactory sensory structure and neural pathways that respond somewhat selectively to pheromone molecules. In vertebrate animals. *Some pheromones detected in main olfactory pathways, though!*
DNA
Double helix composed of 2 long chains of nucleotides adenine (A), cytosine (C ), guanine (G), thymine (T) A & T, G & C
sleep physiology: EEG, EOG, EMG
EEG: brain neural activity EMG: body muscle activity EOG: eye movement activity
magnetic field sensitivity and animal navigation
Earth's geomagnetic field generated by large-scale movement of magnetic atoms in the motion interior of the planet animals use to guide migration (navigational aid) e.g., pigeons find their way back not believed for decades and still not widely accepted
Acetylcholinesterase (AChE)
Enzyme responsible for ACh→ acetate and choline its release at axon terminals. (ACh removed from synaptic cleft by rapid enzyme degradation)
Choline acetyltransferase
Enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis of acetate and choline→ ACh. The gene coding for this enzyme is expressed only in cholinergic neurons (neurons w/ ACh as neurotrans)
What is the expanding volume of the brain due to?
Expanding volume of the brain is due to proliferation of neurons and glia from dividing stem cells
Mescaline
FIRST psychedelic substance to be chemically identified. LSD= most famous
cocaine
First local anesthetic to be appreciated in modern medicine. Molecules bind to voltage-gated Na+ channels, alter generation of action potentials (do not block completely) ⇒ reduction of signals from neurons sending sensory info into brain
Joseph Fourier and Fourier analysis
Fourier analysis is that any sound wave can be described as the sum of sin waves Joseph Fourier was French mathematician who studied this 200 years ago
Olfactory receptors are what type of receptors?
GPCR (g-protein coupled receptors). -- Among vertebrates the number of different types of olfactory receptor proteins varies widely: Fish = have 100, coded by 100 diff. genes Mammals = 1000 (10 times that of fish) Mouse = 1300 Humans = 350 different ones
Higher frequency (or faster) pressure variations are experienced as sounds with ____________ pitch or tone and lower frequency is experiencd as sounds with ______________ pitch or tone
HIGHER; LOWER
Hemianopia
Hemianopia = scotoma that covers entire visual field (so theres no info collected from that entire visual field)
What are pseudogenes? How many do human have?
Humans have pseudogenes = nonfunctional genes that, although they appear to code for olfactory GPCR, are altered in some way so that they don't code for functional receptor proteins -- humans have 600 pseudogenes but our distant ancestors had like 1300 (like mice) and hence a more sophisticated sense of smell. -- It is believed that evolutionary ancestors migrated from living close to the ground (where odorants = crucial) to living in trees and eventually up right creatures with noses far from the ground (where smell wasn't as important and vision became more important for collecting environmental info). -- HENCE, functional olfactory receptors were lost in mutation
Albert Hofmann
Identified LSD, the most famous psychedelic. ALSO identified 2 psychedelically active chemicals in these Psilocybe mushrooms: psilocybin and psilocin (similar structure to serotonin).
Arthur Heffter
Identified mescaline from peyote cactus (small cactus growing in Mexico to S. Texas).
bacterial chemotaxis
If the bacteria encounters a type of amino acid it could reduce the likelihood of it tumbling and therefore keeps the bacteria swimming in the direction where the nutrient is present
Delbrück's "Principle of Limited Sloppiness"
If you know just enough of what is going on, when you discover something you can understand it
Why don't humans see infrared radiation?
Infrared radiation = too low to activate photoreceptors in the eye SIMILARLY = snakes like pit vipers possess structures called pit organs which detect infrared radiation in similar way to how human eyes detect visible light (positioned below eyes and nostrils)
Low frequency sound with frequency < 20 Hz = ____________ High frequency sound with frequency > 20,000 Hz = ______________
Infrared sound (inaudible to humans but not elephants); ultrasound (inaudible to humans but not to cats and dogs) -- cats and dogs can hear sounds of 40,000 hz and higher. They dont use this for communication but ultra sound perception is useful for hunting since rodents communicate with high frequency sounds
secondary structure
Interactions of nearby amino acids to produce patterns of local folding within the protein ie. Alpha Helix - coiled/spiraled formation
George Berkeley
Irish known for his articulation of idealism Idealism: Everything is basically a creation of the mind
What are isothiocynates?
Isothiocyanate is the chemical group -N=C=S, formed by substituting the oxygen in the isocyanate group with a sulfur. -- Many natural isothiocyanates from plants are produced by enzymatic conversion of metabolites called glucosinolates. -- These natural isothiocyanates, such as allyl isothiocyanate, are also known as mustard oils.
Raphael Mechoulam
Israeli organic chemist worked with THC and cannabonoids (discovered THC)
LSD, Albert Hofmann
LSD was synthesized by Albert Hoffman, derived from ergotamine (produced by fungus Ergot) landmark event of how few millionths of a gram of a chemical could produced a profound effect on the mind; leading to connections between brain physiology and mental experience
LD 50
Lethal dose; amount of substance that kills 50% of test sample.
primary structure
Linear sequence of amino acids forming the protein- a list of the component amino acids in the order they occur in the polypeptide chain
Retinal Achromatopsia
Loss of all functional cone cells, resulting from genetic or developmental anomaly. No experience of color! See in all white, grey, and black.
General Anosmia
Loss of sensitivity to a large variety of aromas, in some cases a complete lack of smell. Various causes from nasal congestion to unknown developmental factors to head trauma, to degenerative brain disease.
What are psychedelic substances that aren't classical psychedelics?
MDMA (methylene dioxymethamphetamine = aka ecstasy) MDA (methylene dioxyamphetamine) Salvinorin Ketamine Anti-cholinergic hallucinogens atropine and scopolamine
What are microfilaments and microtubules? What are their functions?
MICROFILAMENTS = long polymers of actin protein (each actin = 375 amino acids) Size = 7nm. Monomer = actin protein MICROTUBULES = long polymers of alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin protein (each = 450 amino acids). Size = 25nm -- if you look at an axon cross section, you will find that the interior is dense with microtubules (in between myelin) FUNCTIONS = The growth and development of cell processes (axons, dendrites, dendrite spines) -- insertion of membrane protein (ion channels, transporters, neurotransmitter receptors) = all done by cytoskeletal microfilaments and microtubules
progression of sleep stages
NREM sleep: 4 stages, 3 + 4 are slow-wave delta sleep REM: basically aware-like brain activity, goes from 1, 2, 3, 4, 3, 2, 1, REM and repeat
dopamine
NT for pleasure/reward
Salt
NaCl (sodium) mostly. NaCl quickly becomes Na+ and Cl- ions in solution. Channels that allow Na+ ions to flow across the membrane through sodium ion channels→ trigger neural signal to the brain.
#1 element in human body by weight
oxygen
In a myelinated axon, channels and pumps are clustered together in the:
Nodes of Ranvier
Synthetic Opioid
Not directly related to morphine in chemical structure, but can do similar things
Phototropism
Process of bending or growing towards light (ex. Plant near a window-- fungus Phycomyces) Organisms w/ photosynthesis use light to grow towards (towards open region to disperse seeds)
Vasodilation
Opening up of the vessels
Who first showed that DNA carries genetic information
Oswald Avery
top 5 most abundant elements in the human body (by weight)
Oxygen - 65% Carbon - 18.5% Hydrogen - 9.5% Nitrogen - 3.4% Calcium- 1.5%
phospholipid bilayer membrane
Phospholipids form sheets in three dimensions that can fold to form enclosed surfaces separating two aqueous environments surrounds all life and non-life cells
What is the difference between phototaxis and phototrophism?
Phototaxis = process of moving towards light whereas photrophism is the state of being bent
12, 10, 9, 6
Pico (10^-____), Angstrom (10^-___), nano (10^-_____), micro (10^-_____) Angstrom= .1 nanometer= 10^-10 meter (1 Angstrom= distance between nucleus and electron)
ayahuasca
Plants used for medicinal effects of tribal people from Amazon Jungly, S. America contains DMT
DMT (dimethyltryptamine)
Powerful psychedelic molecule that can be readily synthesized by enzymes from the amino acid tryptophan. (It is molecularly similar to serotonin and psilocin).
neural development
REM sleep seems to play an important role in _____ explains why we have more of it in infancy (individuals deprived of REM will fall into it more quickly.)
Maria Sabina, Gordon Wasson, Psilocybe mushrooms, psilocybin
Psilocybe mushrooms: "magic mushrooms" used by the Mazatec (lived in southern Mexico) Gordon Wasson wrote about these mushrooms according to an account by Maria Sabina who chose to share this ancient secret Albert Hoffman named the chemicals psilocybin and psilocin
RNA vs DNA?
RNA uses Uracil nucleotide instead of Thymine and has ribose sugar backbone instead of deoxyribose
In work published a hundred years ago, who used the term "growth cones" to describe drawings of growing axon tips in developing neurons?
Ramon y Cajal
Medial geniculate Nucleus (MGN) of thalamus
Sends axons to temporal lobe of cerebral cortex to region of primary auditory cortex (A1)
nodes of ranvier
Small gaps in the myelin, all of the voltage-gated channel proteins and Na/K pump proteins are jammed together at the the guy who discovered these discovered that myelin is not continuous along axon
Why can sound not propagate in a vacuum?
Sound can not propagate in a vacuum because by definition sound is a change in air pressure and air pressure is condensed/collapsed in a vacuum
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Spectrum of electromagnetic energy that can be conceptualized as a vibrating electromagnetic field moving (radiating) through space. It is quantified as a frequency of vibration (Hz-cycles/sec) or wavelength (meters).
Neuroplasticity
Strengthening and weakening of synapses (as a result of molecular processes taking place presynaptically, postsynaptically, or both). Ability of neural circuitry to alter its properties. The formation of new neurons (neurogenesis) from precursor cells is another form changes are most prominent in early years of life
Perception
The analysis and interpretation of info by the NS, contributing to the experience of mental states of perceptual awareness
atropine
The deadly nightshade plant. It is a parasympatholytic and will therefore slow intestinal motility. Anticholinergic effects means it blocks parasympathetic neural activity. This makes it a useful medicine to treat diarrhea, spastic colon, and other gastrointestinal problems. Cross BBB= psychoactive effects are dreaming and hallucinations, disorientation and confusion, lack of memory
The cytoskeleton structure of a cell is composed of arrays of protein polymers, specifically _________ (made of _______ protein) and ________ (made of __________ protein)
The cytoskeleton structure of a cell is composed of arras of protein polymers, specifically MICROFILAMENTS (made of ACTIN protein) and MICROTUBULES (made of TUBULIN protein)
What is the period of a sine wave?
The duration of a cycle -- in a second there are 200 cycles (a frequency of 200 hertz)
frequency
The higher the frequency (cycles/sec), the shorter the wavelength (lower frequency=longer wavelength). Higher frequency= higher pitch or tone
What is the basis of mental experience?
The interaction of neural networks with incoming sensory information -- in philosophy this is the realm of EPISTEMOLOGY =how we know what we know -- in epistemology, NAIVE REALISM = idea that what we perceive is identical to what actually exists in the world however CAFE WALL ILLUSION illustrates that what we see is not actually what is there
axon hillock
The place where the axon emerges from the soma of the cell. There is a high density of voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels here. This is where the action potential is initiated
pruning
The process of unused synapses being eliminated and the most used ones becoming strengthened
seizure
Too much excitation and not enough inhibition may set off a kind of explosive chain reaction called excitation (runaway neural activity) 1% of US pop.= 3 mil Results: sudden change of sensory perception, emotional or cognitive changes, involuntary muscle movements, Amnesia/memory loss, disorder with loci typically in temporal lobes treatment sometimes via excision procedure
Walter Freeman
UC Berkeley Neurodynamics, started MCB C61 -Cortical neuropil behaves as a distinct new state of matter
Gregor Mendel
Various traits of pea plants parceled out in orderly fashion from one generation to the next → information needed to build an organism is in units of specific trait inheritance= fundamental units of packets of information Provided a mechanism to explain Darwin's phenomenon
Light Polarization
Vibration of the electromagnetic field aligned along specific angles in relation to the direction of propagation. Light from the sun is vibration in all possible angles of polarization. When sun interacts w/ molecules of Earth's atmosphere, it scatters and generates a variation in polarization. Angle and extent to which light is polarized depends on where in the sky one looks relative to the sun. Sunlight initially unpolarized. Becomes polarized by bouncing off air molecules.
action potential
When a signal passes along a nerve cell's axon, a striking change in membrane voltage occurs, this is ________. This is the result of electrically charged particles moving across the membrane occurs when there is a large enough depolarization (all one charge) of the cell. Membrane potential goes from resting potential of 65 mV to +30 mV and then returns back to resting potential. This all occurs in 4 milliseconds.
Truffle Mushroom
White truffle (tuber magnatum) Black truffle (tuber melanosporum) -- both from Southern Europe -- one chemical component = 2, 4 dithiapentane -- 2, 4 dithiapentane + olive oil = "truffle oil" (very expensive)
polypeptides
amino acid chain that only happen under specific catalytic conditions found within the ribosomes of cells
hypersomnia
an increased sensitivity to odors
Mirror recognition
an indicator of consciousness? Chimpanzees & magpie (bird) can recognize themselves in a mirror through the mark test
neural magnetic field
around 1 picotesla (50*10^-6 tesla)
synaptogenesis
as neurons mature they wire together and form synapses. this is called synapgensis
Parkinson's
associated with lesion in the substantia nigra affecting dopamine production causes difficulty in moving, slowness
astronomical observation and modern science
astronomical science → modern science → bio science
transuranium elements
atnomic numbers > 92
scotoma
blind spot in a specific region of space that is resulted by lesion in V1
retina: bipolar cells, ganglion cells
bypolar: neurons with single myelinated dendrite receiving the signal from hair cell and a myelinated axon carrying the signal into the brainstem
ventricles
cavities filled with cerebrospinal fluid
gray matter
cell bodies
cell differentiation
cells dividing into new cells and turning into different types of cells -embryonic stem cells differentiate into neural progenitor cells
Roger Sperry, corpus callosotomy, split-brain patients
corpus callus split to avoid seizure propogation across hemispheres visual information in split brain patients only in the hemisphere contralateral to where picture had been flashed and not shared to both hemispheres
What type of bonds are peptide bonds?
covalent
arachnoid
delicate layer of tissue covering the brain underneath the dura
cyclotron
device used to accelerate charged particles to high particles of high energies for bombarding the nuclei of atoms produces various radioactive isotopes used in PET could be used to produce chemical elements heavier than ever see before
agnosia
difficulty recognizing all or nearly all objects lesions in where lobes come together
Gordon Wasson
eliminated the secret of magic mushrooms when he revealed them to contemporary society via article in Life magazine in 1957.
olfactory receptor cells
embedded in nasal epithelium. Dendrites of receptor cells branch into cilia which contain receptor proteins
gustatory neural s
enters brain via lower brainstem > cells in nucleus solitarius > two axon tracts emerge, one to thalamus>insula>somatosensory coretx and the other to hypothalamus>amygdala
What is the most widely used sedative-hypnotic drug in the United States?
ethanol
Quantum measurement problem
even if we perfectly know the initial state of the entity, that is, its state before the measurement, we cannot predict with certainty what will be its final state, that is, the state at the completion of the measurement process.
embryonic development
fertilization first division (~day 15) first neural tube starts the beginning of the nervous system cortex expands and forms lots of gyri and sulci at the 8th mo. brain at the end of the prenatal development is still only 30% of adult size growth is due to new connections within the brain
mirror neurons
frontal lobe neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing another doing so the brain's mirroring of another action may enable imitation, language learning, and empathy
cilia
hair-like projections on the cell surface used for locamotion or the movement of fluid over a cell
In 1920 Otto Loewi discovered chemical siganling in the nervous system. Which of the following did he used in his famous experiment?
heart
what bonds holds the two chains of DNA to each other?
hydrogen bonds between nucleotides
Are polar molecules hydrophilic or hydrophobic?
hydrophilic
MEG
image based on magnetic field generated by electric currents of neural activity shield outside magnetic noise via SQUID tech expensive
REM behavior disorder
impairment of motor inhibition in REM sleep, acting out your dreams
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
includes sensory, muscle, autonomic, enteric -sensory systems of the head and their connections to brain -sensory input from skin -the receptors located within the muscle tendons and joints (provide info about muscle tension and body position) -connections from brain and spinal cord to muscles throughout body (neuromuscular system)
Sedative-hypnotic drugs ____________ GABA-mediated Cl- flow, resulting in global ___________.
increase CNS inhibition
hearing loss: infection, genetic, noise-induced
infection of inner ear cause irreversible damage to the hair cells genetic anomalies that result in malfunctions of the cochlea ex. mutation in gene for the Connexon 26 channels produces abnormal ion balances within cochlea 0dB is the threshold for human hearing the dB scale is increasing by factors of 10 so 0-10dB is 10x louder Sound level above 85dB has risk for permanent hearing loss (from overestimation of hair cells)
hearing loss
infections of the inner ear (damage to hair cells forever); genetic anomalies→ malfunctions of cochlea.
psychedelics, hallucinogens
intensified emotions and altered perception: "set and setting"; mindset and physical/social environment hallucinogenic; aka psychedelic drug hallucinogens: "classic psychedelics," binds as agonists to various serotonin receptor subtypes (as well as dopamine and norepinephrine) e.g., mescaline, LSD, dimethyltryptamine (DMT)
symbiosis
interaction between two different organisms living in close physical association, typically to the advantage of both.
TTX does not affect the central nervous system b/c:
it does not cross the blood brain barrier
In Stanley Kubrick's film 2001: A Space Odyssey, how is it possible to determine whether or not HAL has a mind?
it is not possible to determine whether HAL has a mind by any of these criteria
frontal lobe
language, problem solving
Pseudogenes
larged # of nonfunctional genes, that appear to code for olfactory GPCRs, but are altered in some way so that they do NOT code for functional receptor proteins Humans have 600 pseudogenes Evolution changed are smell to be less sophisticated (more pseudogenes)... we are less on the ground and upright= less smells
protein primary structure
linear sequence of amino acids
The dura matter, pia matter, and arachnoid layer are collectively called the:
meninges
Human pheromone
menstrual synchrony in women, sexual attraction ("human leukocyte antigen" genes), tears
actin
microfilaments
acoustic trauma
most common cause of hearing loss. Brief exposure to loud sounds (ex. Gun shots, explosions) can result in permanent hearing loss. 3500 inner ear cells in each ear. Acute acoustic= sudden loud noises Chronic acoustic= work environments, music players (85 dB!!)
v5
movement/speed/direction
Can muscarine cross the BBB?
no
Can tubocurarine cross the BBB?
no
What is the major neurotransmitter used in the sympathetic nervous system when connecting to target organs?
norepinephrine
sympathetic neurotransmitter?
norepinephrine
In the CNS, cocaine blocks presynaptic reuptake transporters for:
norepinephrine and dopamine
autonomic neurotransmitters
norepinephrine, acetylcholine -receptors for both neurotransmitters are GPCRs
olfactory receptor proteins
number varies widely in vertebrate animals humans: 350 proteins for 350 olfactory GPCRs (mammals ~1000, fish ~100, mice ~1300) combinations of receptors makeup for 1000 different smells first discovered as a hormone receptor, then neurotransmitter, then visual most diverse type of GPCR
hydrocarbons
organic molecules composed solely of carbon and hydrogen
oxytocin, vasopressin
oxytocin: acts on female uterus to facilitate birth and milk release vasopressin: slow transfer of water from blood to urine in kidneys prosocial action: mother-infant bonding
5
percent of the time a person in NREM sleep is vivid dreaming
The Hershey-Chase experiment demonstrated that DNA is the genetic material b/c ______ was recovered from infected bacteria.
phsophorous-32 radioactively labeled DNA
constructivism
posited that even the most basic aspects of emotional expression depend largely on cultural factors marginalizes the role of biological universals
Pruning
process by which unused synapses are eliminated. In year after birth, vast # new synaptic connections form between neurons throughout cerebral cortex.
phototropism,
process of moving towards light (growing or bending towards) ex. plant bending to window
phototaxis
process of moving towards light (swimming or moving)
Presynaptic neuroplasticity
prolonging state of depolarization in axon terminal (Ca++ channels open for longer)
psilocybin and psilocin
psychedelically active chemicals in Psilocybe mushrooms
serotonin location
raphe nuclei -several clusters of cells in brainstem where serotonergic neurons in vertebraes are located
how can you die from TTX?
respiratory paralysis
Rods
rod-shaped; numerous, throughout most of retina, sensitive to very small amounts of light. Located away from fovea; work best when not looking directly at them (periphery). 498 nm.
SETI
search for extraterrestrial intelligence
lateral
side view of brain
BOLD signal
signal produced for fMRI measure of increased flow of blood
v2
specific colors
Olfaction
the action or capacity of smelling; the sense of smell
Which of the following is FALSE about protein structure: (__) primary structure is the linear sequence of amino acids (__) secondary structure involves interaction between nearby amino acids (__) the alpha helix is an example of tertiary structure (__) not all proteins have quaternary structure (__) all of the above are true
the alpha helix is an example of tertiary structure
hemispheric asymmetry
the differentiation in morphology and physiology of the brain between the right and left hemispheres
miracle fruit, miraculin
the durin smells terrible but tastes good
lateralization of function
the notion that specific brain functions are processed primarily on one side of the brain motor control is contralateral
consolidation
the process by which memories become stable in the brain
What is synesthesia?
the production of a sense impression relating to one sense or part of the body by stimulation of another sense or part of the body (The most common form, colored letters and numbers, occurs when someone always sees a certain color in response to a certain letter of the alphabet or number-- this connects to what we talked about in lecture regarding people's ability to memorize numbers of pi)
physicalism
the view that the fundamental substance is matter and everything can be explained by material interactions
Are hydrocarbons hydrophobic or hydrophilic?
they are nonpolar, so hydrophobic
survey of 16-30 year olds: giving up smell vs. keeping laptop/phone
they would give up smell 16-22: 50% 23-30: 50%
arachnoid
thin layer under dura mater (meninges 2nd)
chemistry
transformation of matter; derived from alchemy
isotope
type of chemical element form that's unstable... causing it to decay radioactively
Wada test
used to determine lateralization of language via sedative-hypnotic barbiturate injection in R or L carotid artery replaced by fMRI and MEG today
ion pump
uses energy to move specific ions from one side of the membrane to the other
working memory
usually <10 things lasts for seconds to minutes, has limited capacity
light polarization
vibration of the electromagnetic field aligned along specific angles in relation to the direction of propagation light from the sun, radiating through space, is vibrating in all possible angles of polarization variations in angles of polarization are detected not by humans but insects, birds, reptiles, and other animals
mouse somatosensory cortex, whisker barrels
whisker map in mouse's brain if you cut off a whisker, the neuron next to the neuron associated with the whisker that was cut off will become more sensitive (type of neuroplasticity) similar thing happens in humans
restoration, learning, and memory
why do we need to sleep?
How big is a bacterial cell?
~0.1 to 10 micrometers
how big are small molecules?
~0.5 nm or 5 Angstroms
What is the typical dosage of Botulinum toxin or botox?
~100 units 1 unit ~0.05 ng
How big is a neuronal synapse gap?
~20 nm or 0.02 micrometers
aromas: mixtures of molecules vs single molecules
-cinnamon and cardamon are both complex molecules, include many different chemical components that trigger the 350 olfactory receptors -
K+ channels
-closed when cell is at rest -open when voltage becomes more positive; open when voltage reaches +30 mV and Na+ channels close, making membrane voltage becomes less positive (K+ goes out of cell) -membrane reaches about -70 mV before K+ channels fully close, which is followed by rapid adjustment to -65 mV (resting potential)
What are some processes important to circuit modification?
-changes in anatomical connectivity -changes in synaptic strength (amount of synapses, changes at presyn terminals and postsyn terminals)
neuromuscular junction
-chemical synapse between motor neuron and skeletal muscle -involves binding of neurotransmitter acetylcholine to ionotropic acetylcholine recepters (AChRs)
gene translation
1) mRNA moves to ribosomes for protein synthesis 2) transfer RNA match codons in mRNA with their corresponding amino acids 3) amino acids joined into linear chain by enzymes via peptide bonds to create protein
What is flavor?
Flavor is actually a combination of a lot of things = taste, smell, pungency, texture -- And TRP channels are everywhere, they respond to temperature = hot and cold, pungent/hot/spice, pressure, pain, hair cells
atropine
a psychoactive drug (affects mental experience) -paraympatholytic -crosses BBB
What is ontology?
In philosophy, ONTOLOGY is the study of the nature of reality/being (what is it that exists?) -- experience of world depends on the physical properties of our sensory receptors (eyes are only sensitive to limited range of electromagnetic radiation, cars are limited to set frequencies and so on)
GPCR intracellular cascade of events
In the process of straightening, the retinal pushes on the amino acids surround it and, in doing so, shifts the shape of the entire opsin protein. When opsin changes shape, this occurs, Photon of light absorbed→ retinal isomerizes to all-trans form→ shape shifting and activating opsin protein→ opsin binds and activates G-protein→ interacts w/ cGMP (cyclic guanosine monophosphate) enzyme→ hydrolyzing to non cyclic GMP⇒ cGMP+ certain ion channels= keeps channels open.
Apsaragus Pee Observation
Many people say that when they eat asparagus their pee smells bad but some don't notice it ( this illustrates there are genetic differences in perception) -- methanethiol and dimethyl sulfide are found in the urine of people who ate asparagus but not actually found in the asparagus itself. It must be produced in digestive chemical transformation. --not everyone notices this smell because of SPECIFIC ANOSMIA (loss in sensitivity to a specific kind of smell
Maria Sabina (1894- 1985)
Maria Sabina = mazatec healer from small mountain village in southern Mexico -- R. Gordon Wasson (1898 - 1986), together with wife Valentina learned about "magic mushrooms"/psychedelic mushrooms through Maria Sabina and distributed this info to contemporary society in a Life magazine article they published in 1957 --psychedelic mushrooms - many of which are from genus psilocybe -- Maria Sabina's decision to share her info with Gordon Wasson was huge! After meeting with Sabina, Wasson connected with Hoffmann who in 1958 discovered 2 psychedelically active components of Mexican psilocybe mushrooms naming them PSILOCYBIN AND PSILOCIN
animal navigation
Mass migration of animals-- birds, fish, turtles (ex. Homing pigeons) Magnetic bacteria-- contains chains of microscopic magnetite (align w/ geomagnetic field)... light magnetic-field is dependent on chemistry Bees change electrical properties of flowers (electric field) to ensure they don't visit same flower
What was the first psychedelic substance to be chemically identified?
Mescaline by Arther Heffter
What is Neuroplasticity?
Neuroplasticity = capacity of neural circuitry to alter its properties (plastic = comes from Greek word 'plassein' meaning "to mold/or form") -- Changes in synaptic strength are occurring ALL THE TIME -- retrograde signaling is a demonstration of neuroplasticity because it shows the intensity of signal transmission from one cell to the next varies from cell to cell -- plasticity is believed to have something to do with learning and memory (memory is stored in patterns of connectivity) -- Marian Diamond (used to teach at Berkeley, most of her work is on plasticity of the human brain). Pioneers idea that adult neuroplasticity is impacted by environment one lives in
GPCR signalling
Neurotransmitter binds to metabotropic receptors → receptor shift shape and make it able to bind another protein called a G-protein → G-protein activated→ G-protein interacts w/ effector enzyme (adenylate cyclase) → intracellular cAMP concentration changes→ cAMP interact w proteins, altering enzymatic activities (some are protein kinase) → channels open/close, genes turned on/off, etc.
What are neurotrophins?
Neurotrophins = nerve growth factors (NGF). They are proteins that promote growth and survival of neurons attached to cytoskeleton -- Rita Levi- Montalcini (1909- 1012) and Stanley Cohen (1922- present) = discoverers of the first neurotrophin -- kinds of neurotrophin = contact factor (contact/attraction adhesion, soluble repulsion) and soluble factor (soluble attraction, soluble repulsion) -- ephrin = ephrin receptor interaction can mediate repulsion or attraction -- myelination in the cortex takes many years! Still happening until late 20s
memory Consolidation
Newly stored memories in the LTM are fragile and can be disrupted, but become more stable and robust with time through this process where new memories become more stable. Retrieval involves some mechanism of access to stored memory. Happens during SWS sleep
primary auditory cortex, A1
bilateral connectivity -spatial mapping from the basilar membrane is maintained to the A1
physiology of sleep
brain activity, muscle activity, eye movement
CNS
brain and spinal cord
basal forebrain nuclei & midbrain pontine nuclei
brain regions that produce ACh
magnetoencephalography (MEG)
brain wave measuring magnetic fields, induced by electrical currents equal to about 1 picotesla at the surface of the seal
decreases
amount of REM sleep ___ throughout childhood, stabilizing in puberty at around 1.5-2 hours
Module 1
chapter 1-3
ions
charged atoms, formed when electrons gained/given away have a net charge (+ or -)
Otto Loewi received a Nobel Prize for an experiment he conceived and conducted in 1920. What was the essential discovery following from his experiment?
chemical signalling
monoamine hypothesis of depression
depressed mood potentially related to underactivity in monoamine systems in brain-like seratonin
Eric Kandel
detailed investigations of cellular and molecular changes that may underline memory formation worked with Aplysia californica
hydrophobic
doesn't like to hang out with water and vice versa; nonpolar molecules -think about oil and water!
Hans Berger
first guy to conduct an EEG near death experience in the military (perceived mental telepathy with family) catalyzed his interest in brain research
cocaine
first local anesthetic chemical discovered -purified from coca plant
dura mater
first meninges (from skull) skin-like sheet covering brain
norepinephrine (aka noradrenaline) locations
locus coeruleus
jet lag
lack of synchrony between our internal clock and the new time zone
temporal lobe
lobe of brain for hearing
distillation
means of capturing aroma molecules how essential oils are made condensation, concentrated, and purified
covalent chemical bonds
sharing of electrons between atoms; drawn as lines
absorption spectra of photoreceptor proteins
short wavelength light activates S cones (violet and blue) medium wavelength light activates M cones (green and yellow) long wavelength light activates L cones (orange and red)
cochlea
sound transferred to cochlea via eardrum, ossicles, then oval window -cochlea contains the basilar membrane
squid axon
squids have one giant axon that controls part of the water jet propulsion system
REM, NREM
stages of sleep characterized by differences in eye movement
neuroplasticity
strengthening and weakening of synapses strengthening can be done by prolonging state of depolarization, more neurotransmitters are released, and the synapse becomes stronger
Karl Lashley
studied ability of rats to navigate in mazes lesioned rats had memory impairment but he found that memory impairment was dependent on size of lesion rather than location concluded that memory is not localized
Pigeons (columba livia)
studied due to accurate navigational prowess (by using magnetic fields). Hence carrier pigeons. Experiments conducted around 1970 demonstrated that small magnet affixed to pigeons body interfered with its ability to navigate home on cloudy days, where sun's location wasn't visible
taste vs. flavor
taste: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, umami, cool, hot flavor: taste, texture, and aromatic molecules contribute to flavor
pi
the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter
receptive field
the region of skin within which a physical stimulus elicits activity in the specific neuron that somatosensory neurons have
genetic code
the relationship between codons and amino acids -each of the amino acids are generally represented by more than on codon
What is ethnobotany?
the scientific study of the traditional knowledge and customs of a people concerning plants and their medical, religious, and other uses.
cerebrum
thought processes and movement aka cerebral cortex
semicircular canals
three canals within the inner ear that contain specialized receptor cells that generate nerve impulses with body movement maintains balance and relation to gravity
synesthesia
unusual blending of perception between different sensory modalities that aids recall in many
long-term memory
via consolidation/encoding memories with emotional salience or meaning = easier to encode forming links increases robust nature (stability) of knowledge
dorsal
view from top of brain
Olfactory stem cells
w/in nasal epithelium. Allow receptor cells to be regularly replaced every month(necessary to stop direct exposure of receptor cells to toxic substances). Capable of differentiating into various types of olfactory receptor cells.
Utricle and saccule receptor cells
w/in receptor cells that detect movement of fluid in attached semicircular canals. 3 canals= 3 dimensions in space. Moving fluid bends through hairs→ neural signal to cranial nerve 8 (vestibular and audio)
naive realism
what we perceive is identical to what actually exists in the world what we see, hear, smell, taste, and so forth, is exactly what is "out there" in some way could be disproved by optical illusions
pharmaceutical sleeping pills: risks
what. not in lecture supplement or book
Friedrich Wilhelm Sertüner was a 20-year old pharmacist's apprentice when he made one of the great discoveries in the history of science: the first-ever isolation and purification of a chemical constituent from a plant, and the demonstration that this chemical carried with it the medicinal properties of the plant in concentrated form. With which plant and chemical did Sertüner work?
papaver somniferum (opium poppy) and morphine
forebrain
part of brain made up of the cerebrum
nerve cell body
part of cell that's 5-100 micrometers in size
cerebellum
part of the brain that is centrally involved in regulation of movement, and it wraps around brainstem and is very densely packed with neurons and neural connections -It is involved in timing and coordination of movement
Outer segment
rhodopsin and cone opsin photoreceptor proteins. 350 amino acids in long chain in bilayer membrane (winds 7 times)
E. colichemotaxis: runs and tumbles
run: swims in a straight line for a second tumble: then it flops around for a moment then runs again swim in random walk in three dimensions E. Coli cell is 2 micrometers long, swims 30 micrometers/second
seizure and symptoms
runaway excitation -aura, muscle convulsions/spasms, amnesia, loss of consciousness
E. coli chemotaxis: runs and tumbles
runs: swims in a straight line using propeller flagella tumble: stops swimming and flops around randomly moves at around 30 micrometers per second
Erythroxylum coca
Plant native to S. America; long standing relationship w humans for physiological effects. Leaves are chewed or for tea. → produces extreme wakefulness, focused attention, increased stamina, increase positive mood, decreased appetite, stimulation of sympathetic NS. **coca plant differs profoundly from its purified chemical constituent cocaine. Cocaine has far more apparent poison qualities and is very prone to dysfunctional use.**
What are the 5 different categories of taste?
Salt (ion channel senstive to Na+)>> salt = sodium chloride (NaCl, mostly) Sour (ion channel sensitive to H+) >> what we call "sour" is the taste of acids, where the defining feature of an acid si the release of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution. Germain word for acid = 'saur' Bitter (more than 30 diff. kinds of GPCR)>> proteins that initiate the signals associated with the perceptual experience of bitterness are not ion channels; they are GPCRs Sweet (~ 2 GPCRs have been identified) >> GPCR dimers, and multimers are all in our nervous system -- functional form of the sweet taste receptor protein appeas to be a DIMER of two GPCRs-- that is, that two GPCRs are linked (by a noncovalent interaction) to form the functional sweet receptor Umami (associated with Glutamate)
Drugs like Cannabis are Federal Schedule One Controlled Substance
Schedule 1 controlled substances are defined as the following: "no currently accepted medical use, lack of accepted safety for use under medical supervision, high potential for abuse" -- yet many states have legalized the use of recreational/medicinal cannabis after the age of 21 --HENCE there is a tension between federal and state laws
Barbiturates
Sedative- hypnotic drug synthetically manufactured and sold for medical use to treat anxiety or insomnia. (ex. Amytal, Nembutal) First synthetic drug to be introduced to medicine (chemical modifications to molecules already on the market)
amphetamine and related molecules: effects at synapses
Stimulant drug related to cocaine by way of effects on the NS, though not related to cocaine in origin or molecular structure interact with reuptake transporters for norepinephrine or dopamine and cause them to become leaky Rather than transporting neurotransmitter from the synaptic cleft back into the presynaptic axon terminal after release, neurotransmitter continuously leaks out of the axon terminal and into the synaptic cleft via the transporter Results: overstimulation of neural circuits using norepinephrine or dopamine as neurotransmitter (same as cocaine, only longer, LEAKS reuptake, cocaine BLOCKS reuptake)
True or false: The visual cortex is made up of multiple regions (each region is a map of the visual world)
TRUE -- lesion in V1 = damage caused by trauma, accidents, stroke, tumor causes SCOTOMAs (blind spot/region where you no longer have any info for that visual space)
Mice have been used to learn about the organization of the somatosensory cortex because their whiskers are used to collect info about the world. What happens if one of a mouse's whiskers is cut off, or pulled out in a scuffle with another animal?
The cells in the cortex that normally receive input from the absent whisker will no longer receive signal input. (whisker amputation-- barrel "expansion" connects to neuroplasticity --What happens to those brain cells, now that they seemingly have nothing to do? Do they wither and die? >> turns out they develop neural connections with other nearby neurons; rather than doing nothing, they now contribute to the analysis of signals coming in from whiskers next to the one that was lost. This makes adjacent whiskers even more sensitive than they were before. This is an example of neuroplasticity-- the ability of neurons to alter their pattern of connectivity.
vascular dementia
accumulation of cellular damage via impair blood circulation (strokes, atherosclerosis)
Which neurotransmitter is used at the human neuromuscular junction? This same substance was also the first neurotransmitter to be discovered and chemically identified.
acetylcholine
parasympathetic neurotransmitter?
acetylcholine
Sedative- hypnotic drug
act at ionotropic GABA receptors, facilitating the action of GABA at the receptor → increases inhibition in CNS by increasing Cl- flow into cells= relaxing, anxiety reducing effects @ high doses and death @ high enough doses Inhibitory effects
oxytocin
acts on female uterus during childbirth to induce contractions and facilitate birth; also stimulates production and release of milk from the mammary glands Cuddle hormone, regulate emotion
vasopressin
acts on kidneys to slow the transfer of water from the blood to the urine (antidiuretic hormone); constricts blood vessels
meningitis
acute inflammation of meninges as a result of infection
Roger Sperry
addressed how axons from the eye knew where to form synapses in the brain experimented with frogs: cut the optic nerve and twisted 180 degrees formulated chemoaffinity hypothesis
language
adds nuance and complexity to the texture of our mental experience... debated whether or not its necessary to produce a mental experience of awareness beyond just a reaction
ATP
adenine, ribose sugar (carbon-oxygen ring), 3 phosphate groups linked by covalent phosphorus- oxygen bonds
Why does how we sound in a recording surprise us?
The vibrations that propagate through airspace external to our body VS. vibrations that propagate through our bones and other body parts = different. Thus frequency composition will differ for ones own voice as heard by ones self compared with what is heard by another person HENCE, people are surprised by what they hear when they listen to their own voice, because Fourier frequency composition = different
Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
There is another body map also discovered by Penfield -- this is a body map of neurons that send out signals that initiate the contraction of skeletal muscles, involved in the movements of our bodies. This region is called the PRIMARY MOTOR CORTEX (M1) -- when neurons in M1 fire, signals propagate via the spinal cord and eventually arrive at synapses with muscles of the body, the neuromuscular junctions (at these junctions acetylcholine is released, which triggers contraction of muscle fibers) -- there is also contralateral connection between M1 and body such that right posterior frontal lobe's M1 controls movement on left side of body and vice versa. -- lesions in m1 produce an inability to move muscles associated with corresponding part of body map (partial paralysis). For instance, lesion from stroke that produced significant damage to the right posterior frontal lobe = paralysis of left side of body
Escherichia coli and Salmonella are single celled bacteria that respond to the presence of chemical substances present in soupy medium through which they move. How?
They swim in RUNS and TUMBLES (run = swim in straight line; tumble = they stop swimming and flop around) -- Runs occur when their flagella rotate in one direction -- Tumbles = occur when direction of flagellar rotation reverses -- thus bacteria swim in what is mathematically termed A RANDOM WALK in 3 dimensions -- E. coli cell is 2 micrometers in length and swims 30 micrometers/ second
Cephalopod eye (octopus) VS human eye
This is an example of convergent evolution of eyes -- orientation of cells in retina is reversed, however structure is similar (both have lens and retina) So instead of light projecting from ganglion to bipolar to photoreceptor cells, it goes from photoreceptor, bipolar, and then ganglion. -- BUT cephalopods don't have blind spots
True or false: Santiago Ramón y Cajal hypothesized that the tips of growing axons posessed mechanisms of sensitivity, motiility and guidance
True
Photoisomerization of retinal (cis to trans)
When the retinal molecule is bound to the protein in rhodopsin or one of the cone opsins, it occurs in a form called 11-cis isomer of retinal⇒ carbon chain portion is bent. Absorption of a photo of light by retinal→ change in shape of chain so it rotates around double bond and straightens out (all-trans isomer of retinal). 11-cis retinal → light→ all-trans retinal
Who first discovered somatosensory body maps through brain surgery in the 1930s?
Wilder Penfield -- -- Penfield electrically stimulated various regions of the cerebral cortex in patients on whom he was performing brain surgery. During these surgeries, patients were awake and able to respond to his questions. By stimulating various parts of the brain and listening to how patients described their associated experiences, Penfield characterized the location of the somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe and was the first to describe the somatosensory map of the body.
otolith
a calcium particle in the vestibule of the inner ear suspended in fluid above hair cells assists hair cells in bending and responding to gravity bends hair of sensory cells to amplify sensory signals of maintaining balance
cephalopod eye vs. vertebrate eye
a cephalopod eye is controlled through movement, much like the lens of a camera, rather than changing shape as the lens in a human eye does looks very similar but is developed completely separately cephalopod eyes have cones on the top of the eye and don't have blindspots convergent evolution
Which of the following is NOT generally considered an example of neuroplasticity? an increase in the number of neurotransmitter receptors on the post-synaptic cell membrane an increase in the amount of neurotransmitter released by the axon terminal a decrease in the number of neurotransmitter reuptake transporters a change in the transcription of genes related to the synthesis of ATP all these are examples of neuroplasticity
a change in the transcription of genes related to the synthesis of ATP
retinol (vitamin A)
a closely related molecule that our body makes that we can eat, and it differs from retinal by addition of hydrogen to the oxygen atom at the end of the chain (converting the aldehyde to an alcohol) (its vitamin A)
vomeronasal organ
a distinct olfactory sensory structure and neural pathway that responds somewhat selectively to pheromone molecules
retinal achromatopsia
a genetic or developmental anomaly that results in loss of all functional cone cells, making the person only see shades of black, white, grey
sound localization
a listener's ability to identify the location or origin of a detected sound in direction and distance
light polarization
a property of electromagnetic radiation which can be thought of as vibration of the electromagnetic field aligned along specific angles in relation to the direction of propagation -Angle and intensity of skylight _________ is indicated by the orientation and thickness, respectively, of the short bars
What is psychosis?
a severe mental disorder in which thought and emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with external reality.
psychological defense mechanism
a type of _____ where the verbal hemisphere makes up excuses as for why they picked up an object they did not originally report seeing in split-brain experiments unconscious, research done by Freud
palindrome
a word or phrase that reads the same backward as forward
supplementary motor / premotor areas
anterior to M1 areas also involved in body control planning and sequencing muscle movements
pheromones
chemicals that carry signal information related to social communications between members of the same species
Erythroxylum coca, cocaine
local anesthetic > sympathetic NS increased wakefulness, attention, and stamina, decreased appetite and stimulation of sympathetic nervous system coca plant appreciated by natives of Northern South America plants make cocaine as protection from animals
microfilament,
long polymers of actin proteins -Each actin protein is composed of approximately 375 amino acids
microtuble,
long polymers of alpha-tubulin and beta-tubulin proteins Each tubulin protein is composed of around 450 amino acids They are cylindrical, with a hollow core It has been suggested that consciousness-obliterating effects of general anesthetics may result from binding to __________
acetate and choline
molecular precursors to ACh only nerve cells that use ACh as a NT have the capacity to make ACh from these precursors
Menthol
molecule from mint plants characterized by cold/ coolness. Ionotropic receptor protein (Ca++ channel opens). 46-82° F shape change protein to open channel. TRP receptor family- TRPM8
agonist
molecule that binds to a neurotransmitter receptor and ACTIVATES it
antagonist
molecule that binds to a neurotransmitter receptor and BLOCKS the action of the neurotransmitter and the receptor
amino acid
molecule that contains (-NH2) and (-COOH) building block of life
theobromine
molecule with similar psychoactive effects to caffeine, found in cacao
theophylline
molecule with similar psychoactive effects to caffeine, found in tea
theobromine
molecule with similar psychoactive effects, found in cacao
theophylline
molecule with similar psychoactive effects, found in tea
Isothiocyanates
molecules characterized by a particular configuration of sulfur, carbon, nitrogen atoms (mustard, horseradish, wasabi) Ionotropic Ca++ channel- TRPA1 activated by binding of these (different experience than capsaicin b/c different cells)
Endorphins
molecules found in brain and function as agonists @ opioid receptors. These endogenous (internal) opioid neurotrans were first of new class of neurotrans-- neuropeptides! polypeptides
organic molecules
molecules produced by life; composed largely of carbon (defines overall shape: linear, branched, cyclic) and hydrogen (most abundant)
intracellular messengers (AKA second messengers)
molecules such as cAMP, cGMP, IP3, and DAG that interact with other proteins
batrachotoxins (BTX)
molecules that interacts with channel proteins and prevent channels from closing. If Na+ channel open all the time, Na+ flows continuously⇒ no action potential! (nerve signals don't work= muscle weakness and paralysis) Secreted from skin in certain tropical frogs-- Phyllobates terribilis (by ingestion of insects, maybe) and New Guinea pitohui bird
guidance factors
ephrin proteins on one cell bind to ephrin receptor proteins on another. Such binding can sometimes cause cell growth in the direction of contact, or in other circumstances, cause growth away from the direction of contact -Mechanism of attraction and repulsion are mediated by coupling the activation of membrane receptors
lipophobic
hydrophilic
is TTX hydrophilic or hydrophobic? can it pass through the BBB?
hydrophilic; doesn't pass blood-brain barrier
lipophilic
hydrophobic
A1, Wernicke's, Broca's
if a sound seems to have meaning (and listener is able to comprehend that meaning) these ROIs activated
A1 (primary auditory cortex), Wernicke's
if a sound seems to have meaning (may not necessarily know what that meaning is) these ROIs activated
whisker amputation
if a whisker is lost then the neurons will be activated by the adjacent whiskers -neuroplasticity
lesion: stroke, tumor, traumatic injury, disease
injury or abnormality to the body stroke: disturbance in blood flow to a region of the brain sufficient to produce a loss of function, blockage or hemorrhage tumor: anomalous, abnormal proliferation of cells in the brain head injuries: closed (concussion) or penetration diseases: Parkinson's disease, neuronal death in substantial nigra (uses dopamine as a neurotransmitters
hair cells (inner and outer)
inner - vast majority of hair cells that send signals to the spiral ganglion and then to cochlear nucleus numbering about 3,500 per cochlea outer - numbering about 12,000 cells per cochlea that make far fewer connections to spiral ganglion, but receive much more efferent input from brainstem. emits protein called prestin that changes the stiffness of basilar membrane
sleep disorders: insomnia, apnea, narcolepsy, REM-behavior, sleep paralysis
insomnia: difficulty with sleep apnea: condition where sleeper periodically stops breathing or has abnormally shallow breathing narcolepsy: excessive daytime sleepiness > abnormalities orexin > neuropeptide maintaining wakefulness sleep paralysis: partially awakens by REM, continues to inhibit motor output form brain - vivid sensory experiences sleepwalking: deep stages of NREM
Choose the correct sequence of events for G-protein coupled receptor (GPCR) activation
ligand binding, G-protein activation, synthesis of intracellular messenger, gene transcription
retina
light sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
batrachotoxins AKA BTXs
-prevent voltage-gated Na+ channels from closing; same results occur as with TTX and STX
how do anti-seizure medications work
-reduce excitation or enhance inhibition -interfere with voltage-gated Na+, Ca++, K+ channels -facilitate GABA's inhibitory actions -reduce glutamate's excitatory actions (cannabinoids may help)
sour
-Defining feature of acids is release of hydrogen ions (H+) in solution -When high (relatively) concentrations of H+ appear in mouth following ingestion of acidic substances, some kind of positive charge is believed to flow through channels in the sour-taste-receptor cells, triggering a neural signal to the brain
surgical treatments for epilepsy
-sever corpus callosum (rarely done) -excision of epileptogenic brain tissue -brain electrical stimulation (may help cancel effects of seizures)
Development of mesencephalon
-similar to pons with mixing of alar and basal plate derivatives, but there are less basal plate neurons here -marginal layer of each basal plate becomes the crus cerebri on each side
How does blinding one eye during the critical period affect vision?
-since ocular dominance columns are present at birth, and they require input from both eyes to correctly form the visual cortex, this messes with them -causes amblyopia, which refers to the unilateral cortical blindness that is the result of ocular dominance columns from the deprived eye becoming nonfunctional and smaller
Axonotmesis
-a type of peripheral nerve injury that involves damage to axons and myelin, but the CT layers are intact -growth cone forms at proximal end of the cut, and regeneration occurs but functional recovery may not be complete -can refer to nerve cut with good reapposition of the two halves
pattern of sleep
onset --> NREM stages (1-4) --> NREM stages (4-1) --> REM sleep
Somatosensory body map
onstructed in parietal lobes; maintained along nerve pathway; in Primary somatosensory cortex (S1). Various location in body are represented along postcentral gyrus, immediately in posterior in central sulcus. Map is how things are autonomically connected: foot→ leg→ torso→ arm→hand→ fingers→ neck→ eye→ nose→ lip→
90
percent of the time a person in REM sleep is vivid dreaming... as a result of widespread excitation
How can you measure the membrane potential?
place a voltmeter electrode inside cell and another outside
retrograde signaling
process whereby function of one part of a cell is controlled by feedback from another part of the cell, or where one cell sends reciprocal messages back to another cell that regulates it molecules that carry signal information in the direction opposite from the way neural signals were generally thought to move dynamic tuning of synapse strength; neuroplasticity; underlies all learning and memory formulation e.g., endocannabinoids go from post-synaptic dendrite to pre-synaptic axon terminal
alcohol, ethyl alcohol
produced by fermentation of sugar by yeast ethanol is a waste product least poisonous alcohol to the human body
depression
prolonged and dysfunctional dysphoric mood lifetime prevalence 17% of the time, current prevalence 5% risk factors genetic and environmental/social/psychological
subatomic spin
property of protons/neutrons in nuclei direction of motion of particles based on magnetic fields can be measured with NMR which disrupts movement allignment.. level of magnetic field needed to disrupt gives us structural information
nuclear spin, NMR
property of subatomic particles, protons and neutrons spin produces effects analogous to behavior of a spinning toy top aligns with magnetic field NMR imaging: looks at energies needed to perturb the alignment of spins; determine unknown molecular structures of organic particles; changed name to MRI
Francis Crick and James Watson
proposed double helical structure for DNA molecule in 1953; published paper on this in "Nature"
Chemoaffinity Hypothesis
proposed that nerve cells use specific chemical signals to guide their wiring during development and during neural regeneration
Opioid Receptors
protein receptors in the body and brain that bind to morphine and other opioids. All GPCRs-- several distinct types (mu, delta, kappa) & agonists/antagonists.
biological macromolecules
protein, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids
transcription factors
proteins involved in converting or transcribing DNA into RNA transcription factors include a wide number of proteins that initiate and regulate the transcription of genes governs cell differentiation; neither Watson nor Crick understood transcription factors when they discovered the double helix warning: does not include RNA polymerase
Alcohol
refers to 2-carbon ethyl alcohol (ethanol). Least poisonous organic alcohol to humans. Formed by the metabolic action of yeast on sugars coming from plants (fermentation) -- excrete ethanol as waste product. sedative
prosopagnosia
region in medial temporal lobe found to recognize faces this is an inability to recognize faces variation in writing of temporal lobe for capacity of facial recognition
primary motor cortex (M1)
region in the brain that is a body map of neurons that send out signals that initiate the contraction of skeletal muscles, involved in movement of our body
visual cortex (V1 etc)
region in the human brain, occipital lobes, together with posterior regions of temporal lobes that are involved in analysis of visual information V1 where, from the LGN, information first goes to this region in the posterior occipital lobe V4 where many cells respond to specific colors, and are less influenced by things like shape and movement V5— where many cells respond to movement and its speed and direction, and are not influenced by shape and color
blind spot
region where because of the large number of nerve fibers (about one million) occupies so much space that there is no room for any photoreceptor cells in that small region of retina since any light falling on that part of retina will not be detected
sedative-hypnotic drugs
relaxing effect in low doses hypnotic / sleep-inducing effects in high doses facilitate / enhance inhibitory action of GABA (agonist on ionotropic GABA receptors to increase GABA induced Cl- flow into the cell)
medulla, pons, midbrain (brainstem)
relays signals between brain and spinal cord (CNS) answer is the parts of this structure)
H.M.
removal of hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, and parts of amygdala resulting in inability to consolidate new declarative memories (intact WM and decent LTM)
antidepressant medications: MAOIs, trycyclics (TCA), SSRIs
monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) increase the presence of the neurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine at synapses TCAs block or slow the reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin back into the axons of the neurons that released them SSRIs: less harmful side effects and were heavily advertised (Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil, Celexa)
depression
mood disorder that is categorized by prolonged sad mood
agnosia
more general neurological syndrome where a person suffering from a serious visual agnosia may have difficulty recognizing all or nearly all visual objects Visual __________ are often associated with lesions in region where occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes come together
mood
more prolonged version of emotion emotions experienced repeatedly over time
acetylcholine and REM
more recent evolutionary development acetylcholine essential in exciting neurons during REM sleep, large scale excitation of cerebral cortex
Activity of vagus nerve
more relaxed emotional state (equanimity), resilience from negative emotions, frequent positive emotions, greater empathy & social connection, improvements in physical health
prosopagnosia and anosognosia
more typical of r-hemisphere lesions (inability to recognize)
glutamate (aka glutamic acid)
most abundant NT in the human brain primary excitatory NT most neurons have receptors for this NT on their surface these receptors are ionotrophic with Ca and Na channels thus depolarize the resting potential and induce action potential
chronic sleep deprivation
most common induced by our society's evolution to constant light exposure via technology, copious consumption of caffeine causes impaired motor/cognitive performance
chemical synapse
most common 'synapse', more complex/specialized allows for feedback/regulation opportunities
Which of the following statements about the Na+/K+ pump is correct? (__) moves Na+ and K+ out of the cell (__) moves Na+ and K+ into the cell (__) moves Na+ into the cell and K+ out of the cell (__) moves K+ into the cell and Na+ out of the cell (__) none of the above
moves K+ into the cell moves Na+ out of the cell
Cannabis
muscle relaxant, stimulant, psychedelic change of consciousness possesses THC long domestic relationship with humans (consumption) and more (fiber properties, etc.)
Vagusstoff
mystery substance that mediates the signal from the vagus nerve to heart to slow its beating, coined by Loewi -later identified to be acetylcholine
how is nAChR activated? mAChR?
nAChR => binding of nicotine from tobacco mACHR => binding of muscarine molecule
what type of receptor is the nAChR? mAChR?
nAChR => ionotropic receptor mAChR => GPCR
where is nAChR found? mAChR?
nAChR => neuromuscular junction and brain mAChR => brain and parasympathetic neural connections with target organs
what is nAChr antagonized by? mAChR?
nAChR => tubocurarine mAChR => atropine
Visible Light
narrow band of energy that comprises the sensitivity range of the human visual system. Less than a single order of magnitude. 400-700 nm.
synaptic cleft
narrow gap that separates presynaptic axon terminal with postsynaptic cell ~20 nm wide and filled with water/ions
Capsicum annuum (chilli plant)
native to S. America. Unknown to rest of the world until Christopher Columbus. Many varieties of chilli. Member of nightshade family of plants (like tobacco). Hotness from molecule capsaicin
Chemoaffinity hypothesis
nerve cells use specific chemical signals to guide their writing during development and during neural regeneration
white matter
nerve fibers
white matter
nerve fibers/axons (myelin coated) that connect various grey matter areas
Donald Hebb
networks of many neurons extend through cerebral cortex and represent memory memory is distributed
dark energy
neural activity occurring at all times, using energy at robust rates for unknown reasons
neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)
neural conditions sufficient for manifestation of conscious awareness several speculations
sympathetic ganglia
neural fibers of the sympathetic NS emerge from the spinal cord and form connections with these clusters of nerve cells they're just outside the spinal cord and along its length
passage of light through retina layers
neural signals flow from the photoreceptors, to bipolar cells, to the ganglion cells, and then to the brain
The formation of nerve cells or glial cells from neural progenitor stem cells is called either ______ or ________ respectively?
neurogenesis; gliogenesis
dementia: vascular, Alzheimer's
neurological condition characterized by global loss of cognitive ability vascular: accumulation of cellular damage in the brain related to impaired blood circulation; atherosclerosis or repeated small strokes Alzheimer's: presence senile plaques and neurofibrillary tangles
linguistic mirror neurons
neurons in Broca's areas are premotor mirror neurons active when observing and generating language connect perception with action
orexin
neuropeptide for maintaining wakefulness medications act as antagonists at these receptors as a treatment for insomnia
Pediatric-onset bipolar disorder
-symptoms include rapid cycling of the manic and depressive states; has a chronic course into adulthood -disruption in white matter development due to dysfunctional/delayed myelination -decreased functional connectivity throughout limbic brain and motor/premotor areas are also complicit
Adenosine
neurotransmitter in the body. these receptors in the heart mediate a slowing of heart rate and decrease neuronal excitability in the brain (CNS-- GPCRs). Caffeine is antagonist to these receptors → caffeine is stimulant (increase HR, BP, and CNS excitability)
peptide neurotransmitters AKA neuropeptides
neurotransmitters composed of polypeptides -includes opioids/endorphins
pseudogene
nonfunctional genes that appear to code for olfactory GPCRs, and are altered in some way so that they do not code for functional receptor proteins in addition to the 350 genes coding for 350 different olfactory GPCRs -we used to have more of this in the past, but was lost thru mutation (that means we were able to smell more odors but cant anymore) -we have 600 olfactory olfactory pseudogenes
What is cerebral dominance?
-the ability of one cerebral hemisphere to predominantly control a specific task or tasks -ex: trauma to L hemisphere would likely affect speech, reading and writing, whereas R hemisphere damage would affect judgement of distance and determining direction
sweeter-than-sugar sweeteners
nonnutritive/ synthetic. Not sugars & variety of shapes; used to sweeten foods w/o calories. Made by chemists and not in nature. Cl- replaces OH groups. First substance= saccharin (500x sweeter than sucrose). Binds to sweet receptor protein and activates more strongly, and also interacts with 1+ bitter GPCRs. stevia (300x) Cyclamate and aspartame(Equal 200x)
locus coeruleus
norepinephrine-producing (noradrenergic) cells in pons 100,000 cells epinephrine also produced here (very few though)
Arthur C. Clarke
-wrote the screenplay of "The Space Odyssey" along with Kubrick -concurrently wrote the novel "2001: A Space Odyssey" at the same time and published it soon after the film was released
v1
respond to visual stimuli having an edge of contrast oriented at a particular angle and sometimes moving in a particular direction
rhodopsin
response maximum at around 498 nm are sensitive to low levels of light and have little or no input into color perception , so they will operate at night or other sources of dim light
-65 mV
resting membrane potential (inside is more negative than the outside) The voltage across the neuronal membrane will be used to power the transmission of a signal along the cell's axon
Which of the following is/are corrects about sulci and gyri? (__) greek-derived names of the left and right hemisphere, respectively (__) structures formed by bundles of axons that connect the brain stem with the cortex (__) result from the folding of the cerebral cortex so as to fit the cortex into a smaller space (__) grooves and bumps observed only in the human cortex (__) all of the above are correct
result from folding of the cerebral cortex so as to fit the cortex into a smaller space
amnesia: retrograde, anterograde
reterograde: inability to recall events before onset of the amnesia anterograde: (more common) inability to recall events after onset of amnesia
What is retinal achromatopsia?
retinal achromatopsia = loss of all cone cells (so you have 10,000,000 rods; no functional cones) so no color vision and not same level of visual detail/acuity as people with color vision. Also makes you very sensitive to bright light
GPCR intracellular cascade
retinal changes from kinked (cis) to straight (trans) when it absorbs light, changing the shape of the rhodopsin pushes on the GPCR which activates the G-protein (not activated by ligands, which are secondary messengers that a neurotransmitter is associated with and binds to for opening/closing of channels) 1 photo of light hitting a rod activates 100 G-proteins which activates 100 phosphodiesterases which activates 10000 cGMP's hydrolyzed / sec enables detection of dim levels of light
retinal, retinol (vitamin A), beta-carotene
retinal molecule that absorbs light and begins the cascade of events leading to a neural signal made from Vitamin A and carotenoids (most abundant precursor) Vitamin A = retinol
vestibular system
-detects our orientation relative to gravity -info is sent to the cranial nerve 8
What is insomnia?
-difficulty or inability in falling asleep and staying asleep -can arise from jet lag, stress, caffeine/stimulants, or working night shifts -more serious insomnia can arise from psychiatric disorders such as depression
photoreceptor cells: inner and outer segments
rods: distributed through most of the retina and sensitive to very small amounts of light cones: located at fovea and respond to high intensity light (three types of receptors: red, green, blue) retinal achromatopsia: loss of functional cone cells, see in black and white; appreciation of subtle gradients 100 million rods 5 million cones
photoreceptor cells: rods, cones
rods: very numerous, distributed throughout most of retina, and sensitive to even very small amounts of light. 100 million cells cones: mostly located at the fovea, and respond to higher intensity rather than very dim light. 5million cells
vagus nerve
role in autonomic neural component of emotion parasympathetic innervation of body's core robust communication "gut feeling" more relaxed emotional style
phospholipids
-lipids composed of 2 carbon/hydrogen chains joined together at one end by group of atoms (C, H, O, P, & perhaps N) -latter atoms ("head") form polar bonds; may have electric charge -hydrophilic "tail"
2 hypotheses of NCC
1. synchronous electrical oscillation over widespread region of cerebral cortex 2. electrodynamic interconnectivity that maximizes the integration of information
What level protein structure is the alpha helix?
secondary; looks like twisted sections of ribbon
Opium
secretion obtained by carefully slitting the unripe seed pods
barbiturates, benzodiazepines, general anesthetics
sedative-hypnotic drug used to treat anxiety and insomnia reduces CNS activity, increases GABA induced Cl- flow into cells (at ionotropic receptors), disrupts microtubular function of cell axons
drugs and memory impairment
sedative-hypnotics temporary anterograde amnesia benzodiazepine - used in treatments for insomnia, can cause sleep-walking - cannabis
synaptic vesicle
small spheres within axon terminal formed of lipid bilayer membrane -each filled with thousands of neurotransmitter molecules -SNARE complex (attachment proteins) causes vesicles to fuse with boundary membrane of axon
pit vipers and infrared
snakes that include rattlesnakes in the group, that possess structures called pit organs that detect infrared radiation in a way similar to how eyes detect visible light
What percentage of human genome codes for functional protein? And what percentage of the genome is transcribed into RNA
<3% of human genome codes for functional protein, yet >85% of genome is transcribed into RNA -- the 97% of human genome that doesn't code for functional protein is called DARK MATTER OF DNA and in the 1970s it was called "junk DNA" because they didn't know what it was/did
gustatory cell replacement
stem cells allow for receptor cells replaced every 2 weeks b/c constant exposure to toxic gunk, and thus subjected to continual damage.
Sweet
sugar (sucrose, but also glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose). Composed of chains or rings of carbon atoms (w/ few oxygen and hydrogen atoms). GPCR receptors- sugar molecules are ligands to the 2 GPCRs of sweet receptors. Functional form of the sweet taste receptor protein are a dimer of 2 GPCRs-- limited taste of sweetness to small # of molecular shapes
autonomic nervous system
sympathetic, parasympathetic -regulates various body organs and internal functions (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc) -regulation comes mostly from brain
A new drug causes increased heart rate, pupil dilation, and lung airway dilation, among other effects. This drug is most likely:
sympathomimetic
melatonin
synthesized in a circadian rhythm from pineal gland protective antioxidant functions
stem cells and gustatory cell replacement
turnover rate of about two weeks
retina: horizontal cells, amacrine cells
two other major cell types in the retina are also wired into this connectivity and contribute to this integration: the horizontal cells and the amacrine cells, both are present in the same retinal layer as the bipolar cells
How many photoreceptor proteins are there per one cell?
up to 100,000,000 (10^8) photoreceptor protein per cells ~100,000,000 photoreceptor cells in human retina -- So 10^16 photoreceptor proteins in the human eye
dopaminergic neurons
ventral tegmental area projecting to the nucleus accumbens and the medial prefrontal cortex regulates emotion best known reward center
limitations of PET scanning
very expensive (cyclotron) radioactive material is toxic
hippocampus
via entorhinal cortex is highly connected with all parts of the cerebral cortex (in both directions) central to organizing, storing and consolidating distributes activation to form the networks of neural connections for memory formation and stabilization where neurogenesis takes place (1400 new neurons /day)
killing of conspecifics
violence due to doubling of brain size brain size increase also led to taking care of others -- compassion and love
What are bacteriophages?
viruses consisting of protein and DNA that reproduce within bacterial cells
Honeybee vision
visual sensitivity extends into ultraviolet region (higher energy than visible light). Flowers have honeyguides, landing pads of flowers that are visible only in ultraviolet light and attract insects/bees to them.
Retinol
vitamin A differs from retinal by the addition of hydrogen to the oxygen atom at the end of the chain (aldehyde→ alcohol)
In region 4 of the diagram, which ion channels are primarily responsible for the change in membrane potenital? hill going downward
voltage- gated potassium channels
Choosing from the terms in the list below, label the parts of this diagram of a chemical synapse. No term should be used more than once, and some terms will not be used.
voltage- gated sodium channel voltage-gated calcium channel reuptake transporter neurotransmitter postysnaptic neurotransmitter receptor presynatpic neurotransmitter receptor synaptic storage vesicle
TTX resistance
voltage-gated Na+ channel variants -> primary structure slightly changed, reducing sensitivity to being blocked by TTX
Batrachotoxins and tetrodotoxin interfere with the function of which kind of channel:
voltage-gated Na+ channels
lucid dreaming, dream yoga
when awakened during REM, more vivid dreams are remembered - robust neural activity - drugs that activate acetylcholine increase vividness of dreams lucid dreaming: one becomes aware of dreaming while asleep - in REM dream yoga: regularly lucid during dream and non-dream sleep - cultivate Buddhist traditions
priming
when exposure to stimulus affects response to future exposure ex. effective advertising
sleep paralysis
when sleeper partially awakens while in REM-stage sleep but still can't move the body despite awareness still have vivid sensory experience
spatial and temporal summation of neuronal input
when sum of all the neurons EPSPs and IPSPs is such that the membrane voltage at axon hillock reaches the threshold voltage for opening voltage-gated Na channels (~50 mV), action potential is triggered
hippocampus
where neurogenesis takes place (1400 new neurons /day Pivotal role in memory formation and stabilization (named after its shape that resembles a seahorse)
excitotoxicity AKA glutamatergic excitotoxicity AKA excitotoxic cell death
where overexcitation of neurons by glutamate cause cell death -overly large amounts of Ca++ enter cell through ionotropic glutamate receptors, which activate many different enzymes that break down proteins/phospholipids/DNA (usually very carefully controlled)
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
where this endogenous clock is located cluster of cells located in the hypothalamus of the diencephalon bilaterally symmetric: two of them 20000 neurons
end of axon
where to calcium channels open Calcium channel opens, Ca++ flows into cell→ Ca++ binds to SNARE complex→ fusion of vesicular membrane with axon terminal→ neurotransmitter vesicles release into synaptic cleft
Hydrocarbons:
will combust in the presence of oxygen to release energy
What is neurogeny?
According to Santiago Ramón y Cajal, neurogeny = it is the embryonic development of the nervous system
Roger Sperry
Conducted clever investigations of the process by which neurons form connections. Performed experiments w frogs-- cut optic nerves and rotated eyeballs 180° to see how the frog's optic nerve would regrow (Did axons from eye know where to form synapses in the brain so that normal vision was restored??). It regrew upside down and backwards, did not fix the wrong direction of vision... ALSO Worked with severely epileptic patients-- seizures across corpus callosum from one hemisphere to the other disabled large part of brain.
Wilder Penfield
Canadian neurosurgeon who discovered somatosensory body maps from brain surgery in 1930s. He stimulated various regions of the cerebral cortex, patients responded to experiences⇒ characterized somatosensory cortex location and map.
metabotropic receptor
GPCR affect chemistry inside the cell binding of NT to receptor doesn't directly open ion channel... variety of effects: ion channel opens/closes, enzymes activate/deactivate, gene transcription turns on/off, etc. take longer but effects are more prolonged/amplified/variation
Therapeutic Index (TI)
LD50 divided by TD50 lethal dose / therapeutic dose
True or false: words aroma and aromatic derive from Greek word for spice
TRUE
melanopsin
like rhodopsin for rods/cones but for retinal ganglion cells that follow the retinal-hypothalamic pathway
suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)
locus of circadian rhythm located in the hypothalamus bilaterally symmetric above the optic chiasm-----neurons here exhibit a circadian periodicity of neuronal firing
schizophrenia
long term mental disorder involving the breakdown of thought, emotion, and behavior, leading to faulty perception, inappropriate actions and feelings, withdrawal into fantasy and delusion affects 1% of the general population, genetic
Na, K, Cl, Ca
major ions for neural function
primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
in parietal lobe contains topographic representation of somatosensory space equaling the surface of ones own body lesions in S1 results in a blind spot of feeling
Duchenne smile
in terms of muscular control, spontaneous smiles—ones associated with true enjoyment—also involve activation of the orbicularis oculi muscles in addition to the zygomaticus muscles lifting the corners of the mouth
M1 lesions
inability to move muscles in the associated part of the body map; partial paralysis
Anterograde Amnesia
inability to recall events AFTER onset of amnesia. Problem with learning new information (LTM problem)-- "50 First Dates"
noble gases (far right column)
neither gain nor lose electrons-- unreactive gaseous elements
chemoaffinity hypothesis
nerve cells use specific chemical signals to guide their wiring during development and during neural regeneration a hypothesis by Roger Sperry
essential oil
-the oily concentrate of aromatic molecules from a plant -essentila refers to the distinctive scent of the plant -prepared by heating
protein quaternary structure
when proteins are composed of more than one polypeptide subunit
Can atropine cross the BBB?
yes
Describe the development of polarity within the CNS. What is each layer/division's derivative system?
-the sulcus limitans separates the neural tube into the alar plate (sensory structures) and basal plate (motor) -the roof plate is in the upper part of the neural tube at the midline, directing the alar plate's differentiation -the floor plate is in the lower part of the neural tube at the midline, directing the basal plate's differentiation
Darwin
"emotions are not unique to humans but evolved as adaptive behaviors that we share with other animals" made connections between animal and human expressions universality of emotions
atomic structure
# of protons (+ charge) determines the type of atom neutron and protons in the nucleus, with electrons orbiting around
85
% of genome transcribed into RNAs of various kinds- crucially involved in regulation of gene expression More than 97% human genome does not code for functional protein as dark matter of DNA
3
% translated into functional proteins (human genome codes for functional
amnesia
pathological memory problem retrograde or anterograde (anterograde is more common)
reward pathways
pathways that when stimulated reward and pleasure felt
proteins
polypeptide of more than ~40 amino acids long
facial expression
primarily for social communication of emotion as a 'body signature'
Stanley Kubrick
producer and director of "The Space Odyssey"
hypothalamus
produces neuropeptides that regulate the release of systemic hormones from adjacent pituitary gland. Control center of hormones. Other neurons within ________________ produce oxytocin & vasopressin- each consist of 9 amino acids.
Outer hair cells
(12000 per cochlea). Receives signals from brain-- which changes rigidity of hairs to change responses from basilar membrane. Contains protein prestin (elongates and contracts as membrane potential changes.)
number and distribution of photoreceptors in retina
-100 million rod cells -5 million cone cells
What happens in a doublecortin mutation?
-DCX is a protein that interacts with microtubules to keep the cytoskeleton intact -in a mutation, the ventricles are dramatically enlarged, little subcortical white matter is present, and there is lessencephaly (smooth brain, no sulci/gyri)
capsaicin receptors
-are also in other places of the body to detect heat -
Neurotmesis
-damage to axons, myelin and CT layers in a nerve -regeneration is unlikely -can refer to a nerve cut without good reapposition of the two cut ends
Hebbian learning
strengthening of synaptic connections via repetition
fossil fuel
-hydrocarbons; geological processes have transformed the once living material (millions of years ago) into hydrocarbons
What are some identifiers of drug addiction?
-it is a state of mind dominated by the thought of repeated drug intake -always includes psychological dependence/craving -often but not always assoc with dependence or tolerance -neuroadaptation occurs, and compulsive drug intake despite the negative consequences -there is a drive to avoid dysphoria as opposed to achieving euphoria
Describe pediatric anxiety. What is the "pediatric triad"?
-pediatric anxiety often manifests as somatic symptoms like pain, through central sensitization, so it will often go undiagnosed -pediatric triad = GAD, social phobia and separation anxiety -in the brain, these children have more grey matter in dorsal ACC and lower gray matter in inf. frontal gyrus, postcentral gyrus and cuneus
Capsicum annum
chili plant native to South America
macula
-pigmented area around retina -responsible for the central, high-resolution, color vision that is possible in good light
30 years
cumulative amount of sleep the average human gets in a lifetime
circadian rhythms
internally generated patterns of body functions, including hormonal signals, sleep, blood pressure, and temperature regulation, which have approximately a 24-hr cycle and occur even in the absence of normal cues about whether it is day or night
K
ion concentration on the inside, these elements have a higher concentration on the inside
Na, Cl, Ca
ion concentration on the outside, these elements have a higher concentration on the outside
C-11
isotope injected in NT agonists... binds to receptor sites ex. dopamine receptor mapping
TRP channels (transient receptor protein channels)
Capsaicin receptors part of large family of ionotropic proteins, originally characterized by from study of vision in a fruit fly. Hot and cold. Capsaicin receptor= TRPV1. Opens to capsaicin and 109-122° F. Also opens by binding of piperine (black pepper)
Human Genome
Consists of 46 chromosomes (23 inherited from the mother; 23 from the father). The chromosomes from each parent carry different versions of the same info (mother=x; f=x or y). The 23 chromosomes of a haploid cell contain about 3 billion (3 x 10^9) nucleotide base pairs. 21,000 distinct proteins
corpus callosum
200 million nerve fibers connection right and left cerebral hemispheres
What is the neural tube? How long after conception does the neural tube begin to form?
In developing human embryo, group of cells form called the NEURAL TUBE (and the entire CNS develops from this) -- Within 3 weeks of conception, the neural tube begins to form -- It is a hollow structure from which the brain and spinal cord form. Defects in its development can result in congenital abnormalities such as spina bifida (which is a birth defect in which a developing baby's spinal cord fails to develop properly) NOTE: baby takes 9 months, after 3 months brain development begins taking place, after 7 months cerebral cortex, gyri and sulci form
Sucrose sugar
Most things that taste sweet are actually "sugar" (small carbohydrate molecules that taste sweet -- SUCROSE is a combination of GLUCOSE and FRUCTOSE -- Sucrose sugar mainly comes sugar cane (native to South East Asian and South Pacific-- it reached mediterranean by ~1000 AD and then Africa) -- Sugar = helpful for fermenting/distilling to make rum -- sugar cane is ground up and squeezed out, juice is boiled into lumps (re- dissolve it and purify more to get more refined sure) NOTE: it is now cheaper to produce high fructose corn syrup than it is to get sucrose (so processed sweets generally don't have sucrose). Fructose corn syrup = cheaper than importing sugar -- may be more unhealthy to eat fructose than sucrose
Which 20th century physicist influenced Max Delbruck to begin to study biology and eventually become one of the founders of the modern discipline of molecular biology:
Niels Bohr
What is sensory perception?
Sensory perception = the process of brain receiving signal info from environs of body and using that info to form mental experiences of the world -- In essence, sensory perception is divided into 2 basic components: 1) the collection of info from environment via sensory organs and receptors and 2) the analysis and interpretation of this info by the nervous system, contributing to the experience of mental states of perceptual awareness AKA 2 components = 1) SENSATION and 2) PERCEPTION
umami
Some folks characterize this taste as savory, meaty, or mushroomy -Taste scientists in Japan in the 1990s demonstrated the existence of a fifth type of receptor cell and associated taste-receptor proteins -This receptor-cell responds to glutamate with taste-receptor proteins that are metabotropic (GPCR) glutamate receptors -Glutamate is an amino acid, so where there is protein, there is glutamate -_______ taste may have developed over course of evolution to assist in detection of protein-containing foods, important for survival
True or False: Electromagnetic energy can also be conceptualized as packets of energy, called PHOTONS. The description of light and other kinds of electromagnetic energy as simultaneously both a wavelike field and particle like photons is profound and was central to the development of quantum physics in the early 20th century.
TRUE
True or false: Ultrasonic frequencies = freqences >100,000 Hz used by bats
TRUE
True or false: Drugs like cocaine, amphetamine, opioids, ethyl alcohol, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and nicotine all possess substantial risk for addictive use- a high addictive potential
TRUE
hydrophobic
lipophillic substances that don't like to be around water and don't dissolve in water
hydrophillic
lipophobic dissolve in water polar / ionic
Richard Evans Schultes
lived in the Amazon and discovered plant medicines, like peyote cactus-- many hallucinogens; ethnobotany; Harvard professor
general anosmia
loss of sensitivity to a large variety of aromas, in some cases even a complete lack of olfactory sensitivity
Specific Anosmia
loss of sensitivity to a specific kind of smell. Usually due to change in 1 of 350 olfactory GPCRs and is highly specific to one kind of aroma.
specific anosmia
loss of sensitivity to specific categories of aroma
how is TTX made?
made by bacteria living symbiotically with organisms
Hans Berger
made first EEG recording from human brain inspired by telepathic incident with sister
connexon
made up of component proteins, pairs join to form an electrical synapse
flagella
made up of microtubules allows cell to swim around
GABA
major inhibitory NT in the brain its receptors are ionotrophic receptor Cl channels hyperpolarizes the cell -- moves membrane potential further away from the triggering of opening v-gated Na channels
Cannabis
marijuana, pot, etc. -powerful and diverse medicinal and psychological applications: analgesic, muscle relaxant, appetite stimulant, sedative, stimulant, psychedelic-like changer of consciousness -It contains hundreds of different kinds of molecules, dozens of which are likely to possess physiological activity in humans -Cannabinoid receptors appear to be largely present on presynaptic axon terminals of neurons
What is cortical acrhomatopsia?
cortical acrhomatopsia (color reception problems) due to lesion in V4 -- different from retinal achromotopsia -- Cerebral/cortical achromatopsia is a type of color-blindness caused by damage to the cerebral cortex of the brain (like a cortical lesion), rather than abnormalities/ a retinal condition in the cells of the eye's retina. Lesions in v5 would lead to motion blindness (called akinetopsia) Lesions in FFA would lead to prosopagnosia (problems with face recognition)
nootropic drugs
drugs claimed to boost memory includes caffeine, nicotine, etc.
Retrograde Amnesia
inability to recall events BEFORE onset of amnesia. Past experiences are lost after head trauma/ onset of amnesia
What do hydrocarbons become when gone through complete combustion?
energy, CO2, and H2O
F-18
isotope injected in glucose to track neuronal activity
pia mater
beneath the arachnoid tissue & closest to the brain
other local anesthetics
benzocaine, lidocaine, procaine
subarachnoid space
between arachnoid and pia layers contains cerebrospinal fluid (liquid to cushion brain and transport soluble substances through the CNS)
Growth Cone
big actin- supported extension of a developing or regeneration neurite seeking its synaptic target It progresses via extension of fingerlike structures called filopodia. Extension is propelled by actions of internal cytoskeletal structure.
hippocampus
bilateral structure beneath temporal lobe with pivotal role in the formation and stabilization of memories
Classical Psychedelics
bind as agonists to various serotonin receptors. Also bind to other neurotransmitter receptors, including those for norepinephrine and dopamine. Connection between neurochemical effects and their profound effects on mental function remains largely obscure/ unanswered.
capsaicin
binds to receptor→ shape change→ ion channel opens and Ca+ flows in (depolarize)--> neural excitability! Thermal heat also activates these-sensitive proteins! Increasing temp of proteins also causes shape change (can cause tissue damage if too much) Chilli hot= fire hot
circadian rhythm
biological rhythm of around 24 hours ( a day)
biosynthesis of monoamine neurotransmitters
biosynthesis from essential *amino acids* with specific enzymes that catalyze each step in the pathway
Principles of Psychology (william james)
book with thesis : "if you cut off communication between brain and body, experiences of body are non-existent if brain injured, consciousness is injured or killed"
Infrared
slightly lower energy than visible light; absorbed by many molecules in a way to feel vibration. If strong enough, experienced as heat!
origin of life
small RNA molecules formed in primordial soup? impact of comet?
synesthesia
unusual blending of perceptions between different sensory modalities
dopamine locations
ventral tegmentum, substantia nigra
capsaicin
molecular constituent of chili hotness bends receptor proteins for neural excitability thermal heat also can cause same kind of shape change to receptors; actual heat and chili heat registered as the same
aphasia
neurologically based impairment in language function
Which of the following statements about synaptogenesis is NOT correct? occurs only before birth in the mammalian nervous system all of the answers in this list of options are correct can be dependent on neural activity is the formation of connections between neurons can be influenced by chemical signals in the brain
occurs only before birth in the mammalian nervous system
erowid website
online info about psychoactive drugs, plants, chemicals, and technologies including entheogens, psychedelics, new psychoactive substances, research chemicals, stimulants, depressants, and pharmaceuticals
diffusion
particles move apart and distribute uniformly over whatever volume of fluid is available high to low concentration ("down gradient") process behind a semipermeable membrane (some solutions ___ through)
Prosopagnosia
problems with face recognition, even own face -- it is a spectrum condition localized to fusiform gyrus -- agnosia (Greek 'a' = without; 'gnosis' = knowledge)
acetylcholine
produced by basal forebrain nuclei and the midbrain pontine nuclei (100,00 cells) -- these are cholinergic neurons NT of parasympathetic NS During REM, cells in the pons/midbrain spread excitation to the cerebral cortex via this neurotransmitter specifically triggers eye movement neurochemical reactions with pathways involving this NT shown to reduce memory loss
electroconvulsive shock therapy (ECT)
produces retrograde amnesia via disruption of memory consolidation (more recent, less consolidated memories are lost))
Backward propagation of an action potential along an axon is prevented by the __________ period
refractory
Cannabidiol (CBD) and Cannabinol (CBN)
Prominent cannabinoids in cannabis:
Which of the following numbers best represents an EPSP?
2
Phototaxis
Process of moving towards light in the case of entire organism (ex. Swimming bacterium)
light-induced isomerization
Process which by there is absorption of a photon of light by retinal molecule triggers a change in shape of chain such that it in effect rotates around the double bond where kink is and straightens out, into a form called the all-trans isomer of retinal
Psychedelics
Produce variety of complex effects on the brain and mind, including intensified thoughts and feelings and altered sensory perception. Effects range from novel, insightful thoughts → awe/connection w/ nature→ anxiety & panic. These are agonists are serotonin receptors and dopamine and norepinephrine
What is synaptic pruning?
Synaptic pruning or axon pruning is the process of synapse elimination that occurs between early childhood and the onset of puberty in many mammals, including humans. -- Pruning starts near the time of birth and is completed by the time of sexual maturation in humans. -- At birth, the human brain consists of approximately 86 (± 8) billion neurons. -- The infant brain will increase in size by a factor of up to 5 by adulthood. Two factors contribute to this growth: the growth of synaptic connections between neurons, and the myelination of nerve fibers; the total number of neurons, however, remains the same. -- Pruning is influenced by environmental factors and is widely thought to represent learning. -- After adolescence, the volume of the synaptic connections decreases again due to synaptic pruning.
What was the experiment done by a neuroscientist at UCSD to see if touching the face or the shoulder of an amputee should elicit the experience of the phantoms arm being touched? Who was the experiment done by?
V.S. Ramachandran = neuroscientist at UCSD, works on "phantoms in the brain" -- touching an amputee's face (on same side of body as the amputated arm) elicits both the feeling of the cheek being touched and the feeling of the phantom arm being touched in specific locations -- and these reorganized perceptions also extend to temperature and other sensations. -- dripping warm or cold water down amputee's cheek is experienced by amputee as warm or cold water running down the phantom hand and arm -- an amputee could relieve a bothersome itch on a phantom arm by scratching his cheek
left
hand that demonstrated more spatial accuracy
salt
-NaCl crystals in mouth rapidly become Na+ and Cl- ions in solution -With high (relative) concentrations of Na+ appear in the mouth following ingestion of ____, the Na+ is believed to flow through sodium-ion channels in _____-taste receptor cells, triggering a neural signal to the brain
Strabismus
-a condition where the two eyes are not aligned, causing the parts of the visual field hitting both retinas to differ -may produce amblyopia if not corrected before the critical visual period is over -ocular dominance columns are much sharper, and binocular response areas are massively reduced in area 17 -esotropia = convergent strabismus, exotropia = divergent
Korsakoff syndrome
-a condition caused by thiamine deficiency in chronic alcoholism, accompanied by degeneration of mammillary bodies, hippocampus and dorsomedial thalamic nuclei -treatments include thiamine and proper nutrition in mild cases -patients can partially, but never fully, recover in a few years
What is anxiety? How does that compare with fear?
-anxiety is a diffuse, unpleasant sense of apprehension accompanied by autonomic symptoms -anxiety is an adaptive response to an anticipated threat -fear is a focused response to an obviously harmful threat
Memory priming
-effect in which exposure to a stimulus influences a response to a later stimulus -can happen even if the primer is not consciously perceived (subliminal messaging) -resistant to brain injury or aging, and will often influence our decisions
roles of lipids in cells
-energy storage -signaling within and between cells -precursor molecules to make neurotransmitters and hormones -formation of membranes enclosing cells and its interior structures
Tricyclic antidepressants: Examples, Effects, What are they used for/not used for?
-ex: clomipramine (Anafranil), amitriptyline (Elavil) -provide effective relief in patients who do not respond to SSRIs/SNRIs...increase 5HT by blocking reuptake -have more side effects and less addictive than the other drugs -prescribed for panic, other disorders that dont respond to SSRI/SNRI, never used in kids
how can molecules pass through the blood-brain barrier? (2 ways)
1) transporter proteins (transports glucose, few amino acids, etc.) 2) diffusion (molecule must be *hydrophobic* enough)
speed of sound
1,100 feet per second, or 335 meters per second, or 750 miles per hour
Mice olfactory receptor cells
1,300
Clarke's Three Laws
1. When a distinguished elderly scientist states something is possible, he is right. When he hesitates that something is impossible, probably wrong 2. To discover limits of possible= go into impossible 3. Any sufficiently advanced technology= like magic
How do you treat drug addiction?
1. block ability of drug to reach target - naltrexone, etc. 2. mimic drug action - methadone, partial agonists, nicotine, etc. 3. influence addiction processes - baclofen (GABA-R agonist), perturb Glu receptors, Antabuse for alcoholics 4. cognitive behavioral intervention 5. contingency management intervention
psychoactive drugs (top 5)
1. caffeine 2. alcohol 3. nicotine 4. arecoline (areca nut) 5. cannabis
Atypical antipsychotics (2nd gen)
1. possess D2 and 5HT-2 antagonist properties (more 5HT2 than D2 blocking) 2. effective in treating both positive and negative symps 3. do not produce severe mvmt disorders 4. produce adverse effects like agranulocytosis, weight gain, cardiac arrhythmias 5. improve cognition -clozapine, olanzapine, risperidone, ziprasidone
fentanyl, synthetic opioids
100x more potent than morphine man-made synthetic opioid first man-made synthetic opoid = methdone fentanyl derivative carfentanil is 10000x more potent than morphine
Rene Descartes
1596-1650 Philosopher and biologist who was interested in connecting the mind with body processes; early nervous system thinker - L'Homme drawing= person reacting to fire - Eyes and perceptual awareness - Mind, body pluralism
Phospholipids
2 carbon/hydrogen chains joined together at one end with atoms of oxygen, phosphorus, and nitrogen (hydrophobic tail, hydrophilic head)
ionotrophic and GPCRs
2 kinds of NT receptors 1: glutamate, GABA, and acetylcholine (and glycine) ... also 5HT3 for Serotonin 2: all other NT receptors -- there are ones that interact with glutamate, GABA, and ACh
structure of DNA
2 long strands of DNA. Each strand consists of a sequence of nucleotide bases (A,T,G,C) joined by covalent bonds to a very long backbone of sugar molecules and phosphates. The two strands wrap around one another and are held together by hydrogen bonds between the nucleotides. Genetic info encoded in linear sequences of As, Ts, Cs, and Gs to make sequences of amino acids (20 amino acids used to build structure of proteins)
What are the components of the vestibular system?
2 main components: SEMICIRCULAR CANALS: motion detectors. lesions induce the sensation of SPINNING. OTOLITH ORGANS (utricle and saccule): gravity detectors. lesions induce the sensation of TILT.
Two-point discrimination test
2 points of touch of paper clip ends are felt very close together on lips & fingers. But, 2 points of touch on back need to be further apart to experience 2 touches!
human hearing range (frequency)
20 - 20,000 Hz
Human hearing range
20-20,000 Hz
What are semi-synthetic opioids? What are some examples?
Semi-synthetic opioids are synthetic modifications of opiates from opium -- Heroin = diacetylmorphine (first produced by Bayer company). Morphine > acetylation > makes heroin -- morphine is not as efficient/quick at crossing BBB as heroin -- (from graph shown in class) the number of deaths from over dose in USA from 1999-2010 has shown that most over doses are due to opiod pills Other semi-synthetic opioids = hydrocodone (vicodin), oxycodone (percodan), hydromorphone, etorphine (1000x more potent than morphine)
Do somatosensory neurons have RF?
Somatosensory neurons have spatial receptive fields-- the region of skin where a physical stimulus elicits activity in the specified neuron -- axons of somatosensory neurons in the DRG synapse with cells in the spinal cord and with cells in the medulla of the brain stem. From there the somatosensory circuitry continues into parietal lobes in the cerebral cortex.
Neural Tube
Structure that forms w/in 3 weeks of conception in a developing embryo. A group of cells forms and folds into the _________. Entire CNS develops from this. By day 23, Anterior neural folds (this) forebrain> midbrain> hindbrain> spinal cord By 3rd month after conception, brain growth takes off. Final 2 months, convolutions of cerebral cortex (gyri & sulci) begin to form, reflecting the rapid expansion of the brain and cell connectivity. Proteins sit on genes to begin transcription process
Neural Tube
Structure that forms w/in 3 weeks of conception in a developing embryo. A group of cells forms and folds into the neural tube. Entire CNS develops from neural tube. By day 23, Anterior neural folds (neural tube) forebrain> midbrain> hindbrain> spinal cord By 3rd month after conception, brain growth takes off. Final 2 months, convolutions of cerebral cortex (gyri & sulci) begin to form, reflecting the rapid expansion of the brain and cell connectivity. Proteins sit on genes to begin transcription process
Tetrodotoxin (TTX)
Sticks to and Blocks voltage-gated sodium channels so that sodium can't get into the cell when the channel opens. This prevents the neurons from sending signals ⇒ numbness (b/c signals from sensory neurons don't reach brain!) Muscle weakness, difficulty moving, paralysis (respiratory/ difficulty breathing) never enters brain bc not hydrophobic enough, cannot pass through BBB occurs in pufferfish!!!!
Caffeine
Stimulant drug that acts on the CNS-- increases wakefulness & alertness. Stimulant effects on cardiovascular system (increased heart rate and blood pressure). The plant synthesizes these molecules from adenine and guanine precursors.
Parasympathomimetic
Stimulating effects on the parasympathetic nervous system (same effect as Sympatholytic)
Alan Hodgkin (1914-1998) & Andrew Huxley (1917-2012)
Studied the axons of squids and recorded action potentials from inside a nerve fiber. Discovered how direct measurement of voltage changes across an axon membrane during action potential. when neural signal travels along axon= voltage-gated ion channels
True or false: Sound can also get in through direct vibration of bones of skull that surround cochlea (like heari
TRUE -- like hearing ones own voice as one speaks or sings or hums
How do we taste?
Taste begins with the receptor cells that are located in the mouth, primarily on the tongue, with a few on the upper palate and pharynx. They are grouped into clusters called taste buds
What are taste buds?
Taste buds = clusters of taste receptor cells (they regenerate-- with a turnover rate of approx. 2 weeks -- there are approximately 10,000 taste buds in human mouth, each containing around 100 taste receptor cells (so together there are 1 million taste receptors) -- What we think of when we think of taste is actually flavor
What is gustatory cell replacement?
Taste cells replace/regenerate every two weeks
Sour
Taste of acids; release of H+ (hydrogen ions) in solution; high concentration of H+ → positive charge flow through channels triggering neural signal to brain
What is the difference between opioids and opiates?
Opiates are drugs derived from opium. At one time "opioids" referred to synthetic opiates only (drugs created to emulate opium, however different chemically). Now the term Opioid is used for the entire family of opiates including natural, synthetic and semi-synthetic.
What are opiods/opiates?
Opioids are substances that act on opioid receptors to produce morphine-like effects. -- Opioids are most often used medically to relieve pain, and by people addicted to opioids. -- Opioids include opiates, an older term that refers to such drugs derived from opium, including morphine itself. -- TOXICITY OF OPIOIDS = leads to depression of respiratory control which centers in the brain stem (potential overdose and death from respiratory depression). National overdose deaths from opioids has risen since 2001 consistently and steadily (has a very low therapeutic dose, so there is a VERY narrow safety margin) -- causes death (like cough suppression taken to the extreme). In essence, it inhibits regulation of breathing so people stop breathing and eventually die. Person will just drift off into a dreamy state and never wake up
Opium Poppy and it's medicinal properties
Opium Poppy (papaver somniferum)-- native to Europe/mediterran area -- California poppy (eschscholzia californica) Same family but different chemistry in comparison to opium poppy -- FOR OPIUM POPPY: it is ground up and put in hot water and used for it's medicinal quality. Also when you let the leaves fall off and let it dry, you are left with pod for poppy seeds! But opium from non dry poppy is a white gooey substance -- MEDICINAL PROPERTIES = analgesia or relief from pain (best analgesia), cough suppression, treatment of diarrhea
Eye anatomy
Cornea Pupi Iris Lens Sclera Retina Fovea = densely packed with receptors, (cones only though; good for reading fine text) Periphery = (Everywhere but fovea) mostly consists of rods Optic Disk = Where the nerves (optic nerve) leave the eye; literally a Blind Spot (lacks any visual receptors) Optic Nerve -- Eyes are able to see things because of reflected light
What is somatosensory sensitivity?
Our fingers and lips are the two areas of the body where we have the keenest sense of touch. Large numbers of somatosensory neurons send dendrites into the skin of our finger tips and our lips. These dendrites are densely packed and the neurons have relatively small receptive fields, producing high level of acuity in the sense of touch in these regions. -- IN CONTRAST regions of the body such as arm, back, or leg have relatively poor somatosensory acuity
Retinal
Outer segment. W/in a rhodopsin or cone opsin there is another molecule attached to opsin protein by covalent bond w/ nitrogen atom in specific lysine amino acid w/ in protein. this absorbs light and begins the cascade of events leading to a neural signal! Made from retinol (vitamin A) and beta-carotene (carotenoids).
tertiary structure
Overall shape of the entire protein molecule, amino acids guiding the folding of the chain of amino acids into a unique 3D form
Revolution in Science
Presti believes that the next revolution in science may involve deep connection between fundamental physics and consciousness and that physical materialism as currently understood will no longer be sufficient as the explanatory framework
Karl von Frisch
Demonstrated that honeybees have color vision! He put sugar syrup on colored pieces of paper between shades of gray. Honeybees flew to colored paper= capacity for color vision
Aroma
Derived from greek word for spice. Plant aromas are composed of dozens of different molecules we inhale through our noses→ activate various combinations of and of 350 olfactory receptor proteins in nasal epithelium→ NS constructs mental experience of smell!
active electroreception
Electrofish: generate electro signals/ fields. Can detect distortion of electrofield around body. Allows fish to move around murky water b/c gives signals and responds to environment.
Electromagnetic spectrum
Encompasses an enormous range of energy from very high energy gamma rays and x-rays, to moderately high ultraviolet radiation, visible light, and infrared radiation, to lower microwaves, to even lower radiowaves.
What are endorphins?
Endorphins (from "endogenous morphine)= opioid peptides in brain (they are natural endogenous neurotransmitters) -- Opioid peptides are peptides that bind to opioid receptors in the brain; opiates and opioids mimic the effect of these peptides. Such peptides may be produced by the body itself, for example endorphins. -- Endorphins are neuropeptides (chains of amino acids (5 to 31) held together by peptide bonds) but are not large enough to be proteins. They interact with opiod receptors to help with regulation of pain, and induce pleasure and so forth)
What is an essential oil?
Essential oil = designates oily concentrate of aromatic molecules from plant (latin 'esse' = to be). Made through distillation -- essential = distinctive smell of plant, hallmark aroma -- oil = aroma carrying molecules are frequently HYDROPHOBIC (lipid soluble) -- Essential oils are often prepared by DISTILLATION (process of heating an extract and concentrating more volatile components). Invented by ARAB chemists (distillation originally created to make perfume for perfume industry)
Psychedelics/ Hallucinogenics
Examples = lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, psilocin, diemthyltrymptamine (DMT), mescaline -- Psychedelics/ Hallucinogenics AMPLIFIES/INTENSIFIES thoughts and feelings and leads to complex mental states -- Influenced by SET & SETTING (mind set and environment)
How fast do sound waves moves through air?
At a speed of 11 feet per second (335 meters/second or 750 miles/hour) -- Wave VELOCITY = frequency x wavelength (measured in meter/second). Frequency is measured in cycles/second and wavelength is measured out in meters/cycle, so then cycles cancel our and that's how you get velocity -- high frequency = shorter wavelength; low frequency = longer wavelength -- Human auditory system = sensitive to air pressure variation in the range of about 20 to 20,000 hertz
auditory nerve
At opposite end of hair cell from bundle of cilia, the hair cells form chemical synapses with fibers of the ____________________— cranial nerve #8 -The bending of hairs initiates a signal from air cells to nerves carrying signal information to the brain
cations
Atoms likely to give up electrons and become positively charged ions Elements on far left side of table will easily give up electrons and become this
Receptive Field
B/c of light- focusing properties, photoreceptor cells will respond only to light stimuli that come from specific regions of visual space. a range of stimuli that makes a cell react to the stimuli (all sensory cells have own receptive field) .
What is a blind spot?
BLIND SPOT = small portion of the visual field of each eye that corresponds to the position of the OPTIC DISK within the retina. There are no visual photoreceptors in the optic disk therefore no image detection.
Depolarization occurs when ___ ions ___ the cell
Ca++ enter
Dmitri Mendeleev
Came up with a way of organizing the known chemical elements into what we now call the periodic table Periodic Table (1869)- The identity of an element is determined by : number of protons (+ charge) in the nucleus this is expressed as a number on the table along with the elements abbreviated name
Magnetic field sensitivity
Earth's geomagnetic field is generated by large-scale movement of magnetic atoms in the molten interior of the planet. There is a lot of evidence showing that many animals detect the geomagnetic field and use it as a navigational aid. Strong in North and South, weakest in equator
Label the parts of the dorsal view of the human brian:
Frontal lobe Longitudinal Fissure Occipital lobe Temporal lobe Central Sulcus
What is general anosmias? What is the converse of general anosmias?
GENERAL ANOSMIAS = loss of sensitivity to large variety of aromas -- can be due to nasal congestion. -- THE CONVERSE = HYPEROSMIAS (increased sensitivity to odors, occurs during migraines and pregnancy)
Bitter
GPCRs (30+ GPCR types). When ligand comes in contact w/ microvilli of bitter taste receptor and binds to GPCR, intracellular signaling cascade→ brain!
olfactory receptor proteins
GPCRs. Humans have 350 ability to detect/ discriminate thousands of different odors! Each different GPCR responds to molecules having specific molecular shapes Odorant X will activate different olfactory GPCRs @ different extents
What types of cells make up the retina?
Ganglion cells >>>> bipolar cells>>> rod &cone photoreceptor cells (light first hits ganglion cells then bipolar cells and then photoreceptors) -- 100 micrometers = 0.1 milimeters (mm)
Friedrich Willhelm Serturner
German pharmacist who discovered morphine first time a chemical substance had been isolated from a plant to account for medicinal effect first to hypothesize that medicinal properties could be in one molecule
schwann cells
Glial cells in PNS (body); makes up myelin
hyperpolarization
Greater separation of charge across a cell membrane (more negative) -- more polarized further from 0 opening the K or Cl channels has this effect on the cell membrane
Which individual was originally associated with the concept that traits segregate in an orderly fashion during inheritance:
Gregor Mendel
Another form of sweet: HONEY
Honey (from honey bees) -- made up of glucose and fructose, mainly, with other things from flowers
honeybee vision
Honeybees can see UV light, these can be called nectar guides -they are visual features that attract bees and other pollinating insects to flowers
clinical antidepressant medications
In 1950s, first pharmaceutical drugs to reduce symptoms of depression in 2 categories: monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOIs) and tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs). Both increase presence of NT norepinephrine and serotonin @ synapse
What is photoisomerization?
In chemistry, photoisomerization is molecular behavior in which structural change between isomers is caused by photoexcitation. (photoexcitation = Photoexcitation is the photoelectrochemical process of electron excitation by photon absorption, when the energy of the photon is too low to cause photoionization) -- Both reversible and irreversible isomerization reactions exist. However, the word "photoisomerization" usually indicates a reversible process. An example of photoisomerization with retinal: it means that when light of the correct wavelength strikes Retinal it changes to either CIS form or ALL TRANS form, which opens up either rhodopsin or cone-opsin
What does entheogen mean?
It means generating god within or having a mystical-type experience
Andreas Vesalius
Italian physician; author of "De Humani Coporis Fabrica" or "On the Fabric of the Human Body" (1543), where some of the most beautiful drawings of human anatomy were published
Jew's harp is one of the oldest musical instruments. It has different names in different cultures. What are they?
Jaw harp, mouth harp, trump, khomus, morsing, and italian sacciapensieri (translated means "thought banisher", reference to trance-inducing potential of the sound) -- resonant chamber = oral cavity of player -- any complex waveform describing a vibration can always be represented
olfactory bulb
Located immediately above and adjacent to nasal cavity). Nerve fibers constitute cranial nerve 1 axons form synapses w/ dendrites of mitral cells→ mitral cells send axons to pyriform cortex (and amygdala)→ pyriform sends axons to thalamus → orbitofrontal cortex of frontal lobes! Perception of aroma in here
TTX Resistance
May result from tiny mutations that change only a single amino acid in the voltage-gated Na+ channel. This happens in animals harboring TTX. Ex. some garter snake species eat newts containing TTX typically a tweak in NA channels so TTX cannot bind --> resistance of toxin
pharmakon
Medicine and poison at the same time
Who discovered mescaline? What is it derived from?
Mescaline was identified in 1897 by Arthur Heffter (1859-1925) from PEYOTE (Lophophora williamsii) = a small cactus growing primarily in Mexico, with a small range extending northward into southern Texas -- Heffter = a German pharmacologist, studied the chemical constituents of peyote after it had come to his attention that this cactus was used for its potent psychoactive properties by native peoples of the Americas, consumed in ritual settings under the guidance of shamans
norepinephrine
NT released for stress noradrenaline sympathetic nervous system NT GPCR receptor
elemental composition of the human body
65% water (individual flashcards has specifics)
photoisomerization of retinal (cis to trans)
absorption of a photon by retinal triggers a change in shape and straightens into all trans retinal from 11 cis retinal
vagal tone
activity of the vagus nerve not under conscious control
Ernest Lawrence
created cyclotron at UC Berkeley
individual differences in color perception
color perception not specific to humans, vision unheard of between species, depends on what light energy activates
Stem Cells
come from fertilized egg divides and forms multiple cells and has capacity to continue dividing and to differentiate into any type of cell in the body.
organic moledules
composed of carbon (gives shape) and hydrogen (most abundant)
depolarization
decrease in the magnitude of the charge differences across the membrane (i.e. decrease in polarity)
brain electrical oscillations: alpha, beta, gamma, theta, delta
delta <4Hz theta 4-7Hz alpha 8-15Hz beta 16-30Hz gamma >30Hz
Be able to count how many C, H, N, O in shorthand molecular structure diagrams
example: dopamine has 8 carbons, 11 hydrogens, 1 nitrogen, 2 oxygens
narcolepsy
excessive daytime sleepiness causes include abnormal cycles of NREM to REM sleep, abnormalities in orexin protein
motion blindness
condition where person is unaware of movement in some region or regions of visual space Lesion in V5 would produce this
human genome: size
consists of 46 chromosomes: 23 inherited from mother and 23 inherited from father -For humans, 23 is called haploid chromosome number and 46 the diploid chromosome number
Paul Ekman: constructivism vs. evolution
constructivism: emotions depend on culture and facial expressions are interpreted within each culture both biological and cultural determinants in emotion
Photoreceptor Inner segment
contain nuclei, mitochondria, and other structures necessary for functioning of the cell. End of this is synaptic membrane
primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
contains a topographic representation of somatosensory space— the surface of one's own body
phosphorus-oxygen bond
contains lots of energy that is released when they are broken by enzymatic reactions in a cell. That energy is then available to other cellular processes. ATP is the primary currency for powering cellular processes
facial expressions
facial expressions universal across human societies
Declarative Memory
facts, info-type knowledge, semantic memory & episodic memory. Brought to mind in words or describable images (H.M. profoundly impaired!)
hydrophilic
likes to hang out with water and vice versa; polar molecules
parietal lobe
lobe of brain for sensation, perception
occipital lobe
lobe of brain for sight
The anatomical feature that separates the two hemispheres of the cerebral cortex is known as the:
longitudinal fissure
sedative-hypnotics
most famous memory impairing drugs anterograde amnesia ("blackout")
LSD
most famous psychedelic chemical; also one of most potent psychoactive substances known, active in few micrograms, has similarities in structure with seratonin
Broca's aphasia
motor apraxia specific for language production L premotor frontal lesion
neural correlates of consciousness
neural conditions deemed sufficient for conscious awareness
positron emission tomography (PET)
partial radioactive chemicals to visualize cellular activity in the brain uses unstable elements that undergo beta decay by emitting positron complex and expensive shows energy usage and neural activity shows how the brain is always very active
Blind sight
people who are blind in one half of the visual field but still have a sense of what is going on even if they can't see it (blind sight only attributed to V1)
phantom limb
perceived sensation following amputation of a limb that the limb still exists neuroplasticity of adjacent regions becoming more sensitive V.S. Ramachandran did a lot of work in this area (hypothesizing, mirror box, sensitivity increase, etc.)
5th cranial nerve
perception of pain regions Signals from receptors enter brain via DIFFERENT pathways from primary tastes (spicy not a taste!!
What is the membrane of a neuron made of?
phospholipids
ionotropic AChRs
positive ion channels (mainly Na+ channels) -when bound, Na+ flows from outside to inside cell -> depolarization -> increases excitability of postsynaptic neuron
dementia
primarily anterograde effects at first... increased severity increases retrograde effects
Which of the following molecules functions as a retrograde signal in the brain?
endocannabinoids
circ-annual rhythms and bird migration
endogenous rhythms
Essential Oils
The oily concentrate of aromatic molecules from a plant-- the hallmark aroma of a plant. It is oily b/c the aroma carrying molecules are frequently hydrophobic. Carries many of plant's medicinal qualities. Prepared by distillation-- heating an extract of the plant and concentrating the more volatile components
Sulfur and thiols (sulfur-hydrogen group)
Thiols often smell stinky, something about the shape of the -SH group attached to carbons that makes stinky. Ex. 2-butene-1-thiol (-SH group analogous to -OH group in alcohol (Oxygen and sulfur have similar chem properties)) Found in urine of asparagus, skunk spray, etc.
True or False: Humans lack sensitivity to ultraviolet and infrared light, and polarization but are capable of hearing 20 to 20,000 cycles of vibration per second (unit = Hertz or hz named after physicist Heinrich Hertz (1857 - 1894)
True
Audition
Very low frequency sounds (less than 20 Hz) are referred to as infrasound. Pigeons and Elephants can generate and hear infrasonic frequencies. Very high frequency sounds (40,000 Hz or higher) are referred to as ultrasound. Bats, Dolphins, whales, moths. Dogs and cats hear, but do not use them in communication.
When we talk about LIGHT the preferred unit = ________________, though frequency could also be used) When we talk about SOUND the preferred unit = ______________, though wavelength could also be used)
WAVELENGTH; FRQUENCY
Bacterial Chemotaxis
When bacteria encounters amino acids that interact w/ receptor proteins located on the bacterial cell's outer membrane and influence the bacterium to swim towards the nutrients.
What level protein structure is hemoglobin?
quaternary
cone opsins
short-wavelengths (S) = blue cones, max response 420 nm (blue violet) medium-wavelength (M) = green cones, max response 530 nm (green yellow) longer-wavelength (L) = red cones, max 560 nm (orange red) sensitive to bright light and have input into perception of color, so they will operate in daytime sunlight or in other sources of sufficiently bright light
NREM stage 3 and 4
slow wave sleep < 4 Hz wave oscillations
action potential
the change in membrane voltage when a signal passes along a nerve cell's axon
taste bud
the clusters of receptor cells that begin the processes of gustation, taste, enjoyment, and delight that are located in the mouth, primarily on the tongue, with a few on the upper palate and the pharynx -receptor cells are part of the 7,9, and 10 cranial nerves
What is the human genome?
the complete set of genes or genetic material present in a cell or organism
bitter
there are more than 30 different GPCR proteins distributed over the receptor cells associated with _______ taste -Binding of a ligand— floating around in the interior of the mouth and coming into contact with microvilli of a _______-taste-receptor cell— to a GPCR initiates an intracellular signaling cascade leading to release of neurotransmitter and generation of a signal to the brain -bitter taste is indicator of poison
idiopathic seizures
type of seizure with unknown, unidentifiable cause (most often in childhood)
medial
view as if cut corpus callosum and look inside from side view
parasympathetic nervous system
"rest and digest"
polypeptides
-chain of amino acids formed through peptide bonds (produces 1 H2O) in the ribosomes of cells -fold and develop unique shape (stable, lowest-energy configuration) which determine their functions
Describe the 2 types of bipolar disorder.
-Bipolar I = defined by severe manic episodes lasting a week or more, mixed in with depression lasting 2 weeks -Bipolar II = defined by pattern of depressive episodes shifting back and forth with "hypomanic" (increased energy and productivity) -manic symptoms = high self esteem, grandiosity, no need for sleep, talkativeness, rage and irritability -depression symptoms are similar to MDD
Glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia
-PCP and ketamine (hallucinogens) are noncompetitive inhibitors of the NMDA receptor that exacerbate psychosis and cognitive impairments -NMDA receptor antagonists increase locomotor activity and produce cognitive deficits in rodents and primates -antipsychotics block the actions of the above drugs, indicating a possible link to schizophrenia
pathways from olfactory bulb into brain
-These cranial fibers between nose and olfactory bulb constitute cranial nerve #1 -Pathway: ORCs -> olfactory bulb -> mitral cells -> pyriform cortex and amygdala... PC-> thalamus -> orbitofrontal cortex of frontal lobe. Also connections with hippocampus and hypothalamus are present. Badda bing bada boom -> smell.
otolith
-ear stones -suspended in the fluid above the hair cells -inertia of these rocks contribute to the bending of the hair cells
nematode/roundworm, C. elegans
302 neurons, complete NS is known by scientists
Black Pepper
Also from India- plant = piper nigrum -- it's aromatic essence = due to a mixture of molecules -- popularity as a spice = stated with trade between India & Europe, where there were "spice routes" from India to Mediterranean -- Christopher Columbus (1451-1506) convinced Spanish crown to finance voyage west of the Atlantic in hopes of reaching Asia, so he could have direct access to Black Pepper and other spices. But he didn't reach Asia, as we know, he reached Americas and didn't find black pepper. He instead found ALLSPICE (pimenta officinalis)
what is atropine named after and where is it found?
Atropa belladonna AKA the deadly nightshade, a highly poisonous plant
computer axial tomography (CAT, CT)
CT: sophisticated x-ray imaging process that generates a three-dimensional representation of the brain's internal structure
Psychedelic Mushrooms (Psilocybe mushrooms)
Grown throughout the world and used by shamans. Ceremonies were closely guarded secrets because mushrooms condemned by Spanish Inquisition.
Miracle Fruit
Miracle Fruit (synsepalum dulcificum) native to West Africa -- makes anything you eat right afterward taste sweet -- the protein responsible for this effect = miraculin protein (199 amino acids) which binds to sweet GPCR dimer. Has strong AGONIST effects only at highly acidic pH
Transcription Factors
Nervous system development governed by transcription factor proteins and RNA regulation.
are parasympathomimetic drugs an agonist or antagonist at AChRs?
agonist
grey matter
cell bodies
neural progenitor cells
cells that are on track to become various types of neurons and glia
insects
complex brains; fruit fly has a brain of ~150K neurons
chemistry
concerned with the nature of matter and its transformations how atoms interact to form molecules
Stimulation of the sympathetic nervous system results in:
dilation of pupils
number and distribution of photoreceptors in retina
each retina has more than 100 million only one million ganglion cells
right
hand that demonstrated more visual detail
We have defined consciousness as the capacity to:
have an experience of what is like to be
During development, the neural tube elongates to form the forebrain, the midbrain, the _____, and the spinal cord
hindbrain
A change in the membrane voltage of a postsynaptic neuron from -65 mV to -68 mV is known as a (an) ___________ post-synaptic potential
inhibitory
na/k pump
ion-transporter protein found in all neurons 3 ___ 2 ____ in one pump
cerebellum
regulates motor movements balance, coordination, and speech
The rapid movement of an action potential from node to node along a myelinated axon is called __________ conduction
saltatory
pharmacology
scientific study of drugs: origin, compositions, and effects on the body
lucid dreaming
when one is aware they are dreaming
sleep apnea
when sleeper periodically stops breathing or abnormal shallow breathing
trigeminal nerve
-5th cranial nerve -receptive to hot and spicy foods -reason spicy hotness is not a taste
Roger Sperry
-Made major progress in addressing question of how axons grew and how synapses decided to form -did his early research with frogs -he rotated the frog's eyeball by 180 degrees AND cut the optic nerve connection between the eye and the brain -The frog was completely blind, but after a few weeks, the axons forming the optic nerve re-grew and re-established connections between the eye and the brain -Result: The frog sees the world upside down and backwards, as if the eyeball had simply been rotates without cutting and reforming of the optic-nerve connections
Phencyclidine
-a dissociative psychadelic, similar in effect to ketamine and dextromethorphan -originally a general anesthetic, chronic exposure leads to psychosis, and psychoactive effects last hours -binds inside the NMDA channel and blocks it, inhibiting depolarization of the neurons -interferes with cognitive brain functions among others
What happens to neurotransmitter release in the induction of nonREM sleep?
-a general decrease in firing of ACh, 5HT, NE, and HA neurons causing less of these to be released -the amines are reduced more than the ACh, leading to a "dominance" of ACh signaling
What is an electroencephalogram?
-a measurement of generalized activity in the cerebral cortex...is an algebraic summation of EPSPs in the cortex -can be irregular (normal, low amplitude high freq) or can be synchronized (sleep and seizures, low freq high amplitude) -they are characteristic to each person under a certain condition or state of consciousness -identifies the communication between the lobes of the brain at any time
What is a seizure? What are the types?
-a seizure is a brief episode of loss/disturbance of consciousness and appearance of an abnormal EEG -there are tonic seizures (rigidity, resistance to active and passive movement) -also clonic seizures (jerky movements) -worst (and most common) are tonic-clonic or grand mal seizures
Neuropraxia
-a temporary blockade of axoplasm flow (axonal transport) and cease of AP propagation -no physical damage to axon or degeneration of surrounding myelin, plus CT layers are intact -complete recovery of nerve function is expected
Describe nonREM sleep
-about 75% of the sleep time, and is characterized by very slow (low freq) EEG activity -has 4 stages that are cyclical, and are interrupted by REM sleep during stage 4 -cycles 5-6 times during a 7-8 hr sleep period
sedative-hypnotic drugs
-acting as agonist on ionotropic GABA receptors to increase GABA induced Cl- flow into the cell -hyperpolarizes, makes it less likely to send signal
Cannabinoids -What are their effects? -Where are their receptors found?
-active ingredient in marijuana, THC, is a partial agonist of the CB1 endocannabinoid receptor (GPCR that is Gi coupled) -this limits cAMP levels and reduces release of GABA or Glu from neurons that converge on VTA -mild analgesic and anxiolytic, with anti-emetic props -endocannabinoid receptors are rich in the NAcc, VTA, subst nigra, caudate and putamen
Addiction vs. Dependence
-addiction is the psychological side, and is an obsessive compulsion to obtain the drug to achieve/maintain euphoria -dependence is the physical side, and is a physiological adaptation such that cessation of intake will result in withdrawal symptoms (generally opposite of the drug effects)
ATP
-adenosine triphosphate -covalent bonds between phosphate groups store lots of energy -1 ATP powers one cycle of Na/K pump -> 3 Na+ ions out & 2 K+ ions in
Synapse rearrangement
-after apoptosis, neural connections are looked at again to make sure target cells are properly innervated -process includes synapse elimination, increment changing and segregation -involves neurotrophins and competitions between axons for the ownership of a target neuron -neurons that fire together wire together
stem cells
-after conception, fertilized egg divides to form multplie cells that are stem cells -have capacity to continue dividing and turn into any kind of cell
Adult plasticity
-after critical periods are over, reorganization can only occur when the stimulus is paired with active training or use, must be actively attended and behaviorally relevant -adult plasticity isnt always a good thing = phantom limb pain after amputation
what are the groups of neurotransmitters?
-amino acid neurotransmitters (glutamate, glycine, GABA) -monoamines -acetylcholine -polypeptide neurotransmitters -and more!
what are the effects of atropine?
-anticholinergic effects: slow intestinal motility and dilates pupils of eyes, etc. -psychoactive effects: hallucinations, amnesia
How do you treat epilepsy?
-anticonvulsant drugs or surgical removal of seizure source -reduces excitability by prolonging the inhibitory action (BZs, barbiturates) -decreases the tendency for certain neurons to fire high-frequency action potentials (phenytoin and carbamazepine)
Describe REM sleep.
-associated with decreased muscle tone, low amplitude, high frequency waves, alpha and beta waves, dreaming, and increased HR/RR -function is largely unknown, but some suggest that learning and memory consolidation, GH bursts, protein synthesis and neural growth are all facilitated -EEG activity is similar to that of the awake state, and people are less likely to be responsive in this deepest stage
isothiocynates
-associated with perceptual quality of hotness and characterized by a particular configuration of sulfur, carbon, and nitrogen atoms -Another type of ionotropic Ca++ channel, called TRPA1, activated by binding of isothiocyanates
glial cell, glia
-at least 100 bil. glia in human brain -many glia, especially the astrocyte glia, are directly involved in signaling (not just neurons)
causes of seizures
-brain tumor disrupting neural circuitry -brain infections and high fevers -traumatic physical injury to head -stimulant drugs -inhibitory drugs that are used regularly and then stopped
Paper published on October 2014 about sugar
"Artificial Sweeteners induce glucose intolerance by altering the gut microbiota" -- indicates that artificial sweeteners have alluring balance of microorganism in gut to affect diabetes
Rosalind Franklin
"DNA is shaped like a twisted ladder"
Surgical treatments for anxiety disorders
-capsulotomy = cut basal ganglia from frontal cortex by lesioning internal capsule -cingulotomy = lesion ant. cingulate gyrus to disconnect it from the frontal lobes -deep brain stimulation = electrodes implanted in int. capsule, NAcc, bed nuc. of stria terminalis
Capsicum annum
-chili plant, is spicy hot -appreciated by the south american people -part of Solanaceae (nightshade family)
Describe the cellular changes that occur with chronic drug exposure that lead to addiction
-chronic DA receptor stim leads to increased cAMP (and later CREB) and deltaFosB (CREB and dFosB = TFs) -there will be hyperexcitability of NAcc neurons -decreased value of natural reward, diminished cognitive control, and enhanced activity in response to drug-assoc stimuli -CREB regulates tolerance and dependence, dFosB mediates prolonged sensitization and may contribute to increased drive/motivation for drug
Class I drugs: Class II drugs:
-class I bind to GPCRs on GABAergic interneurons that modulate VTA dopaminergic neurons...include THC, opioids and GHB -class II interact with ion channels on GABAergic interneurons and dopaminergic neurons in VTA...include benzos, nicotine and ethanol
Class III drugs: Class of their own drugs:
-class III affect dopamine transporter function, either by competition for DA uptake or blockage: includes cocaine, amphetamine and methamphetamine/ecstasy -class of their own drugs includes phencyclidine/PCP that binds with the NMDA receptor, blocking ion flux
Na+ channels
-closed when membrane potential is at rest -open when potential reaches about -50 mV, making membrane voltage more and more positive (Na+ goes into cell) -when voltage reaches +30 mV, channels close
Neurobiology of Bipolar Disorder
-connections between prefrontal cortices and amygdala are thought to be dysfunctional -reduction in dorsolateral PFC activity with concomitant increase in amygdala activity = emotional dysregulation -cortex fails to keep amygdala in check
Development of diencephalon and telencephalon
-contain only alar components, with large amounts of white matter -diencephalon is split into a ventral and dorsal alar division by the hypothalamic sulcus -most of diencephalon becomes buried by the outgrowth of the telencephalon, which even grows around itself as the temporal lobe
Hershey-Chase experiment (1952)
-convinced the scientific community that DNA, not protein was the carrier of genetic info -tagged bacteriophages T2 with radioactive sulfur (found in protein) or phosphorus (found in DNA) -> found that when bacteriophages infected bacteria, only the phosphorus entered and reproduced other viruses with phosphorus
Lesions of the temporal association cortex.
-damage to either the left or right hemisphere can cause difficulties in recognizing complex objects and faces...this disorder is called agnosia -different from neglect syndromes of parietal cortex, because they acknowledge there is a stimulus but are unable to recognize it/report it -lesions of the right temporal cortex result in agnosia for face and objects...left temporal cortex leads to difficulty with language related materials
How does aging affect memory?
-decline of ability to acquire memory often declines in the elderly, but can be maintained in a well-used brain -physical exercise, rewards/challenges, and mental stimulation will help -may not learn as quickly, but will remember once you learn
What is restless leg syndrome?
-defined by unpleasant crawling, tickling or tingling sensations in one or both legs that require movement of the legs to obtain relief from -these individuals have fragmented sleep at night
What does development of drug addiction depend on?
-depends on drug factors like potency, speed of brain entry, purity of drug and form of application -also personality factors of person like education, culture, life crises, life history, personality, etc. -lastly, environmental factors like availability and cost of drug, high risk groups (doctors, nurses), and legal status of the drug
growth cone
-described by Ramon y Cajal, are located at the ends of axons, and were hypothesized to possess exquisite mechanisms of sensitivity, motility, and guidance; the axon's growing tip -They progress via the extension of finger-like structures called filopodia -This extension— as well as the migration of entire cells as they find their appropriate places in developing organism— is propelled by actions of the internal cytoskeletal structure of the cell -is a big actin-supported extension of a developing or regenerating neurite seeking its synaptic target.
endorphins, opioid receptors
-discovered as endogenous neurotransmitters that are agonists of the opioid receptors -subtypes (mu, delta, and kappa) -shortest is 5 amino acids and longest is 32
phospholipid bilayer membrane
-double layer formed by phospholipids when surrounded by water due to hydrophobic tails and hydrophilic heads -form the membranes of all cells for all of life on Earth; contain protein molecules
What is the difference between the EEG in a wakened state and EEG during a sleep state?
-during the awake state, the EEG shows beta waves with mental activity and alpha waves with relaxation...also low amplitude, high freq -during sleep state, there are two stage, REM and nonREM sleep that the brain goes through...these are cyclical
SSRIs and SNRIs: Examples, Effects, What are they used for/not used for?
-ex: SSRIs = fluoxetine (Prozac), sertraline (Zoloft) -ex: SNRIs = duloxetine (Cymbalta) -SSRIs/SNRIs work by increasing amount of neurotransmitter in synapses and increasing the time that it is there, either by inhibiting breakdown, reuptake -good efficacy, anxiolytic effects within 1-4 weeks -well tolerated, have side effects of loss of libido and weight gain, and have black box warnings for use in kids -used for treatment of GAD, panic (SSRI only), SAD, PTSD, OCD and mood disorders
Monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO-Is): Examples, Effects, What are they used for/not used for?
-ex: isocarboxazid (Marplan) -when first-line treatments dont work, these may work -inhibit enzymes that break down 5HT and NE, thereby reducing LC activity and lowering anxiety -nonaddictive, less sedating, have life threatening interactions with tyramine-containing foods -prescribed for panic, and disorders that do not respond to SSRI or TCAs
Erythroxylum coca, cocaine
-example of local anesthetic -South Americans first discovered the stimulant properties 5,000 yrs ago of cocaine -chewed leaves of coca plant to get wakefulness, focused attention, decreased fatigue, and increased stamina -different from coffee tea because it also increase positive mood and stimulates the sympathetic nervous system (heart rate, vasoconstriction, etc)
What is the pathophysiology behind grand mal seizures?
-extreme neuronal discharges in all areas of the brain, including the cortex, deep parts of the cerebrum and reticular activating system -the EEG becomes very synchronized across all leads and has very high amplitudes and low frequencies
Spina bifida cystica
-failure of neural folds to fuse dorsally -can be with meningocele (meninges protrude through defect) -can also be with meningomyelocele (meninges and some spinal cord protrudes through defect)
Otto Loewi (1873-1961)
-first to demonstrate concept of neural transmission (1920) -studied neural regulation of a frog's heart -> heart was kept functioning in a jar containing solution of ions in water and it maintained regular rhythm
Linus Pauling (1901-1994)
-first to describe the alpha helix shape of some secondary proteins -tried to stop nuclear bomb testing out in open -Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapons Testing in the Atmosphere in Outer Space, and Underwater
Explain how a sensory stimulus reaches an association cortex.
-first, the stimulus is perceived by a sensory organ and received by a primary sensory cortical area (3,1,2/41/17/etc.) -next, the stimulus must be interpreted, and interpretation mainly occurs in the secondary sensory fields (unimodal association cortices) -after the secondary sensory cortices, the stimuli coalesce into one of the three major multimodal sensory areas, and the objects become interpreted, thought about, analyzed, and acted upon
Neurogenesis and Gliogenesis
-formation of nerve and glial cells from progenitor is called neurogenesis and gliogenesis
Marian Diamond
-founders of modern neuroscience -brain can change with experience and improve with enrichment -first scientific evidence of anatomical neuroplasticity with experiments on rats
gene
-fundamental unit of heredity -allows selective breeding of plants and animals -underlie traits -particular factors that segregate and sort in reproduction -Greek word, genesis := origin birth
nodes of Ranvier
-gaps that separated the myelin into sections along the axon every few hundred micrometers -named after Louis-Antoine Ranvier who discovered them in the 1870s -voltage-gated channel proteins >100 times more concentrated here than in an unmyelinated axon
How does a seizure spread from its nucleus of origin?
-generally the spread follows the same pathways as normal brain activity -cortical, thalamocortical, subcortical and transcallosal pathways can all become involved in spreading a seizure -the spread of activity can happen over a few seconds or a few minutes
magnetic field sensitivity and animal navigation
-generated by large-scale movement of magnetic atoms in the molten interior of the planet -strongest near the north and south magnetic poles and weakest near the equator -Direction of magnetic field vector points toward the poles and becomes more steeply inclined nearer to the poles -Near the equator, the vector's direction is nearly horizontal and parallel to the surface of the Earth -Magnitude and direction of this geomagnetic field provide information useful in navigation for animals, whether that is migration or just going back to nests
What are the spinal levels associated with sensory to: Hand? Nipple? Umbilicus? Feet? Sacrum?
-hand = C6-C8 -nipple = T4 -umbilicus = T10 -feet = L5-S1 -sacrum = S2-S4
Karl von Frisch,
-he conclusively demonstrated that honeybees have color vision, won nobel prize -He went on to experiments with polarizing filters to conclusively demonstrate that honeybees use sunlight polarization patterns as a navigational aid
heroin, semi-synthetic opioids
-heroin was introduced by Bayer as an analgesic and cough medicine -aspirin was another semi-synthetic opioid -Diacetylmorphine was found to be twice as potent as morphine, first semi-synthetic -semi-sythetics: hydrocodone (Vicodin), Oxycodone (OxyContin)
Why do neurons undergo apoptosis in development?
-if they do not or are not selected to create the right connections in the circuit, they can be apoptosed -apoptosis here happens because the brain creates about 3 times as many neurons as it needs to properly create circuits
What are the three temporal categories of memory?
-immediate memory: has a very large capacity and is modality specific, lasts for fractions of a second -working memory: aka short-term memory, lasts for seconds to minutes...consists of a short list, largely depends on attention and not linked to a specific sensory modality -long-term memory: lasts hours to lifetime...disrupted by biochemical manipulation, protein synthesis blockers prevent its creation...created in hippocampus through LTP and LTD
Critical periods in language
-important clue for this is that deaf children must be exposed to sign language early or else they will have great difficulty learning it -there are also periods relating to the correlation of sounds to words, which is why there must be constant grooming of language for all of development -there are critical periods relating to native vs. non-native phenomes and sounds
What is the role of the nondominant hemisphere in language and speech?
-important for communicative and emotional stress, timing and intonation -patients with a lesion in Broca's area in nondominant hemisphere may produce inappropriate intonation -patients with a lesion in Wernicke's are may have difficulty understanding emotional aspects of speech and jokes as well
What is sleep apnea?
-interrupted breathing (for seconds to more than a minute) during sleep -airway collapses during sleep, airflow is blocked, level of O2 and CO2 change accordingly, reflex inspiration and awakening happens -people who suffer from this wake up many times during the night, have less REM sleep and little to no slow-wave sleep
voltage-gated ion channels
-ion channel proteins (found primarily along axon) that open/close depending upon the membrane voltage
ions: cations, anions
-ions: charged atoms formed when they gain or lose on or more electrons -cation: positively charged ion -anion: negatively charged ion
What is an absence seizure (petit mal)?
-it is a seizure that occurs during childhood where there is a small loss of consciousness but their body remains in the normal position -no motor signs, fluttering of eyelids and/or twitching of mouth may occur during these -less than 30 seconds of generalized seizure EEG
What is the Wada test?
-it is a test to find a patient's dominant hemisphere -the patient has amytal injected into their left carotid artery, and if the patient becomes speechless a few seconds after injection, the patient's dominant hemisphere has been anesthetized -performed prior to ablative surgery for epilepsy and sometimes prior to tumor resection
What does the insula have to do with drug seeking behavior?
-it is the primary interoceptive cortex that integrates relevant internal and external stimuli to enable awareness of interoceptive effects that will be translated to conscious pleasure -inactivation of insula reduces drug seeking behavior and leads to patients easily able to overcome addiction
Anticonvulsants used to treat bipolar disorder
-lamotrigine (Lamictal) = inhibits presyn Glu release, must be titrated slowly to avoid life-threatening side effects -carbamazepine (Tegretol) = increased GABA activity
myelin
-layers of lipid bilayer membrane formed when certain types of glial cells develop large fattened bodies -wrap around and around the axon -70% lipid, 25% of which is cholesterol (structure/fluidity) -> also contains protein (links layers together so it doesn't unravel from axon)
alcohol, ethyl alcohol
-least poisonous organic alcohol -metabolic action of yeast on sugars...ethanol is a waste product (fermentation) -ethanol is part of class of drugs known as sedative-hypnotics -relaxation, impaired judgement and coordination, loss of consciousness, death -most ancient and widely used sedative-hypnotic
What happens in a lesion of Broca's area?
-lesions here produce motor or nonfluent aphasia -the patient can understand speech but is unable to express their ideas in spoken words -they have difficulty saying anything, and often pause to find the right word
What happens in a lesion of Wernicke's area?
-lesions here produce receptive (sensory or fluent) aphasia -these individuals are unable to understand spoken, written or visually relevant speech, and their speech will not make sense -most are not aware of their disability
Lesions in the parietal association cortex. What happens in a lesion of the left side vs. right side?
-lesions here typically lead to deficits referred to as contralateral neglect syndrome, which is most commonly in the right parietal association cortex (L side of body) -this is where the sufferer cannot acknowledge any of their left side, and the visual, somatic, motor capacity remain the same as before the lesion -the lesions in the right side are much worse than the left side, as the right side compensates for most of the left side's field
visible light
-light that is visible to us humans and many other mammals -Range of human sensitivity: 400 nm to 700 nm
cerebrospinal fluid
-liquid that cushions the brain inside the skull and transports soluble substances through the central NS -located in the subarachnoid space b/w pia and arachnoid
What happens to neurons when there is injury to the CNS?
-little regeneration or recovery occurs in the CNS -apoptosis of injured neurons happens, and this could be due to glutamate excitotoxicity, ischemia, etc. -also, glial cells multiply incredibly, to the point of scar tissue forming due to the massive increase in their number -central myelin is an inhibitor of axonal outgrowth, so that is another preventative measure for neuronal growth
action potential propagation along axon
-local depolarization from Na+ channels opening at start of action potential triggers adjacent axonal regions' Na+ channels to open; process repeats -from input source and dendrites to the cell body, then down axon to the synaptic terminals
olfactory bulb
-located immediately above and adjacent to nasal cavity where olfactory receptor cells send axons into -These cranial fibers between nose and olfactory bulb constitute cranial nerve #1 -Here, the axons form synapses with dendrites of mitral cells
reuptake transporter
-located in cell membrane of axon terminal -brings corresponding neurotransmitters out of synaptic cleft and back in cell after corresponding neurotransmitter bangs into it and binds -one of the ways to INACTIVATE signaling (other method is enzymatic)
What is the function of Wernicke's area (22, 39, 40)?
-located in the parietal association cortex, is the language comprehension center, and it is functionally interconnected with Broca's area
GABA
-major inhibitory neurotransmitter in human brain -AKA gamma-amino-butyric acid
compassion, love
-may be the strongest/most natural of our behavioral tendencies according to research -Paleolithic cave art suggest stable/peaceful cultures have existed for thousands of years
What are some typical symptoms of a generalized seizure?
-may experience an aura or hallucination -massive cyclic muscle movement, unconsciousness for about an hour then sleep for a few hours -can attack at any time and may or may not recur
Alan Hodgkin, Andrew Huxley
-measured the voltage changes across an axon membrane during an action potential; reported in a short paper in the journal, "Nature" (1939) -did experiments on the squid axon -predicted the existence of voltage-gated ion channels
two-point discrimination test
-measures somatosensory acuity -U bent end of paper clip touches lips with narrow gap and it feels like two touches, with large gap touches the back and it feels like one touch
lipids/fats
-medium-sized molecules composed mainly of carbon and hydrogen atoms in long chains; few oxygen atoms are often at one end -largely hydrophobic
Development of the myelencephalon
-medulla is derivative, and it remains similarly structures to spinal cord with, outward movement of the alar plates -basal plate and alar plate neuronal groups get mixed and scattered among the axon tracts -basal plate derivatives are closer to midline
Name the dopaminergic pathways implicated in symptoms of schizophrenia
-mesolimbic pathway = increased activation, positive symptoms -mesocortical pathway = decreased activation, negative symptoms -nigrostriatal pathway = movement disorders -tuberoinfundibular pathway = hyperprolactinemia
mind, consciousness
-mind: the collection of mental experiences (thoughts, feelings, perceptions, mental images, sense of self) -consciousness: capacity to be aware of our mental experiences
amino acids
-molecule that contains an amine group (-NH2) and a carboxylic acid group (-COOH) -makes up proteins -differentiated by R groups -life on Earth uses 20 different amino acids
retrograde signaling
-molecules that carry signal information in direction opposite from way neural signals were generally thought to move -Occurs at very large number of chemical synapses in brain, probably trillions of synapses -endocannabinoid is an example
Anencephaly
-more severe failure of fusion of neural folds at the anterior neuropore -this is incompatible with life because the brainstem is affected and breathing and blood pressure fails
nerve growth
-more than 50% of neurons in certain brain areas may be eliminated during early development -so nerve growth is important for survival of nerves
Name some factors that may lead to epilepsy development.
-morphological changes and glial malfunction -tumors, trauma, metabolic dysfunction -infection, vascular disease -withdrawal of chronic depressant drugs like alcohol or barbiturates -increased extracellular potassium/Glu, decreased extracellular Na and Ca
Describe specific phobias. What are they caused by in the brain?
-most common anxiety disorders, with 6-12% prevalence -excessive fear triggered by specific object or situation -caused by hyperactivation of amygdala and insula, and are thought to be exaggerated responses of the normal insular fear circuitry -similar to social anxiety disorder
Hierarchical-chain circuits
-most common type of circuit, characteristic of sensory and motor pathways (ascending and descending) -vulnerable to interference by injury, disease, stroke or tumor, which leaves entire pathway inoperative -interneurons are interposed in these chains, can be excitatory/inhibitory/modulatory -effects of lesion are circuit specific
What are some neurotrophic factors that help prevent apoptosis?
-most of these are secreted by target cells for axons -neurotrophins include NGF, BDNF, NT3 and NT4/5 -these are expressed in different tissues and interact with Trk A, B or C and P75NTR -NGF = TrkA...BDNF and NT4/5 = TrkB...NT3 = TrkC -all four activate the P75 receptor -these are vitally important for survival of PNS neurons
Formation of somatic motor and sensory nerves
-motor neurons develop from neuroectoderm in mantle layer of basal plate, and their development/distribution is tied to skeletal muscle development, grow OUT from inside the neural tube -sensory neurons develop from neural crest, and they form the dorsal root ganglia; the central processes grow INTO the neural tube (to touch alar plate neurons) and the peripheral processes grow to the peripheral targets
Gordon Wasson
-mushroom scholar -society learned about psychedelic mushrooms only in 1957 through his article in Life Magazine -Worked together with his physician wife Valentina, received knowledge of the ritual use of mushrooms from Maria Sabina -Following meeting with Maria Sabina, __________ reconnected with Albert Hofmann, and in 1958, identified two psychedelically-active chemicals from Mexican Psilocybe mushrooms
Cocaine
-naturally found in the coca leaf -blocks DA transporter, increases DA in synaptic cleft -works mainly in NAcc, but also works on DAergic cells in the VTA -stimulant, topical analgesic, appetite suppressant
cerebral lobes
-occipital, parietal, temporal, frontal
Amblyopia
-occurs clinically when there is a mismatch of the visual field between the two eyes early in life -it is a permanent cortical blindness that is due to the anatomical rearrangement and deletion of certain synaptic connections in the visual cortex
Adult human neurogenesis
-occurs in very few places, and the functional significance (if there is in fact any) is not known -olfactory bulb and olfactory receptors are constantly replaced via cell division -hippocampal neurons can be regenerated from the transient amplifying cells at the subgranular zone of the lateral ventricles, which migrate a short distance and become GABAergic interneurons
Other than visual cortex, what are some other areas where critical periods have been found?
-olfactory system -somatosensory system, for establishing a body map and localization of sensation -auditory system, for establishing a tonotopic frequency map and establishing the perception of different auditory stimuli -taste discrimination -setting of stress and anxiety levels
Niels Bohr (1885-1962)
-one of the most influential physicists in development of quantum mechanics
hydrocarbons
-organic molecules composed solely of carbon and hydrogen -combustible => breaking the covalent bonds in the presence of oxygen releases energy
periodic table
-organizes the chemical elements based on # of protons -gaps predicted several not-yet-discovered chemical elements
Lesions of frontal association cortex
-patients can be remarkably normal in casual conversation, but despite the normality there is a disinhibition and subsequent loss of behavioral control, and also a great deal of difficulty planning and organizing their lives
refractory period
-period where Na+ and K+ channels require several milliseconds to return to a state that can be triggered again to open after the voltage-gated channels open and close -prevents neural signals from moving in both directions
Describe social anxiety disorder. What is this caused by in the brain?
-persistent fear of performance/evaluation/social situations that may end in embarrassment or humiliation -can be specific (afraid of only public speaking) or general (afraid to interact with others period) -caused by hyperactivation of amygdala and insular cortex
William James (1842-1910)
-philosopher and psychologist known as the "Father of American Psychology" -science of mind: behavior, biology, experience -Principles of Psychology (1890) -Behavior (Psychology) -> Biological underpinnings (neuroscience) —> Mental Experience (introspection, phenomenology)
William James
-pioneer in the modern scientific study of mind -combined psychology with neuroscience -authored "The Principles of Psychology" (1890) -> if nervous communication is cut b/w brain & other parts of body, experiences of those parts = non-existent for the mind -> if brain injured, consciousness is gone/altered, even if the body parts are normal
Camilio Golgi (1843-1926)
-pioneer of neuroscience in Italy -"reticular theory": neurons were connected together in some way in a NETWORK -developed the Golgi stain
Santiago Ramón y Cajal (1852-1934)
-pioneer of neuroscience working in Spain -"neuron theory": thought of neurons as distinct entities -examined brain tissue under microscopes; used Golgi staining technique
DMT
-powerful psychedelic molecule that can be readily synthesized from the amino-acid tryptophan, by enzymes present in many organisms -It has been found to occur widely in nature and in a large number of plants, and in human body, as well
barbiturates, benzodiazepines, general anesthetics
-prescribed to treat anxiety and insomnia -one of the first synthetic drugs -has certain type of molecular structure -1960s introduced benzodiazepines -includes Librium and Valium General Anesthetics - produce a global loss of sensation over the entire body -produce lack of consciousness -reduces overall CNS activity -first one was alcohol -then was ether -hydrocarbon chains, could be replaced by flouride / chloride
Describe procedural memory vs. declarative memory.
-procedural memory is learned skills that are incorporated into the mind and can be recalled subconsciously...tied to the cerebellum -declarative memory is conscious recall of facts or events...mechanism of creating this memory type has 3 parts...closely linked to the hippocampus...can be subject to failure to retrieve
transcription factors
-proteins that bind to regions of the DNA and regulate the read-out of genes -Cell differentiation is regulated via these -binds to regulatory regions of DNA and modulate the read-out of genes -The enzyme RNA polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of RNA transcripts using DNA as the template
Psychosis
-psychotic symptoms were somehow related to overacticity in dopaminergic neurotransmission, and antipsychotic medications reduced the symptoms of psychosis by blocking some of that overactivity -anxiety, irritability, psychosis (sensory reality is totally distorted, thought and emotions are so impaired that contact is lost with external reality), hallucinations overstimulation of CNS; seizures, cardiovascular stress, heart damaging
Oswald Avery (1877-1955)
-published report that had evidence to support the idea that DNA can carry genetic info from one cell to another in 1944 -> this was ignored bc everyone bc he didn't use bacteriophages or E. coli that were used orthodoxly by mainstream scientists -ppl thought genes were made of proteins not nucleic acids, which were thought to be too simple to contain info needed to build an organism (as there were 20 diff types of amino acids and only 4 nucleic acids)
Chromatolysis
-reaction of the cell body of a neuron to injury of its axon -visible as swelling of the soma, nucleus becoming eccentric and dissolution of the Nissl substance -these are signals that the neuron is injured and that there is prep for extensive protein synthesis and axon growth/repair -genes associated with growth and repair are activated
What happens in a Reelin mutation?
-reelin is a protein at glial end feet which signals neuron to detach from the glia after migration -in a mutation, the lateral ventricles are enlarged, the white matter is smaller, and the pattern of sulci and gyri is disrupted
What are the three types of regeneration in the nervous system?
-regeneration of injured peripheral nerves = most clinically successful and most common (peripheral axons of CNS neurons and periph. ganglion neurons) -limited repair of CNS neurons post-injury = more comlplicated, involved glial scarring, not many neurons recover -repair by neurogenesis in adults = generation of new cells through multipotent neural stem cells, rarely occurs in mammalian nervous system
axon hillock
-region where axonal potentials initiate -region where axon emerges from soma (cell body)
Amphetamine
-related to ephedrine, chronic use can lead to psychosis -competes with dopamine for uptake by DA transporter, depleting vesicles of DA -eventually, since DA accumulates in cytoplasm, the DAT works in reverse and spills DA into the synaptic cleft
retina
-rete = "net" very complex structure that consists of layer of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells and several layers of interconnected nerve cells
saturated vs unsaturated lipids
-saturated: all carbons fully bonded with hydrogen atoms; no double bonds -unsaturated (monounsaturated): contains double bond
Lithium
-sedative used in treating bipolar disorder, increased reuptake of NE but increased 5HT release -toxic dose and effective dose are close, but is shown to be neuroprotective
capsaicin
-single molecular constituent that hotness of chilli is associated - the more ________ is present in chilli, the hotter it is perceived to be -When __________ binds to one of these receptor proteins, a shape-shift occurs, an ion channel opens, and calcium ions flow from outside the cell to inside, depolarizing the cell and leading to increased neuronal excitability -Increasing the temperature of protein causes same kind of shape-shift as binding of ________, the same opening of Ca++ channel, and the same consequent cell excitability
What is narcolepsy?
-sufferers experience frequent "REM attacks" during the day, where they go directly to REM sleep for about 30 seconds to 30 minutes -it is caused by a gene mutation, and Ritalin (methylphenidate) or amphetamines are effective treatments
Golgi stain
-technique for staining neurons; made neurons visible under microscope -only stains 1% of neurons -known as "the black reaction"—la reazione nera— bc of the dark crystals of silver chromate -potassium dichromate (K2CrO4) + silver nitrate (AgNO3) = silver chromate (Ag2CrO4)
CNS development (general trends)
-the CNS begins developing in the 1st trimester (about week 4) and does not finish myelinating/growing until about the end of the teenage years -primary sulci are visible about the end of the first trimester and secondary sulci are completed by 32 weeks -myelination begins about 4 months gestation in spinal cord and about 6 months gestation in the brain
What are the brain systems other than the hippocampus that are vital in creation of declarative memory?
-the anterior and dorsomedial nuclei of the thalamus, the fornix, mammillary bodies, cingulate cortex and septal nuclei all play a role in declarative memory -memory is not stored in just one place; it has multiple, modality-specific memory sites in the brain
ayahuasca
-the brew of two Amazonian plants that contain DMT -yage
What are the three flexures the can be found during brain development?
-the cephalic flexure, a bend in the mesencephalon -the cervical flexure, a bend at the border between the rhombencephalon and spinal cord -the pontine flexure, a bend between the myelencephalon and metencephalon -only the cephalic flexure remains after development
What happens during sleep?
-the eyes usually close, consciousness is completely/partially lost, and body movement/responsiveness to external stimuli are diminished -it is an active state of affairs for the nervous system, which goes through cycles of brain activity during sleep
neurotrophins
-the first nerve growth factor, and was named simply "nerve growth factor" -promote survival of nerves
Cell aggregation and differentiation in the CNS
-the neuroblasts, once they reach their target nucleus/area, begin to grow two cytoplasmic processes, forming a bipolar neuroblast -the bipolar neuroblast will form an axon at one of its processes and the other will begin becoming arborized, and can be called a multipolar neuroblast...further differentiation is based on location
What is the job of the each of the three multimodal association cortices?
-the parietal association cortex helps us attend to internal and external stimuli -the temporal association cortex plays a main role in identifying the nature of stimuli -the frontal association cortex is important in selecting and planning appropriate behavioral responses to stimuli -they are responsible for receiving inputs from a variety of sources and sending their outputs to a broad range of cortical and subcortical structures
Case of Phineas Gage
-the patient who had a rod explode up through his chin and destroy much of his medial prefrontal lobe -alive, fully conscious, had full reasoning ability, no pain -became irrationally profane, rude, and unable to organize his life and work
Postsynaptic differentiation in a neuromuscular junction
-the process occurs with a series of proteins -motor neuron axon terminal secretes agrin, which binds with MuSK (muscle-specific kinase) on the muscle cell -this interaction brings ACh receptors in the muscle membrane to the site via action of the protein rapsyn
Memory consolidation
-the process of transferring information from the immediate and short-term memory into the long-term memory -sometimes requires immediate or working memory as intermediaries -info can be stored directly as long-term memory
Give some examples of neurotrophic factors that help guide axon growth
-there is netrin, which is secreted by ectodermal cells to help axons cross the midline (chemoattractant) -there are slit and semaphorin, which are important chemorepellants, directing axons away from their areas -GAP-43 is important for axon growth/guidance -NoGo-A is an inhibitory factor found in CNS myelin -Robo is the slit receptor
How does one open a critical period?
-there must be a certain threshold of inhibitory circuit maturation in the brain region -experiments that increase GABA function open critical periods, and the converse is also true
Describe the idea of critical periods.
-these are periods of time during development and maturation in which certain experiences must occur for proper development of brain circuitry -during these periods. experience and neural activity that reflex the experience will maximally affect the acquisition or execution of a specific behavior
Neuroepithelial layer/ventricular zone
-these cells are mitotically active during intrauterine development, and are sources of all neurons and astrocytes of CNS -cells here divide and form neuroblasts and gliablasts -after development, cells here become ependyma of ventricular system
What are brain systems associated with the acquisition of procedural memory?
-they are the basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, sensory association cortices and the cerebellum -perceptual priming requires normally functioning modality-specific association cortex -basal ganglia and prefrontal cotex play a role in learning complex motor skills
What are the clinical uses of an EEG?
-they are used for the diagnosis of sleep disorders -also used for diagnosis of seizure disorders and other abnormal states
What are some features of a critical period?
-they exist for many types of behaviors -they vary in duration, and do not occur after sexual maturity has arrived -at the end of a period, the behavior and neural circuitry is largely unaffected by subsequent experience -lack of experience during a critical period cannot be fixed -involves changes at the cortical level
What do neural crest cells give rise to in the PNS?
-they give rise to neurons of peripheral ganglia -give rise to Schwann cells and satellite cells -become chromaffin cells of adrenal medulla -form enteric nervous system -become some of mesenchyme of head/neck
What do the cells of the neural tube give rise to?
-they give rise to the neurons of the CNS -supporting cells of the CNS -somatomotor neurons -preganglionic autonomic neurons of the PNS
Where do most synaptic changes occur in the postnatal development?
-they occur in the cerebral cortex (about 70%) in the processes of learning, behavioral training and sensorimotor training -some neurogenesis also occurs postnatally in specific areas, like the hippocampus -drugs of abuse are known to decrease the stem cell populations in the hippocampus
Describe the process of neuronal growth.
-to grow in length and reach the correct targets, axons sprout growth cones that recognize and respond to guidance cues/molecules, as well as adhere to tissue structures to direct the growth pattern -growth cone guides the axon by transducing + and - cues into signals that regulate the cytoskeleton -once a few pioneer axons reach their target, they serve as roads for others of their kind to follow
ion pumps
-transporter proteins that USE ENERGY to move specific ions from one side of membrane to the other AGAINST concentration gradient
saltatory conduction
-type of propagation of action potential from one node of Ranvier to the next -movement of action potential a lot faster than in unmyelinated cases -from Latin word, "saltare", which means " to dance"
sympathomimetic, sympatholytic, parasympathomimetic, parasympatholytic
-used to describe drugs -mimetic: activating effect on the corresponding parasympathetic NS, sympathetic NS -lytic: decrease effects of the corresponding parasympathetic NS, sympathetic NS -enhancing the effects of one (of the sympathetic and parasympathetic systems) has the same consequences as decreasing the effects of the other *READ PG 77 for good examples of drugs in use (eye drops and inhaler examples)
Dominant hemisphere
-usually left hemisphere (90% of R handers and 60% of left handers) -responsible for language, speech and calculation thinking
Nondominant hemisphere
-usually right hemisphere -responsible for 3D or spatial perception and nonverbal ideation (the artistic side of the brain) -also very advanced in face recognition for the brain
resting potential
-voltage (inside relative to outside) when the nerve cell isn't sending a signal (but may have small deviations of hyperpolarization/depolarization happening) -human neuron: -65 mV (65 thousandths of a volt)
membrane potential
-voltage (stored potential energy to do work) across the cell membrane -difference in electric charges between inside/outside of cell, which resulted from ion concentration differences
Paleolithic cave art; Chauvet cave paintings (how many years ago discovered?)
-wall paintings of mostly animals found deep inside caves in places of complete darkness more than 30 thousand years ago -suggests that ancient humans used the darkness as an aid to inner exploration -may represent shamanic connections between ancient humans and the local animals -sophistication of drawings suggest that these ancient humans had significantly complex mental worlds
Association for memory
-when experiencing something new, our brains often relate the experience to something else we have already learned -this allows memorizing of much more info than without association, like how mnemonics work -motivation helps with memory formation as well
neural tube
-within 3 weeks of conception the neural tube is formed -the entire central nervous system will grow from this tube
worldview (metaphysical framework), scientific worldview AKA physicalism, physical materialism
-worldview: a setting in which we perform our scientific conceptual analysis of the world -physicalism: everything is made of matter and energy, particles and energetic interactions between them -> THIS has to lead to mind/consciousness somehow -> can be explained by neuroscience
Friedrich Wilhelm Sertürner
-young apprentice pharmacist in Germany -he isolated and purified opium then showed that digesting it made its effects more potent -named is Morpheus, god of dreams -inspired the isolation of chemicals --ex. nicotine from tobacco, caffeine from cocao
Cannabis
. Long appreciated for its fiber properties (hemp- rope, cloth) and for its powerful and diverse psychological applications: analgesic, muscle relaxant, sedative, appetite, stimulant, charger of consciousness.
During the action potential, apporximately how long does it take for the membrane voltage to change from resting potential to its greatest positive value and then back to resting potential?
.001 seconds
pruning
1 year after birth, more connections are formed than needed, these are eliminated can possibly happen at other times
retinal-hypothalamic pathway
1% of genes in the optic nerve axons follow this path from the retinal ganglion cells to the SCN, used to communicate light-levels of environment in order to synchronize SCN oscillations these ganglion are intrinsically photosensitive (don't need input from rods/cones)
retinal-hypothalamic pathway
1% of optic nerve axons emerge from a distinct population of retinal ganglion cells and connect with the SCN these cells are intrinsically photosensitive, this pathway serves to communicate information about levels of light to the SCN in order to synchronize the endogenous circadian rhythm with environmental time
What are the two possible definitions of sound
1) mental experience OR 2) physical vibration -- mental experience = believed to be generated by processes of nervous system elicited by physical stimulus or rhythmic air pressure variation (that moves out into space as alternating waves of COMPRESSION and RAREFACTION) -- depicted in graphical form as SINUSOID (latin 'sinus' = curve) aka SINE CURVE/wave plotting air pressure as a function of time
Connective tissue coverings of the PNS nerves
1. epineurium = most outer, very dense, consists of type I collagen and fibroblasts...important in anchoring nerve and is used for surgical reposition of severed nerves 2. perineurium = middle, compact, epithelium-like layer that serves as a blood-nerve barrier (no toxins, drugs, etc.) 3. endoneurium = innermost fine CT around axons, consists of type III collagen and fibroblasts, important in regeneration of axons in PNS
1 Tesla
10, 000 gauss in teslas
paracelsus
16th century Swiss Physician and alchemist; taught that all substances are poison and whether something acts as a poison or a medicine depends on the dose! Everything is a poison! Even water!
Luigi Galvani
1737-1798 animal muscle experiment Dead frog legs twitch when electrified= muscles move as a result of internal electrical forces that can be triggered by external stimulation Neural signaling is electrical by nature
speed of light
186,000 miles per second
What is the speed of light?
186,000 miles/second or 300,000,000 meters/second -- So visual info will reach the eye nearly instantaneously but sound info will take longer
Umami
1909 Japanese chemist Kikunae Ikeda wrote paper describing how glutamate produces distinct taste perception (seaweed, fish sauces, soy sauce, dried fish). Glutamate in the form of monosodium glutamate (MSG). Savory, meaty, mushroomy 1990s- 5th type taste receptor & taste receptor proteins= GPCR glutamate (amino acid) receptors. these receptors in tongue activated by glutamate and other amino acids in proteins (detection of protein-containing foods)
gene transcription
DNA --> RNA DNA unwinds and one strand is used as a template for synthesis of RNA that is complementary to the DNA (except T is now U- uracil) The RNA molecule is a copy of the exact genetic information in the DNA but now represented in a slightly different form
Oswald Avergy
DNA can carry genetic info from one cell to another. failed to convince people that genes were composed of DNA
Which of the following was the major conclusion from the Hershey-Chase experiment?
DNA is the genetic material
What are Endocannabinoids?
Endocannabinoids are chemically not cannbinoids but structures are related to THC. They must bend around in three dimensions to be similar shape to THC -- anadamide (N- arachidonoylethanolamine) = endogenous AGONIST of CB receptor -- 2-AG (2- arachidonylglycerol) = another endogenous agonist of CB receptor --CB receptors are largely present on presynaptic axon terminal of neurons (they may be on axon terminals, or axon terminal of nearby neuron, or on nearby ASTROCYTE GLIAL CELLS) NOTE = endocannabinoids are examples of RETROGRADE NEUROTRANSMITTERS (retrograde signaling) which means that they are molecules that carry info in the direct opposite way neural signals have generally thought to move.
Durian Fruit (genus Drio)
From south east Asia, there it is referred to as "King of Fruits" -- incredibly strong aroma so often banned from hotels and restaurants -- composed of chemicals propanethiol (onion aroma), methylbutyrate (pineapple aroma) also many thiols, sulfur compounds, esters, and ketones
What neurotransmitter most commonly induces inhibitory post-synaptic potentials (IPSPs) in the human brain?
GABA
What is the main energy currency in the human body?
GLUCOSE
oligodendrocytes
Glial cells in CNS (brain); makes up myelin
Charles Darwin
Life is deeply related; The Origins of Species= the great diversity of living organisms can be understood as resulting from processes of variation and natural selection -- Evolution Darwinian Evolution = must be some underlying source of variation → variant organisms that can be selected by natural (or domestic) processes
What is light?
Light can be conceptualized as propagating vibration of an electromagnetic field (corresponding to the perceptual qualities of tone and loudness for sound are qualities of color and brightness, respectively for light
Human pheromone
Menstrual synchrony in women (through smell you can sync up cycles) -- also sexual attraction ("human leukocyte antigen" genes) also genes
Perception of one's own voice
Most of vibrational energy from when we hear ourselves speak enters the auditory system by internal vibration of the skull. Rhythm and tempo are the same as what others hear but Fourier frequency composition is different!
What are mirror neurons?
Neurons in the pre-motor areas of the frontal lobes that are active during particular movements are also active when these movements are observed in another person. -- for example if i'm waving my arm, collections of neurons in my premotor areas are active during the organization and execution of this movement -- So some of these neurons may also fire when I see other people move their arms in a similar way -- these are termed as "MIRROR NEURONS" -- concept of mirror neurons have been invoked in speculations about the origins of LANGUAGE and EMPATHIC CONNECTION BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS (the ability to connect with another person's emotional experience
What is phycomyces?
Phycomyces is a genus of fungus in the Zygomycota phylum. They are known for their strong phototropism response and helical growth of the sporangium. -- it is a plant that doesn't use photosynthesis but still is sensitive to light in order for growth of fruit bodies called SPORANGIOPHONES (which have stalks; at tip of stalk = sporangium which is about 0.5 nm in diameter containing 100,000 spores; tip can elongate at several millimeters/hour and grow in direction of light (phototrophism)
outer ear
Pinna - fleshy flap of skin attached to each side of the head-- functions as a funnel or antenna collecting and focusing the vibrations of air pressure into the ear canal Ear canal - terminates at the tympanic membrane or eardrum -- a small drumskin-like piece of tissue that is set in vibration when air molecules strike it, forms a boundary between what is called the outer ear and the middle ear
Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
Plant native to the Americas; nicotine is primary psychoactive constituent-- first extracted by German chemists in 1828
sedative-hypnotic drug
Reduce brain excitement; increase GABA-mediated Cl- flow!! Ionotropic GABA receptor→ GABA opens Cl- channel→ Global CNS inhibition! Lethal injection= barbiturate at lethal dose benzodiazepine= valium, xanax, klonopin-- treat anxiety in acute doses (highly addictive) Other pharmaceuticals= Ambien, Sonata, Lunesta (all cross BBB by diffusion) General Anesthetics= ether alcohol,barbiturates
Visual Cortex
Region of the brain that consists of occipital lobe and posterior region of temporal lobes. Analysis of visual information! From LGN→ posterior occipital lobe region called Visual Area 1 (V1). Cells in V1→ V2, V3, V4, & V5 (all interconnected, a./
What is retrograde signaling?
Retrograde signaling in biology is a process whereby function of one part of a cell is controlled by feedback from another part of the cell, or where one cell sends reciprocal messages back to another cell that regulates it. -- retrograde signaling (or retrograde neurotransmission) refers more specifically to the process by which a retrograde messenger, such as anandamide or nitric oxide, is released by a postsynaptic dendrite or cell body, and travels "backwards" across a chemical synapse to bind to the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron NOTE: retrograde signaling is involved in the tuning of strength of synapses - the intensity of signal transmission from one cell to the next. Tuning of synaptic strength = aspect of NEUROPLASTICITY
passive electroreception
Shark locates food by electroreception (electroreceptors in shark's head). Platypus has electroreceptors in bill.
synaptic vesicle
Small spheres formed of lipid bilayer membrane, each filled with several thousand neurotransmitter molecules. They bind to specific proteins in the boundary membrane of the axon terminal and then the neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft.
voltage gated ion channels
Sodium (Na+) and Potassium (K+) channels Pumps open (-50 mV) and close depending on membrane voltage If -50 mV voltage of positive charge, Na+ channel opens and Na+ flows into cell (making cell and voltage more positive). Once voltage reaches 30+ mV, Na+ channel closes and lets no more Na+ into cell By 30+ mV, K+ channel opens and K+ flows out of cell, causing membrane voltage to be less positive. Enough K+ moves out of cell to return cell to resting potential -65 mV. K+ channel closes The Na/K pumps then turn on and reestablish the inside/outside concentration differences
True or false: Olfactory receptor cells send axons into olfactory bulb of brain. Nerve fibers between nose and olfactory bulbs constitute Cranial Nerve 1.
TRUE
Naive Realism
The notion that what we perceive is identical to what actually exists in the world What is out there= what we perceive
How is the mind related to physical processes in the brain and body?
Working hypothesis in neuroscience: mind is determined (somehow) by physiological processes in the brain and body >>> Physicalism/ physical materialism -- physicalism/ physical materialism= states that everything we know is or is derived from matter, energy and it's interactions (this is a world view or a metaphysical framework)
spices as aromatics
_____________ are among the archetypical aromatic substances, highly valued by humans for millennia, due to olfactory qualities they add to food and perfumes
radioactive decay
a decay process that emits high energy particles types : alpha, beta, gamma
two-point discrimination test
ability to distinguish the separation of two simultaneous pinpricks on the skin
brain tumor
abnormal proliferation of cells (cell growth) in the brain benign - controlled/contained malignant - uncontrolled
legal status of psychedelics
all classical psychedelics are schedule one substances, except for salvia divinorum 46/50 have medicinal uses approved for Cannabis widely accepted and used in the 60s before regulation
olfactory stem cells
allows receptor cells to be regularly replaced (every one to two mo.) differentiates into different kinds of olfactory receptor cells
hearing aids: amplifier, cochlear implant
amplifier: ear trumpet cochlear implant: surgically inserting an array of electrodes into the inner ear that electrically stimulates the auditory nerve in the spatial locations corresponding to particular regions of the sound frequency spectrum
hearing aids: amplifier, cochlear implant
amplifiers increase the the volume of the sound, the other structures of the ear still need to be working cochlear implant is surgically inserting electrodes into inner ear that stimulate correlating parts of the auditory nerve. has a microphone external that performs a Fourier analysis. range is only 200-8,000 hz
amygdala, hypothalamus
amygdala: group of nuclei at base of temporal lobes and heavily interconnected with sensory areas of the cerebral cortex hypothalamus: produces polypeptides that regulate the release of systemic hormones from adjacent pituitary glands - triggers cortisol that responds to perceived threat and other kinds of stress
reductionism
analyzing complex phenomenon by micro-level processes - physics→chemistry→biology
endocannabinoids, anandamide
anandamide: endogenous agonist of Cannabinoid receptor; endocannabinoid largely present in presynaptic terminals endocannabinoids: structures directly related to THC
australopithecus
ancestor 3.3 mya
ardipithecus
ancestor 4.4 million years ago
c elegans (nematodes)
animal with 302 neurons that researchers have been able to map out accurately because it's transparent (maybe has brain)
planaria (flatworms)
animal with extended network of interconnected neurons and two clusters of neurons at the head (possible primitive brain)
Supplementary motor/ premotor areas
anterior to M1 in frontal lobes. Neurons here are active before the generation of signals in M1 & involved in planning and sequencing of muscle movements. Lesions= disorganization of movement (disorder called apraxias)
Sympatholytic
any drug that Decrease the effects of the sympathetic nervous system on target organs
Sympathomimetic
any drug that has Stimulating effects on the sympathetic nervous system
gill-withdrawal learning
aplysia possesses a respiratory gill attached to a structure called a siphon if siphon is touched, sensory neurons send signals that rapidly retract the gill to protect the delicate structure from potential injury if a strongly aversive sensory stimulus is applied to the animal's tail region at the same time the siphon is touched, however, the gill retracts much more robustly than usual, suggesting a transient strengthening of the synaptic connection linking the siphon sensory neurons with the motor neurons mediating the retractino of the gill
Opium poppy (Papaver somniferum)
appreciated for medicinal properties for thousands of years. Ancient sumerians of Mesopotamia 5,000 years ago-- "joy plant"-- euphoria and relax Reduce perception of pain (analgesia), suppresses cough, slows motile muscles action of intestines (treat diarrhea). --- Opioid effects
GPCR signaling
appropriate binding on extracellular side of metabotropic receptor shifts its shape to make intracellular side available to bind G-proteins, which then change shape -may result in ion channels opening/closing, enzymes activating/inactivating, gene transcription turning on/off
Ganglion cells
are at the top (front), closest to interior of eyeball. Light enters at top first and enters layers of cells before rod and cone receptors. 1 million need 5-10 photons minimum to generate action potential
Rhodopsin & Cone-opsins
are the photoreceptor proteins for for Rods and Cons respectively -- they are chains of amino acids (they are both GPCR). First GPCR discovered in photoreceptor of eye -- RETINAL MOLECULE = light-absorbing molecules embedded within protein (we get retinal through vitamin A if we eat it and carotene (beta- carotene) from green veggies and orange color of carrots). Our bodies do not produce retinal so we must get it through diet -- when light hits retinal embedded in protein it straightens out and changes shape, which pushes on polypeptide GPCR and that changes shape of GPCR which changes opening and closing of ion channel which sends neural signal. This is called light-induced isomerization of retinal opsins -- bent form of retina = 11-cis retinal -- straight form of retinal = all-trans retinal -- even something like (5 or a handful) or photons can make this happen HENCE, HUGE AMPLIFICATION: one photon of light activates one rhodopsin which activates morem than 100 G-proteins and more than 100 phosphodiesterases and more than 10,000 cGMPs hydrolyzed ers second
PNS
autonomic NS, neuromuscular NS, sensory NS, enteric NS connections from spinal cord to muscles throughout the body
potassium leak channels, PKA
aversive stimulus > activates serotonin receptor > GPCR receptors > activated adenylate cyclase > cAMP synthesis > PKA protein kinase activated by cAMP > phosphorylates K+ leak channels in axon terminal membrane > closes K+ leak > prolonged depolarization bc less K+ out > then Ca++ stay open longer -> increases release of glutamate > increased excitation of postsynaptic motor neuron that mediates the retracting of gill when it keeps happening, PKA goes to cell nucleus & catalyzes phosphorylation of transcription factors for some genes. one gene is for ubiquitin hydrolase which cleaves some PKA subunit PKA even when there isn't cAMP, helps last for hour or few days
Where does the neuron sum up EPSPs and IPSPs to determine if an action potential will be generated?
axon hillock
primary motor cortex (M1)
axons in pyramidal tract start here, mostly consists of precentral gyrus large portion devoted to complex movements such as hands
acetylcholine locations
basal forebrain nuclei, midbrain-pontine nuclei
bees and flower electric fields
bees can tell where other bees have been on flowers through the detection of the charges on the electric field
Semi- Synthetic Opioids
begin w/ plant derived compound (morphine or codeine)→ extract and purify chemicals from plants; synthetic chemical modifications to improve action or reduce toxicity. Bayer Company in Germany is pioneer. (ex. Hydrocodone (Vicodin), hydromorphone, oxycodone (Oxycontin, Percocet)
quantum measurement problem
behavior of matter and energy at submicroscopic level is very weird collapse of wave function > unsolved problem
nicotine
binds as agonist at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) in CNS → produces relaxation, alertness, focused attention nAChRs in NMJ are slightly different in amino acids sequence= less sensitive to nicotine binding Serious poison (protects plants from insects) → disruptions in heart rhythm, blood pressure, respiration
tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), nicotine
binds as an agonist at nicotinic nAChRs CNS effects include stimulation, relaxation, alertness, and honing focus doesn't really affect muscles because variant nAChRs at neuromuscular junctions are less sensitive to nicotine disrupts heart rhythm, blood pressure, respiration when overstimulated (is a poison in high concentrations)
reductionism
biology is explained in terms of what is considered to be more basic science of chemistry > physics > math
circa-annual rhythm
bird migration is an example of this about a year long periodistic behavior
What are bitter plant alkaloids?
bitter plant alkaloids = caffeine, guinine, cocaine, absinthin -- made by plants (basic in nature > hydrogen ion > base > poisonous
effects of cocaine: at synapses, CNS and autonomic
blocks reuptake transporters for neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine; leads to a delay in synaptic effect; excessive activity at synapses norepinephrine sympathomimetic CNS: stimulant effects of wakefulness, attention, positive mood, distorted reality, hallucinations, sympathetic overstimulation = seizures, cardiovascular stress, addiction Autonomous Nervous System: sympathomimetic effects
Effects of cocaine
blocks/inhibits reuptake transporters for neurotransmitters norepinephrine and dopamine. → neurotrans slower at leaving synaptic cleft and greater effect synapse after release ⇒ excessive activity at all norep or dopamine synapses in NS... CNS effects. CNS Effects: increased wakefulness and alertness, focused attention, +mood, decreased appetite Sympathomimetic effects in the autonomic NS come from enhanced activity in noradrenergic synapses in SNS (cardiovascular stress, heart/circulatory damage)
4, 1, 2, 3
bonds of carbon , hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
The Mind of a Mnemonist
book about a journalist who had an amazing memory synesthesia of multi-sensory images
Genetic anomalies
born w/ impaired hearing or completely deaf; one such anomaly is mutation in gene coding for connexin 26 ion channel protein→ ion imbalance→ hair cells don't function and person is deaf
Marian Diamond
brain can change with experience and improve with enrichment discovered evidence of this in Albert Einstein's brain My Love Affair with the Brain
vertebrae animals
brain develops in embryo where neural tube folds in, closes off, and expands at one end
EEG: electroencephalography
brain imaging; see the electrical fluctuations in the brain AKA brain waves (OUTSIDE the skull, as opposed to ECoG: electrocorticography)
"dark energy" and the brain
brain is always working very hard yet reason for energy loss unknown
hominin evolution
brain substantially increased over time, partially attributed to increase in body size - increased rapidly over the last 2 million years - could be due to sophisticated behaviors: tool use, social interaction, language, math, problem solving
X-ray damage
breaking of covalent chemical bonds, disrupting molecular structure results: DNA mutation, protein malfunction
Broca's area, Wernicke's area
broca's: left frontal lobe wernicke's: posterior left temporal lobe language primarily in left cerebral hemisphere
Robert Oppenheimer
built world's first atomic bomb. Professor at UC Berkeley 1931-1942. Labeled as communist-- lost job Frank Oppenheimer: Lost job in academia (physicist) because labeled as communist. Founded Exploratorium
dendritic spine
bulge on a dendrite that increases surface area available for receiving signals
sulci (sulcus), gyri (gyrus)
bumps (gyri) and grooves (sulci) of the cerebrum due to its folded structure
gyri
bumps in the brain
corpus callosum (how many axons?)
bundle of approx. 200 mil. axons connecting right and left cerebral hemispheres
ECoG: electrocorticography
but array of electrodes directly on brain (not over skull like EEG)
positron emission, annihilation, gamma photos
by emitting positron, result is new element positron = antimatter particle corresponding to elections annihilation: when particle encounters corresponding antiparticle and converts all mass into energy energy results as two high-energy gamma ray-photons triangulation of emerging photons to pinpoint source of radioactive eecay first: fluorine pretends to be glucose, become radioactive, generates location of great neural activity
All of the following are examples of hominins EXCEPT: (__) homo spaiens (__) australopithicus africanus (__) ardipithecus ramidus (__) all of the answers in this list of options are examples of hominis (__) caenorhabditis elegans
caenorhabditis elegans
The most widely used psychoactive drug (chemical) on in the world is:
caffeine
caffeine, theophylline, theobromine
caffeine: coffee, tea, cocao; a powerful stimulant drug acting on the CNS to increase wakefulness and alertness; acts on adenosine receptors (GPCR) as an antagonist theobromine: found in cacao, closely related to caffeine theophylline: found in tea, closely related to caffeine
stem cells and gustatory cell replacement
can differentiate into various types of taste-receptor cells, characterized by their different taste-receptor proteins -This allows taste-receptor cells to be regularly replaced with a turnover rate of approximately two weeks
consciousness
capacity to be aware (subjective phenomena) - having feeling or perception -interchangeable with mind
#1 element in human body by dry weight
carbon
You are an archeologist who has discovered an ancient, dried (mummified) human. You conduct an elemental analysis of it. Which element would you most likely find to be the most abundant by weight in the mummy?
carbon
Here is the molecular structures of the amino acid tryptophan. How many carbon atoms in tryptophan? How many oxygen atoms in tryptophan? How many hydrogen atoms in tryptophan?
carbon-11 oxygen-2 hydrogen-12
Here is the molecular structure of glutamic acid. How many carbon atoms in glutamic acid? How many oxygen atoms in glutamic acid? How many hydrogen atoms in glutamic acid?
carbon-5 oxygen-4 hydrogen-9
How many electrons does carbon share? hydrogen? oxygen?
carbon: 4 hydrogen: 1 oxygen: 2
RNA
carries genetic info transferred from DNA
ossicles
cavities occupied by three small interconnected bones called the hammer, anvil, and stirrup
Dorsal Root Ganglia (DRG)
cell bodies for somatosensory fibers are located in clusters of cells near the spinal cord called the DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA (DRG) -- DRG nerve fibers innervating the skin are like axons that send signals into the CNS. The peripheral dendrites also contain voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels and are myelinated. -- Thus when sensory receptor proteins are activated by the relevant physical stimuli, they generate action potentials that propagate toward the DRG, bypass the cell body, and continue along the axon into the CNS. -- A DRG dendrite functions just like an axon, except that action potentials propagate TOWARD cell body instead of away from it.
dorsal-root ganglion
cell bodies of nerve fibers located in clusters near spinal cord innervate skin and send signals to CNS functions just like an axon exception action potentials propagate towards the cell body
visual map: world to retina to cortex
cells in V1 (primary visual cortex) are organized in such a way that the receptive fields of neighboring V1 cells respond to regions of visual space that are also nearby there is a kind of a map of visual space in V1 and these topographic maps are preserved throughout the other cortical visual areas
nerve cell (neuron)
cellular units of signal transmission 100 billion in brain
Fovea
center of the retina where the lens focuses the light coming from the visual field. Highest density of photoreceptor cells (visual acuity/ fine detail is best for the region of space where we are directly looking). Cones here! (no rods). In center of macula!! Dark spot
Fovea
center of the retina where the lens focuses the light coming from the visual field. Highest density of photoreceptor cells (visual acuity/ fine detail is best for the region of space where we are directly looking). Cones @ fovea! (no rods). In center of macula!! Dark spot
hippocampus
central to organizing, storing, and consolidating memory
Cerebellum
centrally involved in the regulation of movement. Wraps around brainstem and densely packed with neurons. 50 billion nerve cells (more neurons than in whole brain)-- Jan Purkyne first described these neurons. Involved in the timing and coordination of movement damage= inability to smoothly execute movements
Module 2
chapter 4-7
module 3
chapter 8-10
Anosognosia
characterized by the lack of knowledge about one's own disease Right-hemisphere stroke lesion in M1 and S1→ sensory and motor effects on left side of body and denies anything wrong!!
menthol
characterized by using molecule from mint plants, produces perception of "coolness" -There is an ionotropic receptor protein, found in mouth and in the body, in which a calcium channel opens in response to binding of menthol -is a TRPM8 receptor -8-28 degrees Celsius opens the channel
Cocaine
chemical isolated from coca plant that has local anesthetic effects and powerful stimulant effects.
neurotransmitter
chemical messengers contained in the storage of vesicles of an axon terminal -released into synaptic cleft due to presynaptic neuron's action potential and bounce around and interact with neurotransmitter receptor proteins found in postsynaptic cell membrane
neuromuscular junction
chemical synapse formed by contact between a motor neuron and muscle fiber
Which of the following statements about synapses is TRUE? (__) chemical synapses involve two neuorns directly connected via connexons (__) electrical synapses require that synaptic vesicles fuse with the cell membrane (__) the gap btwn cells is smaller for a chemical synapse than it is for an electrical synapse (__) electrical synapse provide faster signaling than do chemical synapses (__) chemical synapses allow ions to flow directly btwn neighboring cells
chemical synapses allow ions to flow directly btwn neighboring cells
drug
chemical that in small amounts has a significant effect on body function
hormones
chemicals released by the endocrine glands into blood circulation, mediating effects throughout the body
cilia
cilia contain the olfactory receptor proteins -they extend into the mucus lining the nasal passage, and their structures provide large surface area contain the receptor proteins
spices as aromatics
cinnamon: aroma is made of dozens of chemical components; native to southern india and southern asia saffron (crocus sativus): lots of complex chemical components in aroma; native to iraq, iran, and that area ; robustly made in asia rose; also complex mixture of lots of molecules jasmine: benzyl acetate is the main smell molecule, or aroma component; now, this chemical can be manufactured relatively easily and cheaply; also contains "indole" which smells like poop, which contributes to the complexity of the floral aroma lemon: geranial is the main aroma component rose: geraniol is the main aroma component, which is only one change in structure away from lemon black pepper: complex aromatic properties containing many thiols
bird migration
circa annual rhythm exhibited in birds know the direction via earth's geomagnetic field
phantom limb
circumstance that person will continue to experience felt presence of amputated arm or leg, as if it was still ther
protein kinases
class of enzymes activated by binding of cAMP -catalyze attachment of phosphate groups (phosphorylation) to substrate proteins and thus changes their activity
cortical neuropil
closely packed neurons and glial cells (gray matter)
taste bud
clusters of around a hundred taste receptor cells ~10000 taste buds ~1 million taste receptor cells total in mouth
dorsal-root ganglion
clusters of cells near the spinal cord where cell bodies for somatosensory nerve fibers are located
mind
collection of mental experiences, subjective experience including thoughts, feelings, perceptions/senses mental images and sense of self
Mirror neurons
collection of neurons in premotor areas that are activated when you do a motion and when you witness someone else doing that motion. (neurons to move hand fire when you see someone else move hand). Extensive cortical interconnectivity. Basis of language and empathy?
effector enzymes
collective name for various targets of activated G-proteins bc they have various effects within the cell
cortical achromatopsia
color disruption that may vary from washed-out or faded color perception to a complete loss of color awareness, lesion in V4 produces this disruption of color vision, and depending on the lesion, larger or smaller regions of visual space may be affected
flavor
combination of several different channels of sensory information
flavor
combination of several different channels of sensory information (olfactory and gustatory)
anandamide
comes from the Sanskrit word ananda, meaning bliss— thus the amide of bliss; the first endogenous ligand, agonist for cannabinoid receptor to be discovered, and appears to function as neurotransmitters at the cannabinoid receptor
quaternary structure
complex of more than one polypeptide subunit (hundreds of amino acids) Puts 3D forms together
timbre
complexity of the sound waveform most variations are a mix of several different frequencies e.g., musical instruments
cytoskeleton
composed of arrays of protein polymers-- microfilaments (made of actin) and microtubules (made of tubulin proteins-- thicker and more clumped,,, interior of myelin is dense with microtubules).
cytoskeleton,
composed of elaborate ordered arrays of protein polymers— microfilaments made of actin proteins, and microtubules composed of tubulin proteins; it is the microscopic network of protein filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm of many living cells, giving them shape and coherence
nucleic acids: deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
composed of: -nucleotides => adenine, cytosine, guanine, thymine (A-T, G-C) -deoxyribose sugars and phosphate groups in 2 very long chains that wind around each other in a helical form
Hallucinogens
compounds producing psychosis/ alteration of perception Known psychedelically active chemicals are mescaline, lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), psilocybin, psilocin, and dimethyltryptamine (DMT).
artificial intelligence
computers still lack minds
closed head injury
concussion damage to brain but no penetration (skull remains intact)
anosognosia
condition characterized by a lack of knowledge about one's own disease
anosognosia
condition of lack of knowledge about one's own disease who's arm is this?
epilepsy; how many people in the US have them? after meds?
condition of recurring seizures ~3M people in US or 1% ~30% still have them after meds
meningitis
condition where the meninges becomes inflamed
vertigo
condition where you feel dizzy or in motion when you are sitting or standing still -associated with something wrong with the vestibular system (infection or inflammation)
Cones
cone-shaped; located throughout fovea, respond to high intensity lights, not dim light. (Color vision is best when light from the object being viewed is focused here- looking directly at it).
quaternary amine
configuration of phospholipid head group -Nitrogen has 4 bonds with other atoms instead of the usual 3. which creates a positive charge from the electron deficit
cranial nerves
connections between CNS/PNS enter and exit at several points in the brainstem Olfactory (1), Optic(site)(2), auditory-vestibular (inner ear/balance)(8), vagus (brain to lungs and heart)(10)
hearing loss: infection, genetic, noise-induced
connexon channel mutation produces abnormal balance in cochlea common cause: acoustic trauma 150dB can result in permanent hearing loss ear hair cells don't grow back
general anesthesia effects from microfilaments, microtubules
conscious obliterating effect may be from these structures absorbing the general anesthetics
Central nervous system (CNS)
consists of brain and spinal cord
bony labyrinth
consists of cochlea and semicircular canals filled w/ fluid (water and ions) and vibration of oval window→ fluid inside cochlea vibrates (wave inside)
Inner segment
contain nuclei, mitochondria, and other structures necessary for functioning of the cell. End of this is synaptic membrane
cilia
contains olfactory receptor proteins internal cytoskeleton organized around microtubules⇒ increase sensory surface area
somatosensory receptors
contains receptor proteins that respond to touches, pokes, or changes in temperature TRP GPCRs responsive to temperature mechanically gated ion channels are responsive to touches and poking
Primary somatosensory cortex (S1)
contains topographic representation of somatosensory space-- the surface of one's own body. Receives signals from contralateral sides of the body. Lesion in S1= loss of sensation in region of body= somatosensory version of visual scotoma
pathways from olfactory bulb into brain (neural pathway)
cranial nerve #1 (nerves between receptor cells and the bulb) > olfactory bulb > mitral cells > pyriform cortex & amygdala > thalamus > orbitofrontal cortex > frontal lobe from the olfactory bulb, the pathway spreads to the limbic system and also to the pyriform cortex, then to the thalamus, then to the orbitofrontal cortex, and finally to the frontal lobe
penetrating head injury
damage to brain, skull broken, direct brain damage
lesion
damage/abnormality in the body arising from stroke, brain tumor, physical trauma, etc.
golgi stain
dark crystals of silver chromatic stain neurons and make all parts visible (only stains 1% so you can see nerves) technique for staining neurons to make them eminently visible under the microscope
memory: declarative, non-declarative, procedural
declarative: facts and other info-type knowledge non declarative: procedural memory, classical conditioning, and priming
free-running rhythm
decoupled from synchronization by environmental cues dependent only on internal mechanisms for keeping time organisms have circadian periodicity of approx. 24 hours
Karl von Frisch (1886 - 1982)
demonstrated that honey bees have color vision and received the Nobel Prize for physiology/medicine in 1973 together with Konrad Lorenz and Nikolas Tinbergen -- did experiments with polarizing filters to determine honeybees use sunlight polarization patterns as a navigational aid (also discovered honeybees dance language, in other words they communicate location of food sources to hive-mates through dance/movement) -- Honey bees can see ultraviolet region of electromagnetic spectrum (humans are blind to this). they use NECTAR GUIDES = visual features that attract bees and other pollinating creatures to certain plants with patterns that are visible in ultra violet light but not noticible as any sort of color difference in visible region of spectrum (like African Daisy- dimorphotheca Aurantica)
morphine
demonstrated that the effects of this substance when ingested produced the effects of opium, but more potent
neuropil
densley packed region of neurons and glia cells chemical synapses + electrical synapses + ephatic coupling + local field potentials responsible for "dark energy"
LSD
derived from ergotamine which is produced by fungus ergot. one of the most potent psychedelic substances known. ** discovery that this had profound effects on thinking, feeling, perception, and conscious awareness ⇒ point that there are powerful chemical connections between brain physiology & mental experience.
electroreception in sharks
detection of electric fields generated by living organisms electrolocation by fish in Amazon experiment: put box over fish, shark still find fish; cut up fish to negate electric field, shark goes to smell; cuts up fish in the box, shark swims right past; battery deep into sea ground, shark goes for battery
cyclotron
developed by Ernest Lawrence high speed spin induced collisions creating new atoms (used to create the radioactive isotope injectors for PET scanning)
Wilhelm Rontagen
developed x-ray technology
cochlea, basilar membrane, Fourier analysis
different frequencies of sound vibration when transferred into the cochlea via the eardrum, ossicles, and oval window these set different regions of the basilar membrane into vibration basilar membrane performs a fourier analysis of the incoming sound and represents the result spatially, along the length of the membrane
Agnosia
difficulty recognizing all or nearly all visual objects. Can not integrate details into meaningful whole object/scene. Lesion where occipital, temporal, and parietal lobes come together.
insomnia
difficulty with sleep, often with falling asleep specifically causes include excitation/hyperarousal during the day treat by optimizing sleep conditions ("sleep hygiene")
electrocorticography (ECoG)
direct from the brain recording used before brain surgeries used before brain surgeries where epileptogenic tissue is to be removed
perception of one's own voice
direct vibration of the bones of the skull to generate signals to the brain sound of ones own voice one's voice heard by the speaker while speaking sounds different than that heard by another listener the rhythm and tempo are the same, the fourier frequency composition is different
Psychosis
discombobulation of perception of our reality, characterized by delusions (fixed false beliefs) and hallucinations
Watson and Crick
discovered Double-helix for DNA molecule! (2 chains of backbones of sugar and phosphorus; inside ACTG); gene is fundamental unit of heredity
August Kékule
discovered benzene ring (of carbons) C6H6
Otto Loewi
discovered concept of chemical neurotransmission in 1920 Through frog heart experiment (puts fluid heart is in when slows down into other container with other heart→ 2nd heart slows down), resolved that a soluble chemical substance MUST be released when vagus nerve is stimulated (chemical substance mediated signal nerve→ heart) => Chemical neurotransmission!!!
PER, molecular mechanism of circadian clock
discovered in fruit fly, PER gene transcribed and translated into protein that leads cycle of feedback inhibition to produce rhythm
Albert Hofmann (1906 - 2008)
discovered psychedelic properties of LSD in 1943 (derived from ergotamine (aka ergot) which is produced by a fungus called claviceps purpurea) -- ALSO After meeting with Sabina, Wasson connected with Hoffmann who in 1958 discovered 2 psychedelically active components of Mexican psilocybe mushrooms naming them PSILOCYBIN AND PSILOCIN -- First laws against LSD were passed by 1966 and by 1971 it was iillegal around the orld
reward pathways, Jame Olds, dopamine
discovered regions of the brain that induced rats to execute behaviors that would garner them more electrical stimulation "pleasure centers" dopaminergic neurons interconnected throughout the brain
Jame Olds
discovered regions of the brain that, when electrically stimulated, induced rats to execute behaviors that would garner such electrical stimulation rewarding and pleasurable⇒ pleasure centers!
Karl von Frisch, honeybee vision
discovered that honeybees have color vision that extends into UV light (used a quartz lens, which takes in account UV light) bees see flowers differently and they are obviously marked in their vision (known as nectar guides) won Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973
apraxias
disorder from a legion in the premotor areas disorganization of movement
apraxia
disorder in organization of movements the impaired ability to execute motor functions despite intact motor abilities
What is apraxias?
disorders in the organization of movement are called -- lesions in the premotor areas do not result in paralysis but give rise to disorganizations of movements -- for instance, suppose we consider the motion of picking up a key, inserting it into a lock and turning the key to open the lock. A person with frontal premotor lesion might still be able to execute all the individual movements associated with the action but would not be able to organize and sequence them properly.
blockage
disruption of blood flow caused by particulate matter (blood clots, atherosclerotic plaques, etc.) lodged in a blood vessel cause of stroke
sleep
distinct physiological properties of brain activity that characterizes this period of reduced activity
stroke
disturbance in blood flow causing a loss of function in a region in the brain caused by blockage of blood flow or hemorrhage
ventral tegmentum & substantia nigra (midbrain)
dopaminergic brainstem nuclei
brain size of homo
doubled in size compared to ancestor
cholinergic
drugs that act on the ___ pathway have been shown to increase vivid dreaming ex. Nicotine
schedule one controlled substance
drugs that have a high potential for abuse, has no currently accepted medical use, and lack of safety
pons, midbrain
during REM, cells here innervate the cortex via cholinergic neurons, spreading excitation (ACh)
mouse somatosensory cortex, whisker barrels
each set of the 32 mouse whiskers send signals to specific areas of the mouse cortex
opium, opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), morphine, opioids
effects of relaxation (decrease in anxiety), pain relief, euphoria, sedation, pupil constriction cultivated for medicinal use for thousands of years, found in the goo of the plants morphine is purified and isolated from opium opiods interact with GPCRs (3 different types throughout brain and body); affects endorphins; natural endogenous neurotransmitters
efferent, afferent
efferent: away from (e = exit), vegas nerve comes from the brain and goes to the core of the body afferent: towards, hair cells go from the periphery of the body into the brain
cochlear Implant
electrical signal from microphone outside to device inside and does simple fourier analysis (5-10 components only).
electroceuticals
electrical therapy, way of messing w/ electrical stimulation in brain, effective for relieving symptoms of depression Ex. vagus nerve stimulation, TMS, etc
x-ray imaging
electromagnetic radiation able to take photographs of the interior of a living body bones are less permeable and thus we can visualize skeletal structure not benign, breaks down chemical bonds and can damage DNA
olfactory receptor cells
embedded in the nasal epithelium cilia and populated by olfactory receptor proteins when stimulated by airborne molecules, cilia helps by increasing sensitivity, stimulation then passed to its axons which bundle to create the olfactory nerve located under mucus level of the epithelium GPCRs, about 350 of them
neural progenitor cells
embryonic stem cells in developing nervous system that differentiate into neurons or glial cells
Neural progenitor cells
embryonic stem cells in the developing nervous system. They are on track to become various types of neurons or glial cells through processes called neurogenesis or gliogenesis. Occurring simultaneously is cell migration- while they differentiate, they move around to occupy specific locations. As neurons mature they also begin to wire together, forming synapses, a process called synaptogenesis. Stem cells in developing NS→ neural progenitor cells→ neurons or glia
Darwin and emotions
emotions evolved as adaptive behaviors in both humans and animals argued that emotions are universal across cultures
electromagnetic spectrum
encompasses an enormous range of energy -In order from highest to lowest energy: gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet radiation, visible light, infrared radiation, and radio waves. (G, X, U, V, I, R) -has a range of 10^8 or a quintillion in energy difference
Somatosensory receptors
endings of nerve fibers on top layers of skin respond to touch, pokes, or changes of temperature. Free nerve endings, Meissner's corpuscle, Merkel's disks, Pacinian corpuscle, Ruffini endings. These include temperature receptors (TRP receptors) that respond in the same way they do in the mouth.
anandamide
endogenous agonist of CB receptor (first of several molecules to be discovered that functions as neurotrans @ CB receptor)
2-AG
endogenous agonist of the Cannabinoid receptor called endocannabinoids even though chemically they are not cannabinoids, that is they do not have structures directly related to THC
What endogenous molecule has agonist effects at opioid receptors?
endorphin
peptide NT
endorphins Composed of polypeptides. These are the opioids, collectively called the endorphins.
endorphins, opioid receptors
endorphins: endogenous opioid neurotransmitters (agnoists); formed of chains of amino acids GPCRs
25, 60
energy consumption by human brain ___% per day , ___% of this goes to the NA/K Pump
acetylcholinesterase
enzyme responsible for the rapid cleavage of ACh back to acetate and choline after its release @ axon terminals -enzyme degradation removes ACh from synaptic cleft rather than reuptake -only cholinergic neurons express gene coding for this enzyme
glutamic acid decarboxylase (GAD)
enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction to turn glutamic acid into GABA -only present in GABAergic neurons
choline acetyltransferase
enzyme that catalyzes the synthesis to ACh from acetate and choline -only cholinergic neurons express gene coding for this enzyme
glutamic acid decarboxylase
enzyme that turns glutamic acid (neutral glutamate) into GABA all cells contain glutamic acid (1 of 20 building block amino acids)
physicalism
everything real is based on physical 'stuff'
sponges
example of animal with no NS
jellyfish, hydra
example of animal with simple NS - "nerve net , no brain"
EPSP
excitatory postsynaptic potential -change in membrane potential usually bc of ionotropic glutamate receptors (depolarization)
EPSP
excitatory postsynaptic potential if there is enough, there will be a depolarization in the cell and an action potential will initiate
emotion
experienced in the entire body, not just the mind and directly impact behavior outward signs - body posture, facial expression, laughter, tears, etc. spontaneously arise and how long they last form of social communication
chili hot vs fire hot
experienced in the same molecular and cellular mechanism
isothiocynates
family of molecules of pungent smell, detects punginess and hotness of mustard and wasabi includes/similar: mustard, horseradish, wasabi
Phantom limb
feeling limb that is no longer there. w/ amputated arm, region of parietal lobe that normally receives signals from arm is no longer getting that input Neurons form connections w/ adjacent regions of body map (shoulder and face) → somatosensory input that activates these neurons spill over into arm area
feeling, emotion, mood
feelings: mental experience component of emotions emotions: experienced in the entire body moods: prolonged emotions
actin,tubulin
filaments in the cytoskeleton
blood-brain barrier (BBB); how are the cells here different than those elsewhere?
filtering mechanism of the capillaries that carry blood to brain and spinal cord tissue, blocking the passage of certain substances -blood vessels within the CNS have walls made up of cells tightly joined together; anywhere else, the walls have tiny gaps between cells
miracle fruit, miraculin
first documented by explorer Chevalier des Marchais glycoprotein extracted from the fruit of Synsepalum dulcificum miraculin itself is not sweet, after the taste buds are exposed to miraculin (binds to sweet receptors on the tongue), acidic foods are perceived as sweet
seratonin (AKA 5HT)
first identified as a molecule found in blood that causes constriction/dilation of blood vessels -also a neurotransmitter
growth cone
flattened area at the end of a growing axon or dendrite actin filament mediates growth of axon coupling between receptor and actin filament results in filament pushing out (repulsion) distinctive structure at the growing end of most axons on cytoskeleton; it is the site where new material is added to the axon mobile and possesses great sensitivity cytoskeleton made of microfilaments and microtubules can transport stuff; growth of ion channels has a radiating filopodia and lemellopodia that functions to guide the growth of embryonic nerve fibers proposed and discovered by Santiago Ramon y Cajal INSTRUCTOR COMMENT: Axon guidance factors, you don't need to know the specific names, you need to know that there are a variety of ways neuron guidance can be mediated, some are attractive, some are contact attractive, contact repulsive, repulsive, MGH? One factor you might need to know
neural tube
folded piece of tissue where the entire CNS will develop
Sleep hygiene
for a pleasant sleep environment, exercise but avoid: stimulants late in day, alcohol and heavy food close to bedtime, light-exposure (bright screen) close to bedtime
vertebrate brain structure
forebrain (cerebrum) midbrain (optic tectum, thalamus) hindbrain (medulla, cerebellum) spinal cord
vertebrae brain structure
forebrain—midbrain—hindbrain—spinal cord -forebrain -> cerebrum -midbrain -> optic tectum -hindbrain -> medulla/cerebellum
Microfilaments and microtubule
form long strands that perform multiple functions within the cell-- growth and movement of cell processes, moving materials around cell, insertion and removal of membrane proteins.
myelin
formed when particular kinds of glial cells develop large, flattened bodies and wrap around and around the axon largely composed of layers of lipid bilayer membrane, 70% is lipid, 20% cholesterol (structural integrity and fluidity of membranes), and the rest is protein (link the layers together so it doesn't unravel)
where is saxitoxin found?
found in dinoflagellates (plankton) -releases red pigment
where BTXs found?
found on skin of Phyllobates terribilis frog in South American jungle, feathers of New Guinea bird, and beetles
Walter Freeman, brain neurodyynamics
founder of neurodynamics "if anything, brains are not computers, but instead more like stars and hurricanes" proposes neuropil are a unified system capable of undergoing phase transitions and funciton to give access to memory related to present moment - aka give things meaning
Linus Pauling
founding father of molecular biology contributed to Watson and Crick double helix DNA structure discovery, made it possible for geneticists to crack code of DNA in all organisms he found the alpha helix by folding the paper
brain wave
fourier analysis on component alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and theta frequency ranges of electrical oscillation
patient H.M.
frequent seizures underwent surgical removal of portions of medial temporal lobe, including the hippocampus seizures decreased but profound memory impairment severe anterograde amnesia
somatosensory body map
frontal section through one hemisphere of anterior parietal lobe showing surface of brain giving approximation of proportional representation for various parts of the body
gene
fundamental unit of heredity
PER gene
gene that affects an organism's circadian rhythm... mutations here propagate out to the organism's overall biological clock (cell physiology) (there are also other genes identified for the oscillating cycle)
What is the likely cause of specific anosmia?
genetic variation in one of 350 olfactory GPCRs (asparagus pee anosmia is associated with variability in single identified olfactory receptor gene
survey of 16-30 year olds: giving up smell vs. keeping laptop/phone
give up smell 50%+
sugars
glucose, fructose, ribose, sucrose (carbs)
Which of the following neurotransmitter is also an amino acid?
glutamate
GABA is synthesized from what other neurotransmitter?
glutamic acid
dream yoga practices
goal to become regularly lucid during dream & nondream sleep via practice practice --> recall --> lucidity
EEG
graph of changes in brain's electrical field (produced via signalling of nerve cells) electrodes attached to scalp, not super precise (limited spatial resolution) but great temporal res.
sulci
grooves in brain (valleys)
monoamines
group of neurotransmitters that possesses an amine group at the end of a short chain of C atoms -includes serotonin, dopamine, histamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine,
amygdala
group of nuclei at the base of the temporal lobes that is heavily interconnected with sensory areas of the cerebral cortex & brainstem Perception of emotional expressions; sensory cues related to fear and anger is apart of this salience Starts body's response to stressful events
hominins
group of primates that includes modern humans and ancestors of modern humans going back 5 million years social**
hominin
group of primates; includes modern humans and their ancestors going back 5 mil. yrs
psychedelics, hallucinogens
group of psychoactive substances, produce a variety of complex effects on the brain including: intensification of thoughts and feelings, and alterations of sensory perception effects range from novel and insightful thoughts and feelings, to experiences of awe and profound connection with nature, to anxiety and panic bind as agonists to various serotonin receptor subtypes, especially type-2A serotonin receptors set vs setting (mental set vs physical setting)
Neurogenesis
growth and branching of axons & dendrites, sprouting of dendritic spines, synapse formation & strengthening, synapse pruning & elimination, glial formation/ differentiation, axonal myelination-- all continue @ robust rates during childhood!! (Myelination until past 20 yo) Occurs w/ growing dendrites!
Wilder Penfield
guy who first conducted a direct recording via electrodes on cerebral cortex (higher res) (ECoG) intended to map origins of seizures, ROIS and function mapping Canadian neurosurgeon who discovered somatosensory body maps from brain surgery in 1930s. He stimulated various regions of the cerebral cortex, patients responded to experiences⇒ characterized somatosensory cortex location and map.
perception of one's own voice
has the same tempo and rhythm but might have different Fourier analysis because the sound we hear from our own voices comes from internal vibration of the skull
pit vipers and infrared
have structures called pit organs that enable them to detect infrared radiation (below eyes and near nostrils) enables them to locate prey in the darkness
visible light, ultraviolet, infrared
high to low; UV - Visible Light - Infrared UV: ~10nm - ~400nm visible: ~400nm - ~700nm infrared: ~700nm - ~1mm
fovea
highest density of photoreceptor cells where visual acuity is best for region that is directly being looked at
embryonic and adult neurogenesis
highest rate during childhood myelination of axons continue until past 20 years of age new neural connections and neurons formed in hippocampus neurogenesis: growth, branching of axons; dendrites sprouting dendritic spines; synapse formation and strengthening; pruning and elimination; glial cell formation/differentiation; axonal myelination
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
highly hydrophobic interacts with cannabinoid receptor (most abundant in brain); the anandamide GPCRs can cross Blood Brain Barrier
Spice as aromatics
highly valued by humans for millennia for the olfactory qualities they add to food and perfumes. Ex. when we smell cinnamon, we are sniffing dozens of different molecules→ interact w/ constellation of olfactory receptor GPCRs (each to specific degree) → signals to brain of specific degree
Albert Hofmann
his discovery of LSD's potent and complex effects on mind was landmark event in history of neuroscience. Discovery that few millionths of a gram of chemical could have profound effects on thinking, feeling, perception, and conscious awareness, really made point that there were powerful chemical connections between brain physiology and mental experience. -After R. Gordon Wasson's meeting with Maria Sabina, he reconnected with Albert Hoffman, and in 1958, ______ identified two psychedelically-active chemicals from Mexican Psilocybe mushrooms— psilocybin and psilocin
hominin evolution: rough timeline and genera
hominin genera: classifications of hominin fossils -Ardipithecus (>4.4 m.y.) , Australopithecus, (4 to 1 m.y.), Homo (2.3 m.y.) -Homo sapiens (200 thousand years ago)
Max Delbruck
how to study molecular infrastructure of organisms Stated that high-energy electromagnetic radiation (ex. x-rays) could rearrange the atomic configurations of genes Used E. coli and bacteriophages (viruses) as a way to investigate the physical properties of heredity "The growth of bacteriophage", a paper reporting that the viruses reproduce in one step, not exponentially as do cellular organisms. Presti was his grad student!
audition: very low and very high frequency sound detection
humans can only hear 20-20000Hz (vibrations / second) infrasound: very low (<10Hz) e.g., elephants, pigeons ultrasound: very high (>50000Hz) e.g., dolphins, whales, bats
Regarding the anatomical complexity of nervous systems across different species, which of the following is NOT true: (__) animals exhibiting more complex behaviors tend to have more complex nervous systems (__) small insects, like flies, can have complex brains (__) hydra and jellyfish have simple brains (__) some animals have nervous systems that do not involve a brain (__) sponges are examples of animals that do not have nervous systems
hydra and jellyfish have simple brians
#1 element in human body by number of atoms
hydrogen
They type of bond that holds the strands of the DNA double helix is called a:
hydrogen bond
Among the bonds that hold complementary DNA strands together are:
hydrogen bonds btwn oxygen and hydrogen
Behold, the molecular structure of serotonin: How many hydrogen atoms are there in one molecule of serotonin?
hydrogen-12
serotonin, mood disorders, depression
mediator of positive mood - treats mood disorders like depression, anxiety disorders, mania
midbrain
optic tectum and thalamus
cerebral cortex
outer layer of the brain stretched all the way out would be size of unfolded newspaper
fovea
region where light coming from center of visual field is focused by lens onto center of retina -the density of photoreceptor cells is highest here and thus visual acuity (ability to see fine detail) is best -Cones are concentrated at the ______ and very sparse elsewhere in retina; conversely there are very few rods at the _____ and many rods elsewhere throughout retina, with peak density of rods found a short distance away from ________
autonomic NS
regulates various body organs and internal functions like heart rate, bp, respiration, digestion mostly outside our awareness
mind-body problem
relationship between mental experience and physiology of our body and brain - what is it that produces consciousness? mind somehow determined by physiological processes in the brain... - can they be considered distinct?
psychosis
result of cocaine poisoning delusions, hallucinations, perception of reality
pharmacology
scientific study of drugs: their origins, compositions, and effects on the body
scotoma, hemianopia
scotoma: blind spot in a specific region of space; damage to V1 produces disruption to flow of visual information by lesion hemianopsia: loss of vision in one half of visual space, essentially a larger scotoma
x-ray
structural imaging technology that uses energy higher than UV light to penetrate solid matter
neuron theory
theory that says neurons are discrete entities that generate a signal and pass it on (as opposed to ←→ network connection) - ramon y cajal
reticular theory
theory that says neurons interconnect in network, send signals both ways -golgi
lethal dose/therapeutic dose
therapeutic Index (TI)
vestibular system
three semicircular canals that provide the sense of balance, located in the inner ear and connected to the brain by a nerve vertigo: dizziness problem that can be caused by a problem in the vestibular system
beta
type of decay measured by PET scanners an emission of a positron or electron
ventral
view from underneath brain
Greek "pharmakon"
word means both medicine and poison
Can nicotine cross the BBB?
yes
Why can we still hear our selves speak when we plug our ears?
you can still hear yourself speak if you plug your ears because much of the vibrational energy sensed when we hear ourselves speak enters auditory system via internal vibration of the skull
synaptic cleft
~20 nm separates presynaptic axon terminal and postsynaptic cell, narrow gap filled with h20 and ions NT bounced around here by thermal agitation and diffusion
How long is the diameter of a medium-sized protein?
~5 nm or 50 Angstroms
How long is the diameter of the cell membrane?
~5 nm or 50 Angstroms
How big is a nerve cell body?
~5 to 100 micrometers
Retina
Complex structure consisting of a layer of light-sensitive photoreceptor cells and several layers of interconnected nerve cells. It is heavily crisscrossed w/ blood vessels b/c requires robust amount of biochemical fuel (glucose and oxygen) in order to function. Complex net of cell bodies, nerve fibers, and blood vessels that compose it. .1 mm thick! 105,000,000 photoreceptors in retina!
Guest Lecturer: Professor Jeff Kripal (of Rice University on Religion and nature of consciousness)
"You are going going to have one of the 4 responses to what I'm about to say: 1) it's a hoax, 2) it's honest misperception (true but a case of misremembering), 3) it's a distraction, 4) the sign (we don't really know hat we are) -- published book "Authors of the Impossible: The paranormal and the Sacred" -- paranormal experiences happen to extremely well educated people, even decorated physical scientists -- lecture is centered on Elizabeth Krohn (sons Andy and Jeremy): september 2nd 1988 seh was struck by lightening and enters psychedelic garden state for what seems like 2 weeks (was actually moments). Ever since then she has "precognitive night mares" where she foresees traumatic events like plane crashes and earth quakes and death. Would send email to self so it has time stamp and she would describe the "dream/night mare". Has given vivid descriptions of Hudson River Landing and Taipai plane crash. -- Kripal hypothesizes that since she describes vivid IMAGES of the crash and not the crash itself, it's connected to her ability to tap into technology or the mind of someone seeing the media image in the future -- Describes time as layers of a cake, that is sliced into diagonally such that whatever future exists is concurrently existing.
Chili (chili peppers)
(capsicum annum) native to South America -- a lot of people didn't know about chilis until Columbus -- chili= Nahuatl language, pepper = after Asian pepper because of hotness -- habenero chili strangely has diff. species name but that waas a mistake because people thought it was from china so species name is capsicum chinese NOTE: the hotness of chili is directly related to how much CAPSAICIN molecule there is
Cannabinoids
(genius = cannabis) believed to have originated in central Asia, and its medicinal use goes back thousands of years -- useful for its fiber properties (like making rope, durable cloth (aka HEMP) - MEDICINAL/PSYCHOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS = analgesic, muscle relaxant, appetite stimulant, sedative, stimulant, psychedelic- like changer of consciousness NICKNAMES = hemp, marijuana, pot, hash, ganja, bhang (edible preparation), weed, kush -- THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) = the major psychoactive chemical in cannabis. Identified in 1964 (it is one of the 60 different chemically related molecules found in cannabis)
V.S. Ramachandran
(scientist at UCSD) showed that touching someone's face who has lost an arm on same side produces the feeling of arm being touched.
Aplysia
(sea slug) that eric Kandel worked w
2001: A Space Odyssey
- hominins find femur bone and use it as a weapon - bone flies in air comes back as spaceship *** ***astronomical science and bio science connected and the same! (4 million years ago) - Does HAL have a mind? HAL retaliates against astronauts because they wanted to shut him off -written and directed by Stanley Kubrick, co-written by Arthur Clark
shaman
-"healers" skilled in entering the inner world of mind that are sources of knowledge and power -rumored to be able to communicate with animals, plants, and other elements of nature -believed to be a sham by modern society, but highly respected in other societies and throughout history
chemical synapse
-"synapse" usually refers to this; more common - cells connected by chemical synapses are separated by a space while cells connected by electrical synapses are basically in direct physical contact
DNA structure and function
-(as stated by Watson and Crick) genetic material was composed of 2 long strands of DNA, each strand containing sequence of nucleotide bases (ATGC) joined by covalent bonds to 2 long backbones of sugar molecules and phosphates -2 strands wrap around each other to form double helix held together through hydrogen bonds (A-T G-C) -genetic info is encoded in linear sequences of nucleic acids
What is cell differentiation?
-- After only hours after fertilization, cell differentiation takes place -- In developmental biology, cellular differentiation is the process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type. -- It is regulated via transcription factors which are proteins that bind to DNA and regulate readout of genes. Enzyme RNA polymerase catalyzes the synthesis of RNA transcripts using DNA as the template
fentanyl, synthetic opioids
-100 times more potent than morphine -carfentanil is 10,000 times more potent than morphine -used to sedate elephants
embryonic and adult neurogenesis
-1400 new neurons added each day of adult brain -
Why was quantum mechanics developed and how did this relate to biology? Who suggested this link?
-Einstein suggested that there is an underlying physical reality to the universe that exists independent of any observation and job of physics is to describe this reality as best as possible -Bohr (at a conference, witnessed by Max Delbrück) suggested that an analogous scenario may play out in biology: an expansion of the description of nature may be required to describe life at the molecular level just like how it was required to describe the structure and properties of atoms
G-proteins
-GDP attached to-G protein comes off and is replaced by GTP -G-protein breaks apart into 2 subunits that move around inner surface of cell membrane and bind to other things like effector enzymes
Opsin Genes
-Genes for M and L opsins are found on X chromosome, one of human sex chromosome -Two fully functional variants of L-opsin gene have been found in humans, giving rise to two L-cone-opsin photoreceptor proteins that absorb light of slightly different wavelengths -females have two copies of X chromosomes (XX), human males have XY chromosomes -Human females will contain both of the L-opsin variants and will thus be tetrachromatic, possessing a more nuanced ability to discriminate different colors, especially in orange-red region of color spectrum -Males, having only one X chromosome, would have either one version of the other of L-opsin, but not both, and so could not have more than trichromatic color vision
hippocampus
-It is known to play a pivotal role in the formation and stabilization of memories -It is where the neurogenic processes largely take place in the human brain -Recent researchers estimated that about 1400 new neurons are added each day
% transcribed, % translated
-It is presently estimated that these 3 billion bases contain genes coding for approximately 21,000 proteins -While only small part (<3%) of human genome codes for functional protein, most (85%) is transcribed into RNAs of various kinds -These RNAs that are not translated into protein appear to be crucially involved in the regulation of gene expression -Less than 97% of human genome that does not code for functional protein as the dark matter of the DNA
Luigi Galvani (1737-1798)
-Italian physician who studied the effects of electrical stimulation on animal muscles -experimented with dead frog legs, hypothesized internal electrical forces caused the muscles to move, so it can be triggered by external electrical stimulation -published "Commentary on the effects of electricity on muscular motion"
sulfur, thiols
-SH molecule, often smell stinky; there is something about shape of —SH group attached to carbons that promotes fitting into a constellation of GPCR olfactory receptors that give rise to signals interpreted by the brain as stinky thiol - refers to sulfur
Treatment of MDD
-SSRIs, SNRIs, TCAs, MAO-Is, atypical antidepressants -mainly drugs that increase 5HT and NE -lag in therapeutic effects are also seen (2-4 weeks) -there may be mechanisms related to NT deficiency that might be underlying depression
Describe stages I and II of nonREM sleep
-Stage I is characterized by light sleep or drowsiness, the EEG has low amplitude, and has theta wave activity -Stage II is light sleep periods, with an EEG characterized by sleep spindles and slow, high-amplitude waves called K-complexes
Describe stages III and IV of nonREM sleep
-Stage III is characterized by moderate sleep, with increased amplitude of EEG waves but decreased frequency (called delta waves) -Stage IV is deep sleep that it is difficult to wake from, EEG contains very high amplitude delta waves
mind-body problem
-What is the relationship between our mental experience and the physiology of our body and brain? -Working hypothesis in neuroscience: human capacity for mental experience is related to brain and nervous system (mind doesn't have to necessarily be solely a product of brain/nervous system physio and nothing else)
Temporal lobe epilepsy
-a common neurological disorder that is the most common type of epilepsy among adults -these seizures consist of bizarre hallucinations, intense emotions, vivid memories, sensations of fear, excessive writing, and altered sexuality -this disorder is often linked with a severe personality change
Cnidarians (hydra, jellyfish)
-nerve nets; no brain -very simple NS, loosely connected network of a small # of cells; simple signal communication
Antipsychotics used to treat bipolar disorder
-quetiapine (Seroquel) and olanzapine (Zyprexa) -block dopamine and 5HT-2 receptors
What are the three layers of the developing neural tube?
-the neuroepithelial layer -the mantle layer (will eventually become gray matter) -the marginal layer (will eventually become white matter)
What are the main driving factors that push brain development?
-to push the brain to grow in both cell number and axon length/amount of synapses, experience is the main force -memory, behavioral and sensorimotor training all have input on the final connective structure of the brain
What are the 5 senses?
1) Vision/visual pathway = the eyes (photoreceptors sensitive to eyes) 2) Auditory system = ears (as organs of perception) containing hair cells responding to mechanical vibration 3) Tongue/taste (taste is another word for gustation, which stems from latin word 'gustare' meaning related to gusto: enjoyment and delight) 4) Nose & smell 5) Skin/tactile experience (touch) -- there is also vestibular = organ of reception (semicircular canal of ear) and proprioception = muscle tension and joint movement but these are not considered primary senses (definition of proprioception = essentially, body awareness; it is the sense of the relative position of neighbouring parts of the body and strength of effort being employed in movement.
Fill in the table from the available genus and species names in the drop-down lists. A genus name in the list may be used more than once, Each species name is used at most once. Hominin Genus, Species, Era lived
200,000 year ago to now - Homo Sapiens 30,000 to 300,000 years ago - Homo Neanderthalensis 200,000 to 1.9 million years ago - Homo Erectus 1.4 to 2.3 million years ago - Homo Habilis 2 to 3 million years ago - Australopithecus Africanus 3 to 4 million years ago - Australopithecus Afarensis 4.4 million years ago - Ardipithecus Ramidus
The Na+/K+ pumps requires 1 molecules of ATP in order to:
3 Na+ ions out 2 K+ ions in
meninges
3 membranes that line skull and cover the brain dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater
nucleotide codon
3 nucleotides
Approximately what portion of the human genome appears to be translated to yield functional proteins?
3%
chauvet cave paintings
30,000 ya in France paintings of animals (some never before seen ice age animals)
The oldest cave drawings found in certain caves of southern Europe are approximately how old:
30,000 years ago
paleolithic cave art
30,000-10,000 years ago - represent shamanic connections between ancient humans and local animals - show ancient humans may have mental worlds of significant complexity
Fentanyl
A fully synthetic opioid that is 100x more potent than morphine (widely-used medicine).
Pit Vipers
A group of snakes (including rattlesnakes) that possess structures, called pit organs, that detect infrared radiation in a way similar to how eyes detect visible light. These organs allow snakes to accurately locate prey animals even in complete darkness. Bellow eyes.
What is the growth cone?
A growth cone is a big actin-supported extension of a developing or regenerating neurite seeking its synaptic target. Its existence was originally proposed by Spanish histologist Santiago Ramón y Cajal based upon stationary images he observed under the microscope. -- growth cone progresses via extensions of fingerlike structures called FILOPODIA
glutamate
AKA glutamic acid -primary excitatory/most abundant neurotransmitter in human rbain -one of the 20 building-block amino acids
What is the definition of addiction?
Addiction = behavioral syndrome in which one's relationship with the drug becomes dysfunctional. -- This may include manifestations of loss of control over use, such as an excessive use and difficulty in limiting one's use; it may include the experience of adverse effects on one's life, such as negative impacts on function in school, work, interpersonal relationships; and it may include negative effects on the health of one's body. --The interaction of these drugs with the reward-reinforcement neural pathways in the brain is believed to be an important component of the neurobiology of addiction
Inner-ear Hair cell
Afferent fibers carry signals FROM the body's periphery to the brain; efferent fibers carry signals from the brain to the periphery. Afferent signals covey sensory information to the brain; efferent signals at least in part function to adjust the sensitivity of the inner ear to sound. (The inner hair cells transform the sound vibrations in the fluids of the cochlea into electrical signals that are then relayed via the auditory nerve to the auditory brainstem and to the auditory cortex.)
What are amphetamines and their effects?
Amphetamines are a potent central nervous system stimulant (often used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), narcolepsy, and obesity) -- amphetamines = Adderall & Ritalin -- methamphetamine (Desoxyn) = illicit "speed" -- EFFECTS = (are similar to that of cocaine) they are also CNS stimulants and effects synapses that use norepinephrine and dopamine but interferes with reuptake transporters differently. Amphetamines result in reuptake transports that are constantly leaking excess neurotransmitters which leads to excess stimulation of post synaptic neuron -- DANGERS of amphetamines = we don't exactly know what's going on. In other words, all amphetamines can get across BLOOD BRAIN BARRIER so they can also get into the membrane of cells; they are in the cell and no one knows that this does to the brain over time.
General Anesthetics
Another group of sedative-hypnotic drugs that are potent and administered during surgical procedures. Act in brain to reduce overall CNS neural activity → loss of consciousness and lack of awareness of any sensory experience (including pain). First used= ethanol (ether og= more potent) Most new molecules derived from small hydrocarbons and ethers (replace 1+ H atoms w/ halogen atoms) → now, desflurane and sevoflurane anesthetics
What is phototaxis? How does it differ from phototrophism?
Another prominent environmental stimulus that influences behavior of microorganisms = LIGHT -- Phototaxis = the process of moving towards light -- in organisms that use light as energy source (photosynthesis), these processes enable movement to more open region in order to disperse spores or seeds -- Phototrophism = in the case of bending/ growing toward (such s a plant near a window)
What is polarization?
Another property of electromagnetic spectrum = polarization (which is the vibration of electromagnetic field aligned along specific angles in relation to direction of propagation). Light from sun, radiating through space, is visible at all angles of polarization -- BUT angle of polarization and extent to which light is polarized varies depending on where in the sky one look relative to the sun -- intensity of polarization = is greatest 90 degrees from position of the sun
What is echolocation or biological sonar?
Bats, dolphins, whales emit high frequency sounds and then hear their sounds reflection (echo) this is called ECHOLOCATION or biological sonar (basically it's the location of objects by reflected sound)
The hotness of chili is directly related to how much CAPSAICIN molecule there is. Why is Capsaicin hot?
Capsaicin receptors are activated by both capsaicin and heat (its as if mouth is on fire) -- mechanism of hotness opens Ca++ channel which leads to depolarization OR ~109 - 122 degrees fahrenheit can cause Ca++ channel to open -- Capsaicin is in tongue but capsaicin is also in skin (somasensory periphery) will feel warm if you rub it on skin, also BRAIN -- capsaicin receptor asscoiated with cranial nerve 1 in particular and is actually more associated with pain than taste ESSENTIALLY: Cpasaicin receptor = TRPV1 also responds to heat (heat also stimulates Ca++ channel- causing it to pop open, it has transient receptor potential) ALSO Piperine (black paper) also interacts with TRPV1 Menthol (in mint): menthol receptor + TRPM8 responds to COLD (feels cool in mouth and affects Ca++ channel as well) Other kinds of spicy/hot/pungent = allyl- isothiocyanate (mustard, horse radish, wasabi) >> TRPA1 receptor. It is spicy but not exactly in same way as chili (isothiocyanates are associated with pungency)
Another famous spice from india = Cardamom
Cardamom (from plant elettaria cardamomum) -- seeds are used in foods and tea/beverages -- aromatic essence = due to limonene, menthone, eucalyptol, terpineol, terpenylacetate, myrcene, sabinene, phellandrene and so on -- other spice = Saffron (comes from asia/ iraq/iran = stigma must be individually pulled)
Dorsal-root ganglion (DRG)
Clusters of cells near spinal cord where cell bodies for these fibers are located. Same as axons that send signals into CNS. Dendrite nerve fibers innervating the skin axons (voltage-gated sodium and potassium channels) send signals to CNS→ circuitry continues to thalamus→ anterior parietal lobes in cerebral cortex (spatial receptive field info is maintained along this pathway.
What are cochlear implants?
Cochlear implants enable partial recovery of hearing in individuals with completely nonfunctional cochleas
What plant is cocaine derived from? What is the effects of cocaine?
Coco plant (erythroxylum coca-- native to South America) -- Often used for teas and medicines -- EFFECTS = blocks reuptake transporters and interferes with ability to reabsorb neurotransmitter back into vesicle. BUT only for synapses that use NOREPINEPHRINE (located in locus coeruleus-- which modulates arousal (stimulates)) and DOPAMINE (located in substantia nigra and ventral tegmentum-- which increases alertness and arousal) OVERALL cocaine acts as CNS stimulant and has a sympathomimetic effect -- has problematic toxic and lethal effects (can trigger seizures or heart attack/stroke)
Whare perfumes made of?
Commercial perfume = mixtures of aromatic molecular components (originally derived from plants) but now from numerous synthetic molecules
epilepsy
Condition of recurrent seizures (runaway overexcitation) Treatment: reduce excitation or increase inhibition! They interfere with voltagegated sodium, potassium, and calcium channels; facilitate the inhibitory action of GABA; and reduce the excitatory action of glutamate You want to blunt excitability enough so that seizures are prevented, but not so much that the normal functioning of the brain is impaired.
Roger Sperry
Conducted clever investigations of the process by which neurons form connections. Performed experiments w frogs-- cut optic nerves and rotated eyeballs 180° to see how the frog's optic nerve would regrow (Did axons from eye know where to form synapses in the brain so that normal vision was restored??). It regrew upside down and backwards, did not fix the wrong direction of vision...
What is DMT?
DMT is a dimethyltryptamine (looks similar to serotonin and psilocin) can be readily synthesized from amino acid tryptophan -- DMT-containing plants are used for medicinal properties by tribes in Amazon Jungle of South America (one preparation mixes DMT containing plant with ayahuasca vine (banisteriopsis caapi) which creates a strong brew called AYAHUASCA (or yage))
Vestibular system
Detects our orientation relative to gravity and our acceleration as we move, walk, and turn (maintain balance and execute smooth/ coordinated movements).
Joseph Fourier and Fourier analysis
Fourier Series: complex wave form can be represented as the sum of sine waves having various frequencies and amplitudes associated with specific vibratory modes of the strings and air cavities of instruments first peak is fundamental tone other peaks unique overtones pinna acts as antenna for air pressure (section A) vibrations where eardrum is set in vibration (middle ear vs outer ear)
Electromagnetic spectrum
Humans are sensitive to only visible light -- high energy gamma and light rays and low energy radiowaves differ by 18 orders of magnitude (by a factor of 10^18 or a quintillion) -- Light travels in straight line (light = electromagnetic wave that is between 400 and 700nm, where blue is high energy and short wavelength and red is low energy and long wavelength) -- visible light is only a fraction of EM spectrum (humans are only able to see visible light, but other animals can see a larger range in the spectrum) -- Ranking from smallest WAVELENGTH to largest = Gamma, x-ray, ultraviolet, VISIBLE LIGHT, infrared, radio -- Ranking from lowest ENERGY to highest = radio, infrared, VISIBLE LIGHT, ultraviolet, Gamma
Magnetic Compass
Humans use instrument called magnetic compass to measure direction of magnetic field (used for roughly 1000 years)
hemianopsia
If large lesion, damages all of V1 results in complete loss of vision in ½ of visual field
What are devices used by humans so they can see at night
Image intensifier = device used by military so humans can see during night time ALSO Infrared or thermal imager
Primary Motor Cortex (M1)
Immediately behind central sulcus; in frontal lobe. Contralateral connections between M1 and body. Another body map discovered by Penfield. Body map of neurons that send out signals that initiate the contraction of skeletal muscles (movement of body). Neurons in M1 fire→ signals by spinal cord→ NMJ→ ACh released to contract muscle fibers! Lesions in M1= partial paralysis
quaternary amine
In the head of a phospholipid, there is a phosphorus atom, oxygen atoms, and a nitrogen atom that carries a positive charge. The positive charge comes from its electron deficit arising from the nitrogen having four bonds with other atoms, rather than its normal 3.
Somatosensory body map
Just as the primary visual cortex (V1) in the occipital lobe contains a topographic representation (map) of visual space, the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) contains a topographic representation of somatosensory space-- the surface of one's own body -- like other sensory areas of the cortex, the somatosensory cortex receives signals from the CONTRALATERAL side of the body. -- A lesion in S1 produces a loss of sensation in a particular region of the body related to where the lesion is on the body map in S1.
Ion channel opening can result in a change to the membrane potential. Choose the correct pairing of ion channel and effect on membrane potential:
K+ channel, hyperpolarization
Whose experiments first suggested that neural communication is electrical?
Luigi Galvani
opsin genes
M and L opsins are located on the X chromosome, while the S and rhodopsin genes are located on the other non-sex chromosome
fMRI
MRI technology via blood flow... delivery of oxygen via hemoglobin to break down glucose in active cells tracks influx of oxygenated hemoglobin good spatial and temporal resolution
carbohydrates
Made of carbon hydrogen and oxygen joined by covalent bonds; some small (glucose-sugar), others large (starch)
What are microvilli? What is the difference between microvilli in taste cells and cilia in olfactory cells?
Microvilli = cellular membrane protrusions that increase surface area for diffusion Microvilli in taste cells and cilia in olfactory cells both serve to increase sensory surface area. -- Functionally they are similar but structurally they are different. -- Microvilli are smaller than cilia and have an internal cytoskeletal structure consisting largely of ACTIN. Cilia have an internal cytoskeleton organized around microtubules
saxitotoxin (STX)
Molecule that also blocks Na+ channels in a similar way to TTX and similarly interferes w NS function. Found in several species of dinoflagellates (plankton)
Auditory neural pathways into brain
NT released from hair cell→ signal to cranial nerve 8 (cell bodies for these nerves in spiral ganglion [cluster and are bipolar neurons-single myelinated dendrite receiving signal from hair cell] → medulla (in brainstem) axons of auditory nerve synapse→ cochlear nucleus→ pons (superior olive and lateral lemniscus) → all brainstem auditory centers to inferior colliculus (midbrain) → medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of thalamus→ primary auditory cortex (A1)
action potential propagation along axon
Na+ flows into axon (makes location in axon more +) → Na+ drifts away from location and depolarizes area → adjacent Na+ channels open and Na+ rushes in! Like wave at sporting event
major ions for neural function
Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca++
The body is represented more or less according to how things are anatomically connected on the actual body. HOWEVER there are some differences between the cortical map and actual body topography. (there are several distinct discontinuities). What are they?
On the cortical map the genitals are located at one end next to the food rather than (or, in addition to) near the center of the body between the leg and the torso. -- the face is also separated from the rest of body rather than attached to neck -- and tongue is separated off from the face ALSO the cortical map doesn't have the same relative scale between various body regions as does the actual body. For example the region of the cortical map that receives sensory info from the fingers and hand is about the same size as the region of the map receiving info from much of the rest of the body. -- The lips and tongue are represented by an area of cortical surface larger proportionally to the actual sizes of the lips and tongue on the body. And this is related to SOMATOSENSORY SENSITIVITY
Origin of Life
One guess is small RNA molecules formed in primordial soup→ replicated & catalyzed chemical reactions.
Friedrich Wilhelm Serturner (1783-1841)
Pharmacist in Germany who isolated and purified a chemical substance from opium--morphine First time a chemical substance had been isolated from a plant & shown to account for the medicinal properties of the plant ⇒ influenced chemists to seek chemical principles of physiological actions (pharmaceutical industry!)
What is a pheromone?
Pheromone (greek 'pheren' = to carry, bear) = chemicals that carry signal info related to social communications between members of same species -- discovered and most intensely studied in insects (among insects, pheromones are shown to play huge roles in identity, social status, mate attraction, territorial and trail marking, and signaling danger) -- pheromones = elicit innately programmed behavior or biochemical changes (things not requiring learning). Examples among vertebrates = baby drinking milk from mom, regulation with hormones associated with mating, and aspects of aggression) -- many vertebrates (reptiles, amphibians, and mammals) have distinct olfactory sensory structures and neural pathways called VOMERONASAL SYSTEM (responds somewhat selectively to pheromones). But for humans there's not a well defined pathway
GPCR intracellular cascade
Photon of light absorbed by 11-cis retinal -> retinal isomerizes to all-trans form -> binds to available G-protein, then interacts with cGMP phosphodisterase and activates it
Frequency is associated with _________________ (tone) where as Loudness of a sound is associated with__________________ (magnitude) of air pressure
Pitch (tone); amplitude (magnitude) -- higher amplitude = louder than low amplitude
gene translation
RNA --> protein mRNA moves from the cell nucleus to regions of the cell where protein synthesis takes place- ribosomes In ribosomes, molecules of tRNA match nucleotide triplets in mRNA with their corresponding amino acids, according to the genetic code. Amino acids are then enzymatically joined into a linear chain by way of peptide bonds a protein is born
Flowers, like spices are also quite aromatic: for instance ROSE
ROSE (from rosa gallica) -- chemical component = citronellol, geranoil, nerol, linalool, citral, phenyl ethanol -- ^ these first three (citronellol, geranoil, nerol,) all have similar molecular shape = linear chain of 8 carbon, with one or 2 double bonds and two methyl (-CH3) and hydroxy group (-OH)
Roger Sperry (1913 - 1994): what what his experiment and how did it lead to Sperry's chemoaffinity hypothesis?
Responsible for the distinction between "right" and "left" brain -- also pioneered the Roger Sperry Experiment = which was an experiment with the optic nerve of a frog eye. He rotated the eye 180 degrees and noticed the frog's vision was backward and upside down. So then he cut and regrew the optic nerve AND rotated the eyeball and noticed it still regrows in the same way even when it had the opportunity to grow back differently. (it still sees backwards and upside down) -- The Roger Sperry experiment pioneered the inception of Sperry's Chemoaffinity Hypothesis = where the cutting and regrowth of the optic nerve of a frog was used to demonstrate that neurons use specific chemical signals to guide their wiring/ and their connections.
Richard Evans Shultes
Richard Evans Schultes (January 12, 1915 - April 10, 2001) was an American biologist. He may be considered the father of modern ethnobotany, for his studies of indigenous peoples' (especially the indigenous peoples of the Americas) uses of plants, including especially entheogenic or hallucinogenic plants (particularly in Mexico and the Amazon), for his lifelong collaborations with chemists, and for his charismatic influence as an educator at Harvard University
Thomas Edison (1847-1931)
Sound recording and playback 91887)>>> tin foil recording
human hearing range (frequency)
Sound: 20-20000 Hz Light: 400-700 nm
survey results
Survey of 16-30 y/o: give up smell v. keep laptop 53% (16-22 yo) 48% (23-30 yo)
What is synaptogenesis?
Synaptogenesis = the formation of synapses between neurons in the nervous system. -- as neurons mature they also begin to wire together, forming synapses
Sensation
The collection of info from the environment via sensory organs and receptors.
Sound
The mental experience (perceptual) is generated by processes of NS elicited by the physical stimulus of rhythmic air pressure variation (ex. When a tree falls, compresses air molecules→ followed by refraction/thinning= wave of pressure traveling at speed of sound
What are somatosensory receptors?
The somatosensory system is the part of the sensory system concerned with the conscious perception of touch, pressure, pain, temperature, position, movement, and vibration, which arise from the muscles, joints, skin, and fascia -- somatosensory receptors responsive to touch and poking are presumed to be based on some sort of mechanically-gated ion channels perhaps similar tot he channels on inner ear hair cells that open as the hairs bend. The receptors responsive to temperature change are the same TRP receptors related to flavor perceptions of spicy hot and minty cold -- cell bodies for these fibers are located in clusters of cells near the spinal cord called the DORSAL ROOT GANGLIA (DRG)
E coli chemotaxis
These bacteria swim in a series of runs (flagella rotate in 1 direction→ form bundles that act as propeller; moves in one direction) for 30 mm/sec and tumbles (flagellar rotation reverses→ individual flagella fly apart and bacteria stops swimming & flops for moment). Bacterium moves in direction of increased nutrients: runs until concentration goes down, then tumbles
aphasia: Broca's, Wernicke's
__ speech production __ speech comprehension aphasia: neurologically based impairment in language function broca's: found association between lesions in left frontal lobe and capacity to speak - cannot organize mouth to produce language but not paralyzed wernicke's: problem with comprehension of language - posterior left temporal lobe - sensory agnosia - garbled words
parasympathetic
____ NS activates circular sphincter muscles to pull iris closed in the process of eye dilation
sympathetic
_____ NS activate radial muscles to pull iris back and dilate eyes when your eyes dilate
MAOIs, TCAs, SSRIs
_______- inhibits enzyme that inactivates NTs by oxidizing them ______- block or slow reuptake of norepinephrine and serotonin ___- less harmful side effects, more heavily advertised.
Maria Sabina
a Mazatec healer from southern Mexico told Gordon Wasson about ritual use of these mushrooms.
proteins
amino acids linked by peptide bonds (covalent)
multiple sclerosis (MS)
auto-immune damage to myelin -unknown cause -nerve conduction impaired -motor and/or sensory; variable symptoms
storage
believed to be a structural change in the NS
glial cell
cells that surround neurons provide nutrients and oxygen for them "support" form myelin, part of grey matter over 100 billion in brain
cortical neuropil
densely packed regions of neurons and glia
meninges
dura, arachnoid, pia
cytoskeleton, microtubule, microfilament, actin, tubulin
forms dynamic cytoskeleton of protein polymers; made of microtubules and microfilaments functions: holds the cell together, growth and movement of cell, moving materials (membrane proteins) tubulin makes up microtubules actin makes up microfilaments actin proteins: ~375 amino acids alpha/beta tubulin: ~450 amino acids
We have defined consciousness as the capacity to:
have an experience of what it is like to be
methane, ethane, propane, hexane, octane are examples of what molecules?
hydrocarbons
bony labyrinth
inner ear consists of cochlea, semicircular canals, which are collectively called the bony labyrinth filled with fluid (water and ions)
THC (Delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol)
major psychoactive chemical constituent of cannabis. One of 60 chemically related molecules called cannabinoids. VERY hydrophobic and dissolves into membranes Interacts w/ cannabinoid receptor (GPCR that occurs everywhere in the brain and the most abundant in the brain!!!). Largely located in presynaptic neuron
Delbruck's Principle of Limited Sloppiness
not too sloppy to figure out what happened
Amphetamine and related molecules
related to cocaine by its effects on NS and behavioral attributes, but not in molecular structure or origin. Synthetic pharmaceutical drugs. Effects the norepinephrine or dopamine at the synapses by making the reuptake transporters not work right → overstimulation→ increased arousal, stamina, focused attention Ex. Amphetamine (adderall), Methamphetamine ("speed"), Ritalin, Ephedrine
taste categories and receptor cell types: salt, sour, bitter, sweet, umami
salt: when high concentrations of Na+ appear, it flows through sodium ion channels and triggers neural signal sour: taste of acids, release of H+ into sensitive ion channels bitter: ligands bind to GPCRs (>30); can be warnings for poison sweet: two GPCRs link to form functional sweet receptor; ripe fruits umami: concentrate form in MSG, "savory", "meaty", GPCR glutamate receptors (protein containing food)
Which one of the following is NOT part of the meninges? (__) all of the answers in this list of options are part of the meninges (__) scalp (__) dura matter (__) pia matter (__) arachnoid layer
scalp
Arthur C. Clarke
science fiction writer, science writer, inventor, tv series host three laws
melatonin
synthesized from serotonin in the pineal gland
sulfur, thiols
thio: sulfur thiol: SH group often associated with a "stinky" smell
ossicles
three small interconnected bones in the middle ear aka the hammer, anvil, and stirrup
Cephalopods/octopus/squid (member of mollusk class)
"brains" distributed throughout body
Opiates
-akaloids derived from the opium poppy -opioids are compounds with opiate-like actions, including synthetic and endogenous ones -opioids bind to mu-opiate receptor (MOR) on GABA inhibitory neurons that synapse on DA neurons in VTA -MOR activation leads to reduced Ca influx and increased K efflux, overall leading to less neuron firing
alpha-amino acid
-amine and acid groups are linked to same carbon atom -characterizes the amino acids used as protein building blocks for all life on Earth
What are the brain regions involved in normal anxiety?
-amygdala, which regulates fear and some anxiety signs, specifically the central and basolateral nuclei -insula (monitors arousal and aversive states) -dorsal anterior cingulate cortex and medial prefrontal cortex (expression of fear) -ventral ACC and mPFC inhibit fear responses -hippocampus (overgeneralization of fear to nonthreatening stimuli) -locus ceruleus (releases NE when stress is high, which increases arousal of brain regions)
Transneuronal degeneration
-anterograde (downstream targets of neuron) and retrograde (upstream neurons that innervate injured axon) neuronal degradation may happen -this can be due to lack of activity input and neurotrophins, respectively
Differences between anterograde and retrograde amnesia
-anterograde is the inability to memorize new things, like forgetting someone's name that you met 5 minutes ago...signals a problem with turning short-term into long-term memory -retrograde is the loss of pre-existing memories for recollection...able to create new memories but is unable to recall some/all of the memories prior to onset of amnesia
vagus nerve
-autonomic fiber connected to the heart (usually connected to brain) -slowed down heart when electrically stimulated by Loewi -fluid from slowed-down heart slowed down beating of a diff heart when fluid was poured into jar containing 2nd heart
What happens in peripheral nerve injury distal to the injury? (Wallerian degeneration)
-axon segment and axon terminal distal to cut disintegrate and fall apart due to lack of protein supply transported from cell body -Schwann cells also degenerate, losing myelin but leaving the basal lamina intact, and the dead material all around is phagocytosed -Schwann cell proliferation initiates, and they produce many neurotrophins that help promote axon regeneration
What happens in peripheral nerve injury to the parts of the cell proximal to the lesion?
-axonal sprouting occurs, forming a growth cone, which extends/grows hopefully toward the target -recovery phase protein synthesis and anterograde axoplasmic transport begin to happen fast, and these are critical
Does HAL have a mind?
-based on mind/consciousness definitions -> Does HAL have an experience of what it is like to be HAL? -How do we know if HAL is actually experiencing feelings? -HAL may execute "sophisticated intentional behaviors", but how do we know if this is accompanied by mental experiences?
hydrogen bond
-between MOLECULES -slightly negative oxygen atom of one water molecule is attracted to the slightly positive hydrogen atom of another -results in a matrix of water molecules held together in a loose way by the hydrogen bonds
taste receptor proteins: ion channels and GPCRs
-bitter, sweet and umami are GPCRs -salt and sour are ion channels
saxitoxin AKA STX
-blocks Na+ channels like TTX does -similar symptoms/treatment/cause of death/resistance as TTX poisoning
electrical synapse (AKA gap function)
-built from clusters of proteins that form channels (single channel is called connexon which is made up of several component proteins called connexins) in the membranes of two adjacent cells -forms when connexon pair(s) join together, allowing ions to pass directly from one cell to the next -large connexon pore -> larger than action potential channel pores; can even allow ATP and glucose to pass through -mediates signaling: ion concentration/membrane potential changes that change from one cell to another, transferred small molecules that have regulatory functions within cells
What are some atypical treatments for anxiety?
-buspirone = GAD, PTSD, OCD -buproprion = DA-selective reuptake inhib, GAD, PTSD, OCD -antipsychotics have been used in OCD -prazosin = alpha adrenergic blocker, decreases nightmares in PTSD -beta blockers = propanolol, acute use in GAD and SAD
Describe pediatric depression. What causes this in the brain?
-can look like adult form, but is composed of "masked symptoms" like irritability, acting out, refusing to participate, loss of appetite, sleep disturbance -can be episodic or chronic -evidence of grey matter reductions in hippocampus, basal ganglia, amygdala and PFC
Conduction aphasia
-caused by interruption of the arcuate fasciculus connecting Wernicke's and Broca's areas -patient has poor repetition of a sentence spoken by the examiner but maintains relatively good comprehension
Describe neurogenesis.
-cell proliferation dominates early development, and can either be vertical (two neural stem cells from one) or horizontal (one neuroblast and one transient amplifying cell are created) -cell membrane process extends to pial surface, nucleus of cell migrates up and undergoes S phase, then the nucleus moves back to ventricular surface -extended process is retracted and the cell divides, producing either vertical or horizontal arrangement
olfactory stem cells
-cells with enough flexibility to differentiate into the various types of olfactory receptor cells -They allow the receptor cells to be regularly replaced -cost of chemoreception, olfactory cells get exposed to toxins and die
nerve cell, neuron
-cellular units of signal transmission ~100 bil. neurons in human brain
ion channels
-channel proteins in the phospholipid bilayer cell membrane that allow specific ions to pass through them via diffusion when the channels are open
endocannabinoids
-collective term for molecules that are endogenous agonists of the cannabinoid receptor -Anandamide and 2-AG molecules must bend around in three dimensions to be sufficiently similar in shape to some portion of THC molecule, so that they all can act as agonists at the same receptor, the interaction of agonist with receptor is all about shape -______________ molecules appear to be synthesized and released from postsynaptic dendrites in response to glutamatergic simulation -____________ travels across synaptic cleft to interact with cannabinoid receptors on presynaptic axon terminals
MDMA/ecstasy
-compete with DA for uptake into neurons by DA transporter, leaving more DA in synaptic cleft -has a high affinity for 5HT transporter too, which increases 5HT levels in the synaptic cleft -heightens perception, reduces appetite, elevates mood -adversely also clouds thinking, causes hyperthermia, disturbed behavior, arrhythmia, and renal failure
timbre
-complexity of sound wave form -more complex waveforms are associated with mental experiences of sounds having richness
What are the mechanisms in play during a critical period?
-correlated and uncorrelated neural activity strengthens or weakens synaptic connections through LTP, LTD, etc. -Ca2+ and the NMDA receptor are very important here -Ca2+ cascades can promote synaptic growth and stabilization, alter dendrite structure and alter NT receptor
Botulinum toxin: what is it and what are its effects?
-created by bacterium Clostridium -AKA Botox -giant protein with a bunch of alpha helices -taken up into ACh presynaptic terminals -interferes with NT release -reduces effectiveness of ACh at neuromuscular junction -> muscle paralysis
opium, opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), morphine, opioids
-cultivated by ancient Sumerians of Mesopotamia 5,000 yrs ago - referred to poppy as "joy plant" -psychoactive effects of relaxation, pain relief, and euphoria -prominent effects: analgesia (reduce pain), suppress cough, slow muscle actions of the intestines -good for treating diarrhea -opium is the secretion released by slitting the unripe seed pods -morphine is isolated and purified opium -
Why is the gray matter on the outside of the telencephalon?
-during neurogenesis, the newly divided neuroblasts migrate up past the subplate layer (this disappears after development) -the first neurons form layer VI, and subsequent groups of neurons migrate up past these existing ones, forming the other layers -radial glial cells are what neuroblasts use to climb up the cortex, by sliding along them (have a leading and trailing process)
What is epilepsy? What causes it? How does it change the brain?
-epilepsy is a disease that is characterized by recurrent tonic/clonic seizures, and is often accompanied by a change in the normal pattern of a person's EEG -an upset to the delicate balance of synaptic excitation and inhibition in the brain will cause over-depolarization of a group of neurons, which will spread to others
Benzodiazepines: Examples, Effects, What are they used for/not used for?
-ex: diazepam (Valium), alprazolam (Xanax) -BZs bind as GABAa agonists, which increases GABA activity and thus have a general inhibitory effect -work rapidly, effective, are sedatives, and aren't great for daily, long term use -can cause dependence, have potential for abuse, bad with alcohol -prescribed for acute use in GAD, SAD, OCD -contraindicated for PTSD and children
Spina bifida occulta
-failure of neural folds to fuse dorsally -vertebral body fails to completely form, but the defect is not open and the spinal cord is normal
acetylcholine
-first molecule recognized as neurotransmitter -involved in enzymatic signal inactivation where acetylcholinesterase enzyme breaks it into 2 pieces
What is the general pathway for embryological development of the neural tube?
-first, epiblast undergoes gastrulation at about 3 weeks gestation, and the ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm form -next, notochord induction mechanisms cause neurulation to occur, and the neural plate folds out over itself to make the neural tube around day 20-28 -fusion of neural tube happens first in cervical regions, then finishes rostrally before it finishes caudally
peyote cactus, Arthur Heffter, mescaline
-identified in 1897 by Arthur Heffter from peyote cactus in the range from Mexico and Southern Texas -First psychedelic substance to be chemically identified after Heffter noticed that its potent psychoactive properties were used by peoples of Americas, consumed in ritual settings under guidance of shamans
Development of the metencephalon
-in the pons, there is similar structure to medulla with mixing of alar and basal plate nuclei and the 4th ventricle -the dorsal alar plates also enlarge as the rhombic lips to form the cerebellum, which becomes roof of 4th ventricle (note that although it is an alar plate derivative, cerebellum is mainly concerned with motor function)
Apraxia
-inability to execute a complex motor behavior -may be produced by a destructive lesion in the parietal assoc cortex, premotor cortex, or supplementary motor cortex -the affected individual's muscles are fine but they are unable to coordinate the muscles in order to execute a complex motor behavior
evolution of brain/skull size
-increase in size of body; larger animals -> larger brains -size of hominin brain increased rapidly the last 2 mil. yrs -bigger brain has come with: tool use, nuanced social interaction, language, math skill, complex problem-solving abilities, etc.
glutamate receptors
-ionotropic; most, if not all, neurons have these on cell surfaces -receive excitatory input from glutamatergic cells -calcium and sodium channels (when open, Ca++ & Na+ flow into cell) -initiates depolarization to trigger voltage-gated Na+ channels and thus action potential and neural signal (excitation)
Why are ion channels/pumps in the cell membrane necessary?
-ions can't pass through by themselves since their hydrophilic nature collects water molecules around them and bilayer is hydrophobic
René Descartes (1596-1650)
-key figure in the history of Western philosophy and science; early thinker on signaling in the NS -mind-body dualism -"I think, therefore I am" from "Discourse on Method" -interested in: how human body worked, how we are able to perceive the world, how actions of body are related to mental experiences -published "Le Monde" and "L'Homme"/"Treatise of Man" posthumously; Catholic church was strong at the time, didn't want to get punished
Brain circuitry involved in pineal gland pathway
-light information from retina and LGN reaches SCN of the hypothalamus -SCN sends to IML via hypothalamospinal pathway, and then IML pregang neurons send to postgang neuron cell bodies in the SCG -SCG sends to pineal gland and suppresses melatonin secretion
neurotransmitter receptor
-located in cell membranes of postsynaptic neurons and presynaptic axon terminal membrane -interaction with appropriate neurotransmitter changes shape of the receptor, which passes a signal to postsynaptic neuron
What is the function of Broca's area (44, 45)?
-located in the frontal lobe in the inferior frontal gyrus, is the speech production center, and is functionally interconnected with Wernicke's area
What are some brain areas associated with sleep-wakefulness and what are their neurotransmitters?
-locus ceruleus: NE -Raphe nuclei of pons and medulla: 5HT -sympathetic chain ganglia: NE -tuberomammillary hypothalamic neurons: histamine(HA) -basal forebrain, nucleus basalis, septal nuclei: ACh
Describe OCD. What is this caused by in the brain?
-lowest prevalence of anxiety disorders -recurrent thoughts/images that are intrusive/inappropriate cause anxiety and repetitive behaviors that are performed to alleviate anxiety -orbitofrontal cortex, ACC and basal ganglia are principally involved (specifically caudate nucleus), and they are overactivated
effects of cocaine: at synapses, CNS and autonomic
-major neurochemical effect is the blocking of the reuptake transporters for norepinephrine and dopamine -slowing the neurotransmitters in leaving the synaptic cleft so they will have a greater effect after their release -the activity at the noradrenergic and dopaminergic circuity in the brain produces a CNS stimulant effect -sympathomimetic effects stems from the noradrenergic synapses in the Sympathetic nervous system
paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP)
-medical condition resulting from STX poisoning
carbohydrate
-molecules covalently formed from C, H, O atoms -energy stored in its covalent bonds serves as fuel sources for living things -glycogen, starches, cellulose, sugars
Dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia
-most antipsychotic drugs are built on this, as they block the D2 receptors in the striatal-frontal system -excessive limbic DA activity may play a role in psychosis, and drugs that increase this activity can aggravate schizophrenia or produce psychosis -postmortem studies of schizo patients reveal increased DA, D2 receptors in NAcc, caudate, putamen
Edward Tolman (1886-1969)
-most famous psychologist at UC Berkeley -led a group of a few dozen faculty members who refused to sign the UC Loyalty Oath -> resulted in getting fired -> took it to the California supreme court, which decided it wasn't constitutional for them to sign something that wasn't required of other state employees; got them reinstated but also made it a requirement of all CA state employees to sign oath
tobacco(Nicotiana tabacum), nicotine
-native to the americas -named after Jean Nicot -Tobacco contains other molecules, nicotine is the primary psychoactive constituent -smoking or through nasal absorption -binds as an antagonist to the acetylcholine receptors -produces effects of reaction, alertness, and focused attention -the nAChRs in the muscles are less sensitive than the ones in the CNS Nicotine -is a serious poison -plants use nicotine as defense against insects -nicotine poisoning produces disruptions in heart rhythm, blood pressure, and respiration
What are the steps for the embryological development of circuits?
-neurogenesis (cell proliferation, birth of neurons and glia) -migration -aggregation and differentiation (grouping together into nuclei and determining of specific characteristics) -synaptogenesis and circuit formation -apoptosis of unneeded cells -synapse rearrangement (maturation of connections)
Single-source divergent circuits
-neurons in these circuits send projections to a very wide range of recipient cells, and they influence many levels of the brain simultaneously -their synapses dump NT at the synapse, allowing it to diffuse out to a wide range of cells (volume transmission) -effects of these circuits are nonspecific -effects of transmitters depend on mood and environment -lesions produce nonspecific effects -ex: NE release by locus ceruleus in the brain
sweeter-than-sugar sweeteners
-non-nutritive or synthetic -Saccharin: is 300x sweeter than sucrose -aspartame: 200x sweeter than sucrose -Spenda: 600x sweeter than sucrose, made by modifying sucrose molecule -neotame: 10,000x sweeter than sucrose, derivative of aspartame
Describe schizophrenia
-one of the most complex and challenging of psychiatric disorders -heterogeneous syndromes of disorganized and bizarre thoughts, delusions, hallucinations, inappropriate affect, and impaired psychosocial functioning -includes alogia, avolition, anhedonia, social isolation, impaired attention and working memory
diffusion
-process in which particles move apart and distribute uniformly over whatever volume of fluid is available -movement of a substance down a concentration gradient (high to low concentration)
polarity
-property of water that lets water easily dissolve polar substances (like dissolves like) -separation of charge between different parts of molecule
Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
-proposed that all life on Earth have common origins but became diversified through variation and natural selection (Darwinian evolution) -"On the Origin of Species" (1859)
neuroplasticity
-pruning is a process of neuroplasticity -strengthening and weakening of synapses can be presynaptic, postsynaptic, or both -an example of presynaptic would be prolonging the depolarization of in the axon terminal. this will have the voltage-gated Ca+ channels remain open for longer and result in fusion of more vessels -more single passed to the next cell means a stronger connection
Describe panic disorder. What is this caused by in the brain?
-recurrent unexpected panic attacks that may include: palpitations, sweating, trembling, choking, chest pain, nausea, dizziness, fear of dying, numbness, etc. -sufferers will avoid places where having an attack would be embarrassing -increased activation of insular cortex and PAG along with decreased ACC activity
reductionism
-schema of reducing a bigger system to its components and understanding connections between them -Math -> physics -> chemistry -> biology -> neuroscience
Partial (aka focal) seizures
-seizures that begin locally in one part of the brain -they can be simple (no impairment of consciousness) or they can be complex (with partial impairment of consciousness) -initial symptoms may be motor, sensory, aphasic, cognitive, etc. -the partial seizure may evolve to secondary tonic/clonic
cerebral cortex
-sheet of neural tissue in human brain; outer layer of cerebrum -not folded in mice, rats, squirrels -folded in capybaras, dogs, cats, primates
What are some examples of things that undulate, following the body's circadian rhythm?
-sleep/wake cycle -hormone levels, urine production, GI motility, liver activity -motor performance and levels of cognition, heart activity, blood sugar, ions in blood
sweet
-small molecules, composed of chains or rings of carbon atoms together with a few oxygen and hydrogen atoms, and include sucrose, fructose, glucose, lactose, and maltose -_______ receptor proteins are also GPCRs and two distinct GPCRs are known in humans to be involved in detection of __________-tasting molecules -2 GPCRs associated with __________-receptor cells limit taste of _________ness to a smaller diversity of molecular shapes -
olfaction
-smell
ouroboros
-snake biting its tail in a circle -found in alchemic texts -led Kékule to discover benzene ring
How does the brain close a critical period?
-structural changes in proteins that inhibit axonal sprouting and form tight perineuronal nets around GABA cells inhibit new synapse formation -these limit connectivity changes
cannabinoid
-the collective term for the sixty different chemically related molecules found in cannabis -Hydrophobic molecule and easily sticks to lipids and dissolves into phospholipid bilayer membrane -__________ receptor is GPCR and occurs pretty much everywhere in brain
electroreception in sharks
-the detection of electric fields generated by living organisms -A kind of sensory perception that is unlike anything currently known to exist in humans is this -Every living creature is surrounded by electric fields, produced as a result of movement of charged ions within the organism -sharks use this shit (structures called ampullae of Lorenzini) passive: the detection of electric fields with sensory organs active: emitting electric fields to navigate environment
What happens to neurotransmitter release in REM sleep?
-the firing of NE neurons of locus ceruleus, 5HT neurons of Raphe nuclei, and HA neurons of the tuberomammillary nucleus decreases considerably -ACh neurons increase firing to the thalamus and cortex, suggesting that ACh is the inducer of REM sleep
What is competitive interaction?
-the idea that synapses receiving functional information will dominate the area they are in if there are no others or a weaker competitor there -in amblyopia, LGN inputs from one eye take over the cortical territory that belonged previously to the occluded eye, reducing the size of the ocular dominance columns for the occluded eye -balance of inputs is most important for establishing normal connections and responses in the brain
What are the 3 primary brain vesicles? What are the 5 secondary brain vesicles?
-three primaries are prosencephalon, mesencephalon and rhombencephalon -in the 4th week of development, the three primaries form -in the 5th week, the secondaries come from the primaries -the five secondaries are: telencephalon, diencephalon, mesencephalon, metencephalon and myelencephalon -a central cavity extends through all of these, which will eventually form the ventricular system
How does a clinician assess the frontal association cortex's function?
-through a Wisconsin sorting card task, where the patient is asked to place an appropriate card when the examiner introduces a sample card sequence and doesn't give a rule of sorting or assent to whether the patient is wrong or right -helps test planning deficits
posterior somatosensory cortex (S2, S3, etc)
-while lesions in S1 can produce the loss of sensation in a region of the body -lesions in S2, S3, etc will exhibit weirdness -less understood
How many taste receptors do we have in our mouth? How many taste buds? How many taste receptors does each taste bud have?
1 million taste receptors 10,000 taste buds Each taste bud has 100 taste receptors
psychoactive drugs (top 5)
1) caffeine: tea, coffee, chocolate 2) ethyl alcohol (ethanol): fermentation 3) nicotine: tobacco 4) arecoline: betel (areca) nut 5) cannabinoids: Cannabis (THC) -all come directly/indirectly from plants
What do all drugs of abuse do in the brain?
1. stimulate mesolimbic dopaminergic fibers...VTA to NAcc, amygdala, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex connections 2. increase DA release in the NAcc, directly and indirectly (prolong DA's action or increase its output) -basically, since DA is reward NT...drugs of abuse stimulate the reward centers that are activated during normal activities like eating and sex
Typical antipsychotics (1st gen)
1. strong D2 antagonists 2. effective in treating positive symptoms 3. produce severe movement disorders and cause hyperprolactinemia 4. high and low potentcy 5. antiemetic and antinausea -chlorpromazine, thioridazine, haloperidol
Describe synapse formation
1. there is target recognition, formation of selective connections between developing axons and its target 2. presynaptic differentiation, which is the changing of the growth cone into a nerve terminal 3. elaboration of a postsynaptic apparatus in the target cell happens, with concentration of receptors accumulating at the postsynaptic site
Superior Colliculus
10% of optic nerve axons go into this part of midbrain. This pathway (retina-midbrain pathway) is heavily involved in very rapid responses to sensory stimuli in ways that do not involve awareness (in periphery or visual field). Automatic sensory input.
How many different odors are there?
100,000
Stanley Kubrick
1928-1999 - American film director, screenwriter, producer, cinematographer, editor, and photographer. Wide range of genres and known for his realism, dark humor, extensive set designs. Films for 40 years! The Iliad, March of Time, The Shining, Clockwork Orange
University of California Loyalty Oath
1949 UC Berkeley required faculty to sign oath that s/he will support the Constitution and is not a member of the Communist Party
age of Earth
4.6 billion years
How many chromosomes does the human genome consist of?
46 chromosomes = 23 inherited from mother and 23 inherited from father -- both chromosomes from both parents carry similar info but different variants of some genes -- there are 2 sex chromosomes: X (from mother); X or Y from father. Female = XX, Male = XY --
human genome: size, % transcribed, % translated
46 chromosomes in diploid cells (23 haploid) 3E9 (3 billion) nucleotide base pairs 85% transcribed (DNA -> RNA) 3% translated and code for functional proteins (RNA -> protein) 21000 distinct genes coding for proteins
right handedness
97% percent have L-hemispheric language dominance, 3 % right
What are embryonic stemcells?
A fertilized egg divides and forms multiple cells called EMBRYONIC STEM CELLS (which differentiate into NEURAL PROGENITOR CELLS (which either become glia or neurons)) -- formation of nerve cells or glial cells from neural progenitor stem cells is called nuerogenesis or gliogenesis )
nicotinic AChRs
AChR activated by binding ____. This AChR is blocked (antagonized) by the molecule tubocurarine (plant extract used for arrow-tip poison by native hunters in Amazon jungle). This is the neurotransmitter receptor at the neuromuscular junction, and is also present in the brain. Produces muscle paralysis Ionotropic receptor.
muscarinic AChRs
AChR activated by the molecule muscarine, from mushrooms (Amanita muscarine). This AChR is blocked/antagonized by atropine. This is found in the parasympathetic neural connections with target organs as well as in the brain Metabotropic receptor
adenosine
Adenosine receptors in the heart mediate a slowing of heart rate Adensine receptors in blood vessels meditate vasodilation (opening up of the vessels) In the brain act to decrease neuronal excitability Adenosine Receptors are G-Protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), inhibitory neurotransmitter effect is not direct like but instead it activates G-proteins. This effects adenylate cyclase which impacts the intracellular cAMP concentration, which changes activity of the kinases and alters the opening of K+ channels, leading to hyperpolarization of the membrane and decreased neuronal excitability.
What is adult neurogenesis? How does it have to do with the hippocampus? Also what is the function of the hippocampus?
Adult neurogenesis is the process of generating new neurons which integrate into existing circuits after fetal and early postnatal development has ceased. In most mammalian species, adult neurogenesis only appears to occur in the olfactory bulb and the hippocampus. -- Hippocampus = the elongated ridges on the floor of each lateral ventricle of the brain, thought to be the center of emotion, memory, and the autonomic nervous system.
Cell Differentiation
After conception, the fertilized egg begins to divide and form multiple cells- embryonic stem cells- with the capacity to continue dividing and to differentiate into any type of cell in the body
refractory period
After the voltage-gated Na+ and K+ open and close, they require several milliseconds to return to a state that can be triggered again to open. prevents signal in 2 directions
Endocannabinoids
Anandamide & 2-AG endogenous agonists. NOT cannabinoids (directly related to THC). Must bend in 3D to be sufficiently similar in shape to THC to be agonist to receptor.
Equal vs Splenda
Another sweetener = called EQUAL (which really was aspartame) Equal Company Sues (2004-2007) Splenda company claiming false advertising since Spenda's slogan on packaging was "made from sugar so it takes like sugar" even though there is no sugar in Splenda and Splenda's sweet taste does not actually come from sugar -- Equal (another sweetener = aspartame) VERSUS Splenda (sucralose; owned by Johnson and Johnson at the time) -- case went to court but before court decision the two sides negotiated and Splenda agreed to take off the slogan
Supplementary motor / premotor areas
Anterior to M1 in the frontal lobes are several other areas also intimately involved in the control of body movement called supplementary motor / premotor areas -- neurons in these areas are active before the generation of signals in M1 and are involved in planning and sequencing muscle movements -- lesions in the premotor areas do not result in paralysis but give rise to disorganizations of movements -- for instance, suppose we consider the motion of picking up a key, inserting it into a lock and turning the key to open the lock. A person with frontal premotor lesion might still be able to execute all the individual movements associated with the action but would not be able to organize and sequence them properly. -- such disorders in the organization of movement are called APRAXIAS
Friedrich Wilhelm Sertürner (1783 - 1841)
Around 1803 Sertürner worked to extract opium with solvents -- Showed pure chemical substance with melting point and discovered same effects of opium with concentrated effects & named it morphine (after greek god morpheus) -- this was the first time any one had extracted chemical components from plant and showed it could be medicinal -- also first time any one had even through about extracting chemicals from plants-- this caught on quickly) -- Morphine's components have opium- like activities (analgesic, couch suppressant, and can treat diarrhea) called OPIODS/OPIATES
Hyponatremia
when Na in body is abnormally low; H2O abnormally high
Second/ posterior somatosensory cortex
(S2, S3,etc.) Contain maps of body (less clear than S1) Lesions of S2, S3= make touch sensations confusing/ weird (somatosensory agnosias) ⇒ produce neglect syndromes: touch sensation is intact but is usually ignored or not recognized unless one's attention is specifically drawn to it.
Wilder Penfield (1891- 1976)
(did work, initially, on epilepsy patients) Penfield stimulated exposed brain of alert patients during surgery (he used a small probe to deliver slight electrical stimulation and different locations evoked different memories, sensations or muscle twitches)
What is timbre?
(greek "tympanon' = drum) -- related to COMPLEXITY of sound wave form. Simple sinusoidal variation in pressure having a single frequency = a pure tone (but most are not single frequencies, most have several and are complex waveforms) -- examples of timbre = musical instruments (262Hz = middle C on all instruments which is NOT a pure tone but a combo of a lot of frequencies (b/c of timbre you can identify a musician after hearing them play just a single note)
Cinnamon
(is a spice from plant- cinnamomum verum) native to india and other regions of Southeast Asia -- essential oils consist of cinnamaldehyde, ethyl cinnamate, eugenol, cinnamyl acetate, guariene, copaene, cinnamyl alcohol, etc. (molecules tend to be lipid soluble) -- This all goes to show that when we smell the spice, cinnamon, we are smelling/sniffing dozens of different molecules interacting with 350 different types of olfactory receptor proteins in the nasal epithelium
What happens to the duration of REM vs. nonREM sleep as the night goes on?
-REM increases in duration during sleep cycles from about 10 min early on to 40 min later in the night -the portion of nonREM sleep per 90 min sleep cycle goes from about 80 min at the beginning of the night to 45-50 min at the end of the night
Frank Oppenheimer
-Robert's brother who got fired because of his brother's potential interactions with the Communist Party and became a high school physics teacher -opened the Exploratorium Museum in SF
Consequences of frontal lobotomy (Joe A. case)
-after surgery there were no obvious sensory or motor deficits, speech was fine and aware of temporal order -personality was dramatically changed, ability to plan is largely diminished, and showed little restraint in conversation
Superior colliculus
-- about 10% of the optic nerve axons go into a part of the midbrain called the SUPERIOR COLLICULUS (this pathway is heavily involved in very rapid responses to sensory stimuli in ways that do not involve awareness. You notice something in the periphery of your visual field and begin to turn toward it to get a better look, before you are even aware you saw anything-- that's the retina-- midbrain pathway at work)
Describe major depressive disorder. What causes this in the brain?
-16.6% prevalence, characterized by a depressed mood or loss of interest/pleasure of daily activities for more than 2 weeks that results in impaired social, occupational or educational function -must not be related to illness or grief to be MDD -decreased volume of ACC, prolonged HPA axis/amygdala stress responses mess with information processing
Paracelsus
-16th Century Swiss physician and alchemist -known for teaching that all substances are poison and that whether something acts as a poison or medicine depends on dose
What are the functions of each of the following Brodmann areas? -17 -22,39,40 -41 -44,45
-17 = primary visual cortex -22,39,40 = Wernicke's area for language comprehension -41 = primary auditory cortex -44,45 = Broca's speech production area
2001: A Space Odyssey
-1968; by Stanley Kubrick -depicts ancient human evolution in the plains of eastern Africa
energy consumption by human brain
-25% of total basal consumption (aka human body @ rest), which is 360 kilocalories/day -of this, 60% (220 kilocals/day) is used to run Na/K pumps
semicircular canals
-3 inside the bony labyrinth - help detect the orientation relative to gravity
What are the functions of each of the following Brodmann areas? -3,1,2 -4 -6 -10
-3,1,2 = primary somatosensory cortex -4 = primary motor cortex -6 = premotor and supplementary motor areas -10 = frontopolar cortex
Serotonin hypothesis of schizophrenia
-5HT-2A receptors modulate release of several NTs like DA, NE, Glu, GABA and ACh from the cortex, striatum and limbic regions -5HT-2C receptors modulate cortical and limbic DA release -atypical antipsychotics are 5HT-2A and 2C antagonists, indicating the link to schizophrenia
Describe generalized anxiety disorder. What is this caused by?
-6% prevalence, characterized by general excessive worry and apprehension that is hard to control and associated with at least 3 of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, irritability, muscle tension, sleep disturbance -caused by dysfunctions in ant. cingulate cortex, mPFC, bed nuc. of stria terminalis (involved in sustained worry) -amygdala may be involved in initial anxious/fearful reaction, bed nuc. may maintain continuous anxiety
Describe PTSD. What brain dysfunctions cause this in the brain?
-7% prevalence among general pop, higher among veterans -occurs sometime after exposure to a traumatic event where a person is under a serious threat -reminders of the situation cause flashbacks, nightmares, intrusive thoughts, can cause mania or depression, etc. -involves multiple brain areas, including amygdala/insula hyperactivation, reduced mPFC activation (lets stress responses become large) -also, there is decreased hippocampal size
Maria Sabina
-A Mazatec healer from a small mountain village in southern Mexico -Chose to share ancient secret with outsiders, her decision had a tremendous impact on history, as Wasson's magazine article would be one of the major ways by which information concerning the powerful consciousness-altering effects of psychedelics reached a wider audience
how many meters is 1 nanometer?
10^-9 meter
sweeter-than-sugar sweeteners
1st known synthetic: Saccharin (300x sweeter) "principle of limited sloppiness" (Delbruck): a little sloppy you can get something startling, and nail it down Splenda (600x sweeter) - sucrose hydroxyl groups (-OH) replaced by chlorine atoms Neotame (1000x sweeter) non-nutritive
What are the primary chemical components of skunk spray?
2-butene-1-thiol 3 methyl-1-butanethiol 2- quinolinemethanethiol -- all contain sulfur-hydrogen group (-SH) -- thio = sulfur -- thiol = sulfur group -- these three molecules above are examples of ORGANIC THIOLS -- Theres something about the shape of -SH group attached to the carbon that makes it stinky/smell
Speed of sound
335 m/sec; 750mph; 1100ft/sec
speed of sound
343 m/s data differs depending on temp and medium
MRI
3D imaging technique that uses quantum spin property of subatomic particles aka NMR imaging non-toxic
pia mater
3rd meninges delicate layer closest to the brain
water
65% of human body
dynamic / functional brain imaging
??
Basilar Membrane & Hair cells
Along basilar membrane are several thousand hair cells (characterized by bundles of hairs or cilia attached to one end) -- bending of hairs initiates signal from hair cell to nerve carrying info to brain -- hairs are connected by tiny molecular cables (3nm in diameter) coupled to positive ion channels that when hairs bend, cables tug on channels and they open -- when channel opens, K+ ions flow in to hairs (since K+ is more concentrated outside than inside cochlear fluid) making the normally negative interior more positive (depolarization) -- this depolarization causes voltage gated ion channel to open and Ca++ flows in. Then influx of Ca++ triggers fusion of synaptic storage vesicles with outer cell membrane and neurotransmitter molecules = released into synaptic cleft. Neurotransmitter diffuses across synaptic cleft and activates post synaptic receptors in dendrite of auditory nerve. If stimulated sufficiently, auditory nerve sends signal to brain NOTE: hair cells = highly sensitive (tiny movements to hairs can trigger opening of ion channel)
Mixtures of molecules vs singly molecules
Although aromatic qualities of plants are related to complex mixtures of many different molecules having a variety of molecular shapes, often 1 or 2 molecules in the mix identify strongly w/ the particular odor of the plant!! Small changes have substantial effects on patterns of neural signals generated in olfactory pathways
categories of NT
Amino acid neurotransmitters: glutamate and glycine and GABA Neurotransmitters made directly from amino acids: serotonin, dopamine, norepinephrine, epinephrine, histamine Acetylcholine Polypeptide neurotransmitters: neuropeptides, endorphins
Umami (means delicious, yummy, savory in Japanese)
Associated with glutamate -- GPCR glutamate receptor in taste cells give rise to umami taste (similar taste/common example = MSG) Discovery of Umami: characterized as beign due to glutamate. Published in 1909 by KIKUNAE IKEDA of Imperial University of Tokyo Japan. But not widely accepted as a 5th taste in the US, especially, until recently. A lot of people there were only 4 tastes instead of 5 until 1990s -- Some people think there are actually more than 5 taste categories (for instance, for something that responds to fat)
anions
Atoms likely to take on electrons and become negatively charged ions Elements on the far right side of the table will easily add electrons and become this
antagonist
Binds to a neurotransmitter molecule and blocks action of the neurotransmitter at the receptor. Like blocking the right key from opening the lock.
3 types of cones
Blue short-wavelength (S) cones (420nm); Green Medium (M) cones (530 nm); Red/ yellow Long (L) cones (560nm). Genes for M and L cones are found on X chromosome and S and rods are found on other, nonsex chromosomes. → men more likely to be colorblind.
depolarization
Decrease in separation of charge across a cell membrane (more positive) opening Na or Ca channels has this effect on the cell charge less polarized, closer to 0
parasympathetic NS
Decreases heart rate, constricts lung airways, constricts pupils of eyes, stimulates salivation, stimulates bladder to void, stimulates intestinal motility Rest and Digest for upper/middle body, neural fibers connect with CNS via cranial nerves 3, 7, 10 lower body connect via lower end of spinal cord these fibers then connect with cluster of neurons called ____ ganglia
Electroreception
Detection of electric fields generated by living organisms. Human sensitivity: 20-20,000 Hz Every living creature is surrounded by electric fields, produced as a result of the movement of charged ions w/in an organism. Ex. sharks use electric field generated by fish to detect its location platypus = only mammal known to use this form of sensory perception
What is electroreception?
Electroreception = detection of electric fields generated by living organisms -- classic electroreception experiment involving sharks = sharks use electric field generated by fish to catch food. Electroreceptive structures, called lorenzini = densely dispersed over sharks head --Platypus also use electroreceptors located in its bill to probe muddy bottom of watery environment to search for bioelectric fields generated by prey. Platypus with its relative, ECHIDNA = only mammal known to use this this form of sensory perception
Heroin
First semi-synthetic opioid to be released onto the market (second is aspirin (analgesic) in 1899). Analgesic (pain reducer) and cough medicine (1898) by Bayer Company in Germany. Opium-like effects. Morphine reacted w acetic acid⇒ diacetylmorphine (2x as potent as morphine) Twice as potent b/c efficient entry into brain (acetyl groups are less polar than hydroxyl groups= diacetylmorphine crosses BBB more effectively than morphine)
Which of the following associations of neurotransmitters and the nuclei (clusters of cells in the brain) that specifically produce them is NOT correct? (__) serotonin: raphe nuclei (__) acetylcholline: midbrain pontine nuclei (__) norepinephrine: locus coreuleus (__) dopamine: substantia nigra (__) GABA: ventral tegmentum
GABA: ventral tegmentum gaba is located all throughout the brain
How do we hear?
Hearing (or auditory perception) begins with the air pressure variation entering the outer ear -- most external structure of ear = the PINNA (aka fleshy flap of skin on either side of head) which functions as a funnel or antenna which collects and focuses vibration of air pressure into ear canal -- ear canal terminates at tympanic membrane or ear drum -- ear drum forms boundary between outer ear and middle ear -- Oval window (defines boundary between middle and inner ear and consists of cochlea and semicircular canals collectively called bony labyrinth. Interior of bony labyrinth = filled with fluid (water and ions) and vibration of oval window sets fluid inside cochlea into vibration) -- running length of cochlea = BASILAR MEMBRANE (when surrounding fluid vibrates it does too) varies in sickness. It is thickest near oval window and thinnest at opposite end. Variation in thickness causes different regions of basilar membrane to be set into vibration by different frequencies which is called RESONANCE. Thicker end vibrates with higher frequencies, thinner end with lower frequencies TO SUMMARIZE: different frequencies of sound vibration when transferred into the cochlea via the eardrum, ossicles and oval window-- set different regions of basilar membrane into vibration -- and basilar membrane performs Fourier Analysis (a spatial representation of component frequencies of sound)
Jasmine
Jasmine (genus Jasminum) from benyzyl acetate, indole, farnesene -- indole = present in human feces- occurs to break down product of amino acid tryptophan (a component of proteins) -- jasmine like aroma also present in nicotiana alata (cousin of smoking tobacco), chinese wisteria (wisteria sinensis), daffodili (genus narcissus) -- although the complex mixture of different molecules give plants aromatic qualities, just one or two molecules on their own (if smelled) can identify strongly with particular odors. For instance, if we were to smell pure preparation of benzyl acetate, we would be able to identify the smell as being Jasmine. This is because aroma is associated with neural pathways activated by benzyl acetate SIMILARLY for lemons, if just the molecule geranial is smelled we would be able to readily identify it as lemon AND FOR ROSES, if just the molecule geraniol is smelled we would be able to readily identify it as rose (only difference between geranial and geraniol is alcohol group/stronger bond)
Where are olfactory GPCRs located?
Olfactory GPCRs are in membranes of olfactory receptor cells in nasal epithelium -- activation of an olfactory GPCR initiates intracellular cascade leading to synthesis of cAMP, which then interacts with type of channel gated by binding of cyclic nucleotides. RESULT = influx of Ca++ & Na+ depolarizing the cell -- Olfactory receptor cells send axons into olfactory bulbs of brain. Nerve fibers between nose and olfactory bulbs constitute cranial Nerve 1. -- in Olfactory bulb, axon form synapses with dendrites of MITRAL CELLS (triangular in shape like mitre, hence name). Mitral cells send signals to pyriform cortex and to amygdala. Pyriform cortex sends axon to thalamus and orbitofrontal cortex and connects to frontal lobe
What are the two types of photoreceptor cells and how do they differ?
Photoreceptors are specialized cells that send messages to other cells in the brain called neurons (nerve cells) There are 2 main kinds of photoreceptors with different functions, hence different perceptions: 1) RODS (mainly in PERIPHERY)= smaller and rod shaped -- photoreceptor protein = rhodopsin -- Only 1 type of rod -- more sensitive to low light (scotopic vision) -- most sensitive to light and dark changes, shape and movement and contain only one type of light-sensitive pigment. Rods are not good for color vision. AND 2) CONES (mainly in FOVEA)= bigger and cone shaped -- photoreceptor protein = cone- opsins -- there are 3 kinds of cones (short, medium, long wavelength) or R, G, B (red, green, blue) = these are the colors to which they are sensitive -- Cones are sensitive to brighter light (photopic vision) -- In humans and many other animals, photopic vision allows color perception, mediated by cone cells, and a significantly higher visual acuity and temporal resolution than available with scotopic vision. NOTE: diurnal animals (animals active during the day) thus have more cones, where as nocturnal animals (animals active during night time) have more rods -- RODS AND CONES ARE DIFFERENTIALLY DISTRIBUTED -- IN GENERAL, THERE ARE MORE RODS THAN CODS (because rods are in periphery and cones are in fovea and the periphery encompasses everywhere but the fovea). -- Rods = 10,000,000 -- Cones = 5,000,000 cones -- In daylight, only central fovea sees clearly and in color (photopic vision) VERSUS night time/dark = only periphery sees in black and white with poor resolution (scotopic vision)
Ear Anatomy
Pinna Ear drum Middle Ear = consists of cavity occupied by 3 interconnected bones (collectively called ossicles): hammer, anvil, and stirrup (latin: malleus, incus, and stapes). When hammer (attached to ear drum) vibrates, then anvil vibrates, and then stirrup vibrates (which is attached to tissue called oval window) Oval Window (defines boundary between middle and inner ear and consists of cochlea and semicircular canals collectively called bony labyrinth. Interior of bony labyrinth = filled with fluid (water and ions) and vibration of oval window sets fluid inside cochlea into vibration) cochlea semicircular canals bony labryinth Basilar membrane
saltatory conduction
Propagation of action potential from one node to the next. Neural signal travels much faster down the axon. Like express bus v. normal slow bus
ion channels
Proteins (polypeptides of hundreds of amino acids folded up) in the phospholipid bilayer membrane that open and close, allowing specific ions to pass through & cross the membrane when the channels are open
layers of retina
Rods & cones--[synapse]-- bipolar cells--[synapse]--ganglion cells--axon (optic nerve) 2 other major cell types in retina: horizontal cells & amacrine cells (same retinal layer as bipolar cell)
Dmitri Mendeleev (1834-1907)
Russian chemist who created the periodic table in 1869
What is a Phantom Limb? How does it work?
Sometimes as a result of an accident or disease a person may lose an arm or leg and often in these circumstances, the person will continue to feel the presence of the amputated limb, as though it was still there -- THIS IS CALLED a PHANTOM LIMB -- for instance, if a person loses an arm, the region of parietal lobe that normally receives signals from the arm is no longer getting that input SO they form connections with the neurons in adjacent regions of the body map. -- For the arm this would be the shoulder area or the face. THUS any somatosensory input that activates neurons in these adjacent areas would spill over and activate neurons in the arm area. -- HENCE any vague stimulation of the face and shoulder of the amputee (air currents, temperature changes, and the like) also activates neurons that would have once received signals from the now missing arm -- As a result of neuroplastic reorganization of the body map, a phantom arm is born
sound: physical and perceptual properties, frequency, amplitude, tone, pitch, loudness
Sound: the mental experience and the physical vibration Wave Velocity = frequency x wavelength Higher the frequency, the shorter the wavelength Lower the frequency, the longer the wavelengt
What are synthetic opioids?
Synthetic opioids are not directly related to morphine in chemical structure -- example = meperidine (Demerol), methadone, propoxyphere (Darvon), fentanyl - Prince died from fentanyl overdose -- Synthetic opioids are 100x more potent than morphine
What are synthetic sweeteners? How were some of them discovered?
Synthetic sweeteners (also called nonnutritive sweeteners): used to sweeten food without adding calories 1) Sucralose (600x more sweet than sucrose) 2) Saccharin (500x more sweet than sucrose) = first synthetic sweetner, synthesized in 1879 by Remsen and Fahlberg 3) Aspartame (180x/200x more sweet)-- and among synthetic sweeteners, has become THE MOST WIDELY used 4) Neotame (~10,000x more sweet) 5) Stevioside (from stevia rebaudiana: 300x sweeter) has molecules from plant its extracted from so it has a bitter after taste because it's not just sugar -- Chemists were working on something else when they stumbled upon saccharin and aspartame (somehow stuck finger in mouth and realized its sweetness). This method of happening upon a scientific discovery is what Max Delbrück (1906- 1981) calls PRINCIPLE OF LIMITED SLOPPINESS (where people discover things out of sloppiness). Another example of this was Hoffman's discovery of LSD Discovered through Principle of Limited Sloppiness = saccharin and aspartame Not discovered through Principle of Limited Sloppinesss = sucralose, neotame
What is a major psychoactive chemical in cannabis? And what specific receptor does it interact with?
THC (delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol) -- THC = very hydrophobic (easily sticks to lipids and dissolves into phospholipid bilayer membrane) -- in 1980s it was suggested THC interacts with specific receptor -- in 1990 it was identified as CANNABINOID RECEPTOR (CB) -- CB receptor = GPCR (and occurs almost everywhere in the brain). It is THE MOST ABUNDANT of all known GPCR receptors in the vertebrate brain. Discovery of CB receptor prompted search for ENDOGENOUS LIGANDS and it was found a couple of years later = ANADAMIDE (sanskrit "ananda" meaning bliss)
What are the most abundant elements that compose the human body? (top 5? top 10?)
TOP 5: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, calcium TOP 10: phosphorous, potassium, sulfur, sodium, chlorine
What test do we use to measure somatosensory acuity? How does it work
The Two-Point Discrimination Test -- best done with 2 people -- take a wire paper clip and bend it into U-shape so that the two ends of the paperclip wire can be adjusted to be very close together or farther apart. -- one person closes their eyes and the other touches the U-shaped wire on the their skin such that the two ends of the U touch the skin at the same time YOU WILL FIND -- that when the U is touching the fingertips or the lips, the ends of the U can be very close together (even 1 or 2 millimeters apart) and the subject will still be able to experience two separate points of touch -- this represents a HIGH degree of somatosensory acuity- result of the densely packed somatosensory dendrites connected to many separate neurons each having small RF (receptive fields) and projecting eventually to a region of the parietal lobe (S1) where large numbers of neurons receive the signals -- IN CONTRAST if the subject is touched on their back, the U shaped wire must be moved apart as much as 1 or 2 centimeters (10 times the separation needed for the lips/hands) before the subject experiences two separate points of touch. If it too close the subject will just experience it as a single touch because they have a relatively LOW degree of somatosensory acuity and reflects many fewer somatosensory receptor neurons sending signals to the cortex, where fewer cortical neurons receive and process the infomration
What is the difference between a haploid and diploid cell?
The main difference between haploid and diploid cells is the number of chromosome sets found in the nucleus. -- HAPLOID chromosome number = 23 -- DIPLOID chromosome number = 46 NOTE: Haploid cells are often used for counting only genes from 1 parent -- haploid human genome carries 3 x 10^9 (3 billion) nucleotide pairs = A, T, G, C (every pair is known/ sequenced and we know the order of occurrence as well) -- After only hours after fertilization, cell differentiation takes place
opioids
Toxicity: depression of respiratory control centers in brainstem, potential overdose from respiratory depression (access to pharmaceutical opioids has increased-- opioid deaths increased since 90s), highly addictive
Vertigo
Vertigo = condition in which one feels dizzy or in motion when they are standing still -- associated with vestbular hair cells= (crystals of calcium carbonate called OTOLITHS (greek 'otos' = ear; 'lithos' = stones) they are suspended in fluid above hair cells and contribute to bending of hairs of sensory cells allowing them to maintain balance
Aside from contralateral effects what happens when one has right hemisphere lesions? What is this condition called?
With right-hemisphere lesions, something else very odd often happens? In addition to sensory and motor effects on the left side of the body, the patient may deny that there is anything wrong at all. -- this is called ANOSOGNOSIA (Greek nosos= disease, gnosis = knowledge; a = not) characterized by lack of knowledge about one's own disease -- illustration of anosognosia = in the book "The Man Who Mistook His Wife for a Hat" by neurologist Oliver Sacks. One particular clinical vignette = "the man who fell out bed". It describes a patient who ended up on the floor next to his hospital bed. Oliver Sacks talked to patient and found that he was experiencing the left of his body as not belonging to him. So he was attempting to throw the leg from his bed, and subsequently he ended up on the ground as well. And because the left side of his body was partially paralyzed he couldn't get back up. He also didn't believe anything was wrong with him (anosognosia). --Left side paralysis, experiencing the left side of his body as not even belonging to him and denial that there is anything wrong with him = could be right frontal-parietal lesion with accompanying anosognosia
Axon growth is directed by changing the shape and composition of which part of the cell?
cytoskeleton
Benzodiazepines
another group of sedative- hypnotic drugs introduced to marketplace in 1960s. (ex. Librium & Valium- among best-selling drugs in history). Modifications in chem struc
caffeine, ethyl alcohol (ethanol), nicotine, areca nut, cannabis
top 5 psychoactive drugs in order
In many communities, both ancient and contemporary, shamans are known to be: (__)all of the answers in this list of options (__) able to communicate with animals and plants (__) valuable members of and contributors to the community (__) healers (__) able to access unusual states of mind
all of the answers in this list of options
Hair cells
along the length of basilar membrane are several thousand. Bundle of hairs (cilia) attached to one end. As Basilar membrane vibrates, cilia swoosh to and fro surrounding fluid. @ opposite end of cell as the cilia, hair cells form chemical synapses w/ fibers of the auditory nerve (cranial nerve 8). Bending of hairs initiates signal from hair cell to auditory nerve to brain.
drosophila (fly)
animal with many thousands of cells in brain 75 per cent of the genes that cause disease in humans are also found in this so commonly used to study genetics
supplementary/pre motor areas
areas in the brain anterior to M1 in frontal lobes that are intimately involved in control of body movement -are involved in planning and sequencing of muscle movements
somatosensory body map
areas of the body are mapped to areas of the primary somatosensory cortex; lesions in S1 will produce a loss of sensation at the corresponding region of the body (like a scotoma) in the somatosensory cortex, the body is represented according to how things are anatomically connected discontinuities: genitals next to foot, face and tongue are separated from other body parts additionally, the cortical map does not have relative scale between body regions (features all related to somatosensory sensitivity)
idiopathic
arises from unknown/obscure cause -genetic and developmental components -can occur at any point in life, though most first appear in childhood
opioid overdose, recent trends in lethal overdoses
around 115 deaths/day in the U.S. depression of respiratory control, highly addictive from analgesic affect (numbing of pain)
Alfred Russel Wallace (1823)
arrived at ideas regarding natural selection and evolution same time as Darwin -- gave high praise for durian fruit
gross anatomy
at the macroscopic level, 2 hemispheres of the human brain are roughly identical
molecules
atoms joined together by covalent bonds Stable configuration of atoms held together by the sharing of electrons between atoms (covalent bonds)
SNARE complex
attachment proteins between vesicles and other specific proteins in boundary membrane of axon terminal poise vesicles to fuse with boundary membrane of axon
prosopagnosia
condition in which person has great difficulty or even complete loss of ability to recognize faces Sustaining a lesion in the area in the inferior and medial temporal lobe that contain cells that respond selectively to images of faces
posterior somatosensory cortex (S2, S3, etc)
contains maps of body but things represented are far less clear; lesions-weirdness, agnosias (inability to process sensory information)
cerebellum
contains most nerve cells timing and coordination of movement jerky movements
what bonds hold each chain of DNA together?
covalent bonds between sugars and phosphates
H2O is a molecule formed through what type of chemical bonds?
covalent chemical bonds
hyperpolarization
creation of a greater separation of charge across a cell membrane (i.e. increase in polarity)
contralateral connectivity
crossing over of information between visual space and the brain where the left side of the brain controls the right side of the body (specifically the right eye) and vice versa
GABA receptors
ionotropic receptors that are Cl- channels -when bound to, results in hyperpolarization (Cl- in to out of cell) -membrane potential moves further away from threshold for triggering action potential (inhibition)
Which of the following is hydrophilic: (__) lipids (__) interior of a lipid-bilayer membrane (__) oil (__) ions (__) none of the above
ions
auditory neural pathways into brain
hair cell -> cranial nerve 8 -> spiral ganglion -> brainstem medulla -> cochlea nucleus -> superior olive and lateral lemniscus -> inferior colliculus in midbrain -> LGN of thalamus -> temporal lobe of cerebral cortex -> primary auditory receptor (A1)
hair cells (inner and outer)
hairlike sensory receptors for sound which are embedded in the basilar membrane of the cochlea inner: when basilar membrane vibrates, bending of hairs and signaling to nerves, info to the brain (3500 per cochlea) outer: receives signals from the brain and changes shape of cells, stiffness and sensitivity of basilar membrane by elongating and contracting a protein called prestin (12000 outer) bending of hairs initiate signal from hair cell to synapses causes ion channels to open, neurotransmitters sent to auditory nerve thermal buffering to protect from background noise it is currently believed that the outer hair cells may be minimally involved in the direct detection and transduction of the auditory signal and instead function to change the sensitivity of the basilar membrane, making it more sensitive to low-volume sounds
Ossicles (middle ear)
hammer, anvil, stirrup (3 interconnected bones) As the eardrum vibrates, the hammer also vibrates bc it is attached to it--- this vibration then goes to the anvil and then the stirrup which is attached to the oval window (boundary for middle and inner ear)
chronic sleep deprivation
impairs cognitive and motor performance
vagus nerve
important role in autonomic neural component of emotion; neural connections between brain & large region of the core Parasympathetic functions to decrease heart rate Vagal tone: resting vagus nerve activity
nootropics
improve aspects of cognition, including memory ex. caffeine, amphetamines, nicotine, arecoline
clinical antidepressant medications
increase presence of neurotransmitters norepinephrine and serotonin at synapses - Prozac: SSRIs - Serotonin reuptake inhibitors - Dopamine receptor antagonists antipsychotic meds > antagonist action at dopamine receptors > dopamine hypothesis of psychosis
Brain size has generally __________ as a function of time throughout hominin evolution
increased
postsynaptic neuroplasticity
influence gene transcription so +/- NT receptors produced in postsynaptic membrane
ephatic coupling
influence of local field potentials (electric fields) on nearby neurons generated via flowing charged particles and respective generation of electromagnetic fields
Caffeine is an antagonist at adenosine receptors. From this, we may conclude that adenosine likely produces a(n) _____ effect in neurons
inhibitory
adenosine
inhibitory neurotransmitter slows heart rate, opens up vessels, and decreases neuron excitability G protein-coupled receptor
IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential -change in membrane potential usually bc of ionotropic GABA receptors (hyperpolarization
IPSP
inhibitory postsynaptic potential if more of this, there will be hyperpolarization in the cell produced by Cl flowing into the cell or K flowing out of the cell
violence, killing of conspecifics (members of same species)
intelligence + primal capacity for fear/violence = powerful weapons
bacterial chemotaxis
interaction of nutrients with receptor proteins reduces the likelihood of tumbling and keeps the bacterium moving in a direction where nutrients are present
taste receptor proteins: ion channels and GPCRs
ion channel (ionotropic): salt, sour GPCRs: bitter, sweet, umami
Cerebellum
is also involved in the regulation of movement (which wraps around the brainstem and is very densely packed with neurons and neural connections) -- estimation of # of nerve cells = upward of 50 billion -- HENCE there are more neurons in the cerebellum all one than there are in the rest of the brain -- one type of cerebellar neuron = Purkinje cell named after Czech anatomist and physiologist Jan Purkyne (1787-1867) who first described these neurons. Each Purkinje cell may have several hundred thousand dendritic spines receiving input from other neurons NOTE: cerebellum is involved with the timing and coordination of movement. -- damage to cerebellum would not result in paralysis but they would be impaired in their ability to smoothly execute movements. Even simple movements become jerky and clumsy. -- movements are noticeably compromised in timing -- ALSO consider case of someone who has stroke resulting in damage to both the posterior frontal and anterior parietal lobes. Posterior frontal lobe damage results in paralysis. Anterior parietal lobe damage results in loss of body sensation and other somatosensory weirdness (or like somatosensory neglect). These effects are experienced on the side of the body contralateral to the side of the brain affected by the stroke -- if stroke lesion is to right hemisphere, one suffers paralysis on left side of body coupled with left somatosensory weirdness on left side of body-- CONTRALATERAL EFFECTS
Posterior Somatosensory Cortex (S2, S3, S4, S5, and so on): how is it related to somatosensory agnosias? (and also neglect syndromes?
is collectively called the Secondary Somatosensory Cortex -- they contain maps of the body but the things represented in these maps are far less clear than is the case for S1 -- while lesions in S1 produce simple loss of sensation in a particular region of the body, legions in the secondary somatosensory cortex are associated with various kinds of somatosensory weirdness, in which touch sensations may field weird or confusing in diff. ways -- this is called SOMATOSENSORY AGNOSIAS -- they may also cause NEGLECT SYNDROMES in which touch sensation is intact but usually ignored or not recognized unless one's attention is specifically drawn to it
O-15
isotope injected in water to track blood flow to ROIs (corresponds to activity levels)
fatty acid
kind of lipid molecule consisting of a hydrocarbon chain with a carboxylic acid group (COOH) at one end
pseudogene
nonfunctional gene that, though appear to code for olfactory GPCRs, are altered in some way so that they do not code for functional receptor proteins proteins lost through mutation and evolution 600 pseudogenes in humans
jet lag
lack of synchrony between internal clock and new time zone takes several days for the body to properly sync
auditory nerve
the nerve that carries impulses from the inner ear to the brain, resulting in the perception of sound cranial nerve #8
Scotoma
lesion in V1; blind spot in specific region of space (lesion disrupts flow of visual info to brain b/c LGN cells→ V1 is cut). If small, unnoticeable.
cortical achromatopsia
lesion in V4: disruption of color vision could lead to complete loss of color awareness cortical lesion: "cortical" because can be related to a cortical lesion rather than a retinal condition (issue in the brain and not the eyeball)
Cortical achromatopsia
lesion in V4; disrupts color vision from faded/ washed out to complete loss of range
motion blindness
lesion in V5 where person is unaware of movement of visual space (series of snapshots)
Motion blindness/ akinetopsia:
lesion in V5; person is unaware of movement in some region of visual space, and the world is series of snapshots.
Prosopagnosia
lesion in in the inferior (lower) and medial (middle) temporal lobe; person has great difficulty or even complete loss in the ability to recognize faces
LD-50, what is it for botox?
lethal dose that kills 50% of test samples -lethal dose for 50% of people is ~2ng/kg
local anesthesia
loss of sensation only where chemicals have been applied to (as apposed to global) -do not completely block voltage-gated Na+ channels, but interfere enough to alter action potential generation
hemianopia
loss of vision in one half of visual space (damage in V1)
Amplitude
loudness of sound (magnitude of pressure variation). High amp= louder
ionotropic receptor
major type of neurotransmitter receptor protein -AKA ligand-gated channel receptor
metabotropic receptor, GPCR
major type of neurotransmitter receptor protein -affect intracellular chemistry -doesn't directly open an ion channel, but can cause a variety of different things -more prolonged and amplified effects than that cause by ionotropic receptors -generally referred to as GPCR (G-protein-coupled-receptor)
Miracle fruit (synsepalum dulcificum)
makes sour things taste sweet after eating this fruit Miraculin protein (199 amino acids)- binds to sweet receptor GPCR dimer. Strong agonist effects only @ highly acidic pH.
PET scan
measures positron emission of injected radioactive isotope decay
gap junction
mechanical, electrically conductive link between two neighboring neurons that forms at a narrow gap between pre and post synaptic neurons clusters of proteins form channels in membranes of 2 adjacent cells allows ions/ATP/glucose to pass from one cell to the next 'direct' contact
serotonin and mood disorders
mediator of positive mood, used to treat mood disorders
paralytic shellfish poisoning
medical condition from STX poisoning. Symptoms: numbness, muscle weakness, paralysis, death (respiratory paralysis)... Treatment= artificial respiration BIG problem for whales and marine animals Highly hydrophilic-- does not cross BBB
The ancient Greek word pharmakon means at the same time poison and ______
medicine
pharmakon
medicine and poison at the same time depends on dosage - Paracelsus
Lipids/ fats
medium-sized molecules that are composed of carbon and hydrogen in long chains; energy storage (bc carbon bonds)
peyote cactus, Arthur Heffter, mescaline
mescaline (active psychedelic chemical) discovered by Arthur Heffter from peyote cactus (found in Mexico) used by natives of the Americas
enteric nervous system
mesh-like system of neurons that governs the function of the gastrointestinal tract -capable of acting independent of sympathetic/parasympathetic systems, though it may be influenced by them
Neuronal growth and movement during development is mediated by an elaborate intracellular structure called the cytoskeleton - composed of large, polymeric proteins called microfilaments and ____________________.
microtubes
tubulin
microtubules
auditory neural pathways into brain
neurotransmitters released that forms an action potential > signals brain cells in spiral ganglia > cochlear nucleus > brainstem > midbrain > thalamus > cerebral cortex > primary auditory cortex NT released from hair cell, signal generated in spiral ganglion or postsynaptic dendrites of cranial nerve #8 > brainstem axons of cranial nerve create synapses in cells called the cochlear nucleus > neurons of cochlear nucleus send axons to pons regions called the superior olive & lateral leminiscus > auditory centers all send axons to the inferior colliculus in the midbrain > inferior colliculus projects to medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of thalamus > MGN sends axons into the temporal lobe of cerebral cortex to A1 pathways: eardrum vibrates > hits middle ear bones (ossicles - hammer, anvil, stirrup) and they vibrate > hit oval window of cochlea > pushes on fluids of cochlea so it vibrates) sound wave moves air; enters ear canal; vibrates eardrum; vibrates ossicles and oval window; vibrates fluid in cochlea; vibrates basilar membrane; hair cells on the basilar membrane bend; K+ influx = depolarization; Ca2+ influx (more K+ outside than inside the cochlea); NT released, signal generated by postsynaptic dendrite (of 8th cranial nerve); in medulla, axons of auditory nerve synapse with cells in cochlear nucleas; axons sent to midbrain; projects to medial geniculate nucleus (MGN) of the thalamus; temporal lobe & A1
sponges
no nerve cells or NS
blind spot
no photoreceptors can be found in this small region of the retina at the optic nerve
What type of chemical bond is the hydrogen bond?
noncovalent
naive realism
notion in epistemology that what we perceive is identical to what actually exists in the world. -café wall illusion can show how naive realism is faulty
what are the symptoms of TTX?
numbness, muscle weakness, paralysis
Olfactor sensory perception begins with _____________, which are airborn volatile molecules (latin 'volar' = fly)
odorants -- they enter nasal passages via constant streams of air inhaled and exhaled through the nose -- some of these molecules are caught in moist/ mucousy tissue lining interior of nasal passages called OLFACTORY EPITHELIUM (epithelium = cells that line many surfaces throughout the body). These molecules come into contact with CILIA of olfactory receptor cells, populated by olfactory receptor proteins
olfaction
odorants (airborne volatile molecules; latin volare = "to fly") enter the nasal passages, via the constant streams of air inhaled and exhaled through the nose olfactory bulb, nerve fibers, receptors influences components of flavor as well
olfactory receptor cells
odorants, airborne volatile molecules— enter the nasal passages, via the constant streams of air inhaled and exhaled through the nose -Molecules come into contact with the cilia of ______ -These cilia extend into mucous lining of nasal passage, and their filamentous structure provides a large surface area containing ____________ proteins -A particular odorant molecule will differentially activate to varying extents some subset of our 350 different olfactory GPCRs
essential oil
oily concentrate of aromatic molecules from a plant distinctive scent of the plant with its medicinal qualities prepared by distillation
free-running rhythm
when a biological clock is decoupled from synchronization by environmental cues, it will depend on internal mechanisms for keeping time (typically a bit more or less than 24 hours)
Niels Bohr
one of the most influential physicists in the development of quantum mechanics Claimed that observation places limits on what we can know about the universe → limits capacity of any physical theory to describe reality that exists beyond our observations (quantum mechanics- physical world based on our perception) To study structure/function of organisms at subcellular level= kill organism :(
tetrodotoxin (TTX), what does it do?
one of the most poisonous chemicals found in puffer fish and a variety of animals; no antidote -blocks voltage-gated Na+ channels, temporarily preventing neurons from sending signals -peripheral nerves unable to generate normal action potentials
Erwin Schrödinger (1887-1961)
one of the principle architects of quantum mechanics -inspired by Delbrück, published "What is Life?", which dealt with the molecular basis of life and Delbrück's idea of genes as large molecules -> this inspired other physicists to research the physical basis of life (later became molecular cell biology)
sleep hygiene
optimizing conditions conductive to restful sleep maintaining a regular wake-sleep pattern, relaxing as much as possible before sleep, avoiding exposure to bright light (such as computer screens) shortly before retiring, avoiding eating large meals late in the evening, decreasing or eliminating caffeine and alcohol consumption, and so forth 90% use a tech device < 1hr before bedtime, correlated with increased difficulty falling asleep reduced sleepiness longer sleep onset time reduced melatonin secretion later timing of circadian clock (next evening melatonin onset) reduced next morning alertness
Auditory perception
outer ear (pinna) → ear canal → tympanic membrane (eardrum) set into vibration when air molecules strike (boundary of outer and middle ear) → middle ear
macula
oval yellowish area surrounding the fovea near the center of the retina in the eye, which is the region of keenest vision
age of oldest life
over 3 billion years
age of nervous systems
over 600 million years
excitotoxicity
overexcitation of neurons by glutamate= toxic!! Can cause death!! overexcitation= many ionotropic glutamate receptors allow large amounts of Ca++ into cell ⇒ normal processes inhibited
electromagnetic spectrum, visible light
packets of energy aka photons both wavelike and particle-like photos
superior colliculus
pathway that is heavily involved in responding to sensory stimuli in ways that are rapid and do not involve awareness
protein secondary structure
patterns of local folding within protein produced by interactions of nearby amino acids
DMT, ayahuasca
similar to serotonin, derived from tryptophan widely found in nature and possible endogenous (likely has an internal origin) neurotransmitter ayahuasca vine combined with a DMT-containing plant, combined will produce an even stronger effect
how can you die from botox?
paralysis of respiration
sympathetic NS
part of autonomic NS "fight or flight" Increases heart rate, dilates lung airways, dilates pupils, inhibits salivation, inhibits bladder from voiding, decreases intestinal motility
tectum in midbrain
part of brainstem that regulates auditory and visual reflexes
medulla
part of brainstem that regulates breathing , digestion
pons
part of brainstem that regulates sleep
superior collocus
part of the midbrain involved in rapid responses to sensory stimuli that do not involve awareness (10% of optic nerve axons) other 90% head to thalamus
Toxins like tetrodotoxin (TTX) and saxitoxin (STX) affect the _______ nervous system; they _____ cross the blood-brain barrier
peripheral do not
In the body, the neurotransmitter norepinephrine is derived from which amino acid?
phenylalanine tyrosine
pheromones, vomeronasal organ
pheromones: chemicals that carry signal information related to social communications between members of the same species vomeronasal organ: olfactory sensory structure and neural pathway that responds to pheromone molecules debated in humans whether or not the system exists
Opsin
photoreceptor GCPR protein (color)... initiate process for neural signal cones
cephalopod eye vs human eye
photoreceptor cells for humans is in the back behind the ganglion, bipolar etc for octopus the cells are in the front first thing
Rhodopsin
photoreceptor protein molecules (no input in color perception). 100 million per rod
melanopsin
photoreceptor protein photosensitive ganglion cells
Opsin
photoreceptor protein protein (color)... initiate process for neural signal cones
phototropism, phototaxis
phototropism: bending or growing towards light phycomyes: uses phototropism phototaxis: movement towards light
sound: physical and perceptual properties, frequency, amplitude, tone, pitch, loudness
physical and perceptual properties: sound as a mental experience, variation in air pressure frequency: higher frequency = shorter wave length; velocity of movement = frequency of variation multiplied by wavelength amplitude: high amplitude experienced as louder sounds tone, pitch, loudness: light can be conceptualized as a propagating vibration of an electromagnetic field; corresponding to the perceptual qualities of tone and loudness for sound are the qualities of color and brightness, respectively, for light
explanatory gap, hard problem
physical workings of the brain and body gap between physical and subjective
aromas: mixtures of molecules vs single molecules
plant aromas are composed of dozens of different molecules with combinations of receptor proteins
heroin, semi-synthetic opioids
plant derived compounds with synthetic chemical modifications heroin: analgesic (relieves pain) and cough medicine BAYER produced a compound 2x as potent as morphine, acetyl groups made less polar, first semi-synthetic; demonstrated that changing chemical properties can yield stronger results
antipsychotic medications: dopamine receptor antagonists
plants: reserpine, chlorpromazine (Thorazine)
The greek root form which the english words parmacology, pharmaceutical, and pharmacy are derived means:
poison and medicine
Molecules such as water are considered __________, because they possess a separation of electric charge, due to the fact that their constituent atoms do not share electrons equally.
polar
receptive field
portion of the retina that, when stimulated, causes the activity of higher order neurons to change an individual sensory neuron, modifying the firing of other neurons
ionotropic ACh receptors
positive Na ion channels depolarize/excitatory mediate communication between nerves and skeletal muscles this NT acts on both ____ and GPCR
hemorrhage
when a blood vessel breaks and leaks blood into surrounding tissue, due to structural weakness cause of stroke
alzheimer's
presence of senile plaques (b-amyloid deposits) and neurofibrillary tangles (tau protein)
Wada test
presurgical test for determinaning language-dominant cerebral hemisphere barbiturate injected to test for lateralization of language now replaced with non-invasive procedures
hominin genera
primary groups: ardipithecus (4.4 mya) australopithecus (3.3 mya) homo (200,000 ya)
nondeclarative LTM
priming, procedural, classical conditioning
pro-social emotions
pro-social emotions are emotions that matter most to human behavior examples include laughter, play, love, gratitude, compassion, and forgiveness new theory
apraxia
when a person with frontal premotor lesion might still be able to execute all individual movements associated with particular action, but would not be able to organize and sequence them appropriately
Psilocybin mushrooms
psychedelically active chemicals from Mexican Psyclicobe mushroom that was introduced by Maria Sabina -Rituals used to facilitate access to states of consciousness considered sacred and mystical were condemned as devil worship and ceremonies became closely guarded secrets for 400 years
Edward Tolman
psychology faculty 1918-1951; resisted loyalty oath (not communist) for UC campuses→ supreme court allowed no signing!
dopamine hypothesis of psychosis
psychosis symptoms were somehow related to overactivity in dopamine pathways antipsychotic medications are dopamine receptor antagonists
monoamine NT
psychostimulant activity dopamine, norepinephrine (noradrenaline), epinephrine (adrenaline) made form essential amino acid - phenylalanine
infrared
radiation that is slightly lower in energy than visible light, and is not visible to us, but is absorbed by many molecules in such a way as to set them vibrating
PET isotopes and their uses: fluorine, oxygen, carbon
radioactive glucose made by replacing one of the oxygen items with fluorine-18, more active the neuron, the more glucose it will take up from the blood radioactive water where oxygen-15 is used, injected into blood, body distributes more flow of blood the more energy is required measure locations of dopamine receptors by using carbon-11, agonist or antagonist with carbon-11 sticks to dopamine receptors
Karl Lashley
rat navigation in maze experiments lesions effect on performance -- increase size proportional to decrease in performance, but location didn't matter
utricle, saccule
receptor cells that detect the movement of fluid in the attached semicircular canals detects changes in orientation and movement two bulbous sacs that are parts of the vestibular system hair cells
TRP channels (transient receptor potential)
receptor protein for capsaicin and hot temperature (43-50 celcius) -TRPV1; ion channels open in response to capsaicin
TRP channels
receptor proteins (capsaicin receptors) ion channel opens in response to capsaicin and 43-50 degree Celsius activated by changes in temperature activated by menthol (cool) and capsaicin (hot and spicy) located all over the body
somatosensory receptors
receptors responsive to touch and poking are presumed to be based on some sort of mechanically-gated ion channels
Wilder Penfield, epileptogenic tissue
recorded electrical activity directly from cerebral cortex who had train exposed could determine relationship between cortex regions and various functions
electroencephalography (EEG)
records moving electromagnetic charges that pass through surrounding tissues and detectable at the surface of the head, neural activity of the brain can be recorded neural activity averaged overlarge regions of cerebral cortex; not good for precise measurement needs ~128 electrodes for more interesting readings, great for time resolution
language lateralization and handedness
right handed people: 97% left-hemisphere language dominance left handed people: 70% in left 15% in right hemisphere 15% in both hemispheres spoken language activated in primary auditory cortex A1 - if linguistic quality, Wernicke's activated - if understood by listener, Broca's also activated
Photoreceptor Outer segment
rhodopsin and cone opsin photoreceptor proteins. 350 amino acids in long chain in bilayer membrane (winds 7 times)
Eric Kandel
sea slug studies... studied the molecular nature of short and long term strengthening of synapses and reflexive behavior of slugs gill withdrawal.... strongly aversive stimuli increased robustness of reaction repetition increased the amount of time the robust reaction lasted due to higher levels of intracellular cAMP --> more sustained action of PKA... eventually leading to genetic change (gill-withdrawal learning)
SETI
searching the heavens for any sign of radio signal in cosmic noise.
Blind Spot
small region in the retina that is a short distance from the fovea where NO cones or rods (no photoreceptors at all)! Place where the axons from neurons in the retina come together in a bundle (optic nerve) and exit the eyeball to brain! Any light that hits it will NOT be detected.
Which one of the following statement is FALSE regarding seizures? (__) idiopathic seizures have unknown causes (__) tumors, brain infections, high fever, head trauma, and certain drugs are all capable of inducing seizures (__) epilepsy is a condition characterized by recurrent seizures (__) antiocnvulsant drugs may act by reducing excitation or enchancing inhibitiation in the CNS (__) seizures result primarily from the hyper-excitation of neurons via metabortrpic glutamate receptors
seizures result primarily from the hyperexcitation of neurons via metabotropic glutamate receptors
Inner hair cells
send signals to spiral ganglion & cochlear nucleus (3500 per cochlea)
sensation, perception
sensation: the collection of information from the environment via sensory organs and receptors perception: analysis and interpretation of this information by the nervous system, contributing to the experience of mental states of perceptual awareness
Wernicke's aphasia
sensory agnosia for language comprehension L posterior temporal lesion
sensation, perception
sensory perception 2 basic components: 1.) collection of information from environment through sensory organs, this is sensation 2.)analysis and interpretation of this information by nervous system, this is perception
central sulcus
separates frontal and parietal lobes
longitudinal fissure
separates left and right hemisphere
lateral fissure
separates temporal from frontal and parietal lobes
raphe nuclei
serotonergic neurons on brainstem 200,000 cells
Which neurotransmitter is made primarly in several clusters of cells in the brainstem called the raphe nuclei?
serotonin
cranial nerves
set of 12 paired nerves that arise directly from brain stem (not spinal cord) -connect CNS and PNS
hair cells
several thousand elegant little cells running along the length of the basilar membrane that are characterized by a bundle of hairs or cilia attached to one end -tiny movements of hairs are sufficient to open the mechanically gated ion channels, leading to release of neurotransmitter at synapse with auditory nerve
corpus callosotomy
severed corpus callosum little impact on dogs and monkeys language expression issues even though tactile perception is still intact
Cochlea
shaped like a conch; vibration from air medium→ fluid medium; vibration of oval window sets fluids inside cochlea into vibration. Fourier analysis
microvilli
small internal cytoskeletal structure of actin increase sensory surface area
NREM stages
stages of sleep that differ by EEG activity
amphetamine and related molecules: effects at synapses
similar effects to cocaine but different structure causes reuptake transporters for norepinephrine and dopamine to become leaky; as a result of overstimulation
fMRI, hemoglobin, BOLD signal
similar to MRI but collects a series of magnetic resonance images over time to look at something that changes with neural activity BOLD signal: measurement of increased blood flow into regions of the brain that are more neurally active
neural synapse gap
size is 20 nm
cerebrum, cerebellum, brain stem
size of cerebrum increases relative to the rest of the brain, as you go from fish/amphibians/reptiles to bird/mammals
dura mater
skin-like sheet of tissue right under the skull
human sleep, NREM, REM, stages
sleep divided into NREM (non rapid eye movement, 4 stages) and REM (rapid eye movement) stages 3, 4 are delta waves (slow-waves) recognized by EEG measurements
sleep and learning, memory, consolidation
sleep prepares brain to encode new information for storage in long-term memory substantial memory consolidation takes place during sleep
coronal
slice through brain opposite corpus callosum
sagittal
slice through corpus callosum
axial
slice through forehead to back of head and look down
ultraviolet
slightly higher in energy than visible light, very abundant in sunlight
retinal
small molecule that is covalently attached to the protein, but not an amino acid, that absorbs the light and begins cascade of events leading to a neural signal ( occurs in rhodopsin and in various different cone-opsins)
dendritic spine
small protrusions from dendrite that receives input from a single axon at the synapse
temporal and spatial resolution
spatial resolution: EEG > PET > ME > fMRI temporal resolution PET > fMRI > MEG > EEG
anosmia: specific and general
specific anosmia: loss of sensitivity to a certain kind of smell; caused by genetic variation in one of the GPCRs general anosmia: loss of sensitivity to a large variety of aromas
Wilder Penfield
stimulated various regions of the cerebral cortex in patients on whom he was performing brain surgery -During these surgeries, patients were awake and able to respond to his questions -By stimulating various parts of brain and listening to how patients described their associated experiences, he characterized the location of somatosensory cortex in the parietal lobe and was the first to describe the somatosensory map of the body
menthol
stimulates thermoreceptors to create the illusion of cold ionotropic receptor protein
The Mind of a Mnemonist
story of S, a man with synesthesia, and his ability to remember
A modification to pre-synaptic voltage-gated Ca++ channels that results in prolonged channel opening would _________________ the synapse.
strengthen
Donald Hebb
studied how neural networks represent information storage aspects of memory related to set of associated experience and setting
Aplysia californica
studies on sea slugs show that structural changes in neural networks occur over time the more you use a circuit, the stronger a response you will get from it over time how precise molecular changes may be related to short-term and long-term memory
Schedule One controlled substance
substances that have a high potential for abuse which may lead to psychological or physical dependence. (ex. Oxycontin, Fentanyl). No current accepted medical use.
botulinum toxin
taken into ACh presynaptic terminals, interferes w neurotrans release, reduces effectiveness of ACh at neuromuscular junction! ⇒ paralysis of muscles locally (cholinergic chemical synapse)
ECoG (Electrocorticography)
technique used that detects electrical activity directly from the surface of the cerebral cortex (exposed brain/surgical electrodes). Used before brain surgeries in which epileptogenic tissue is removed.
The human brain is believed to contain approximately how many neurons?
ten billion
basilar membrane
thin tissue that runs along length of cochlea, down the central core of its spiral interior -Thicker end vibrates resonantly with higher frequencies and thinner end vibrates resonantly with lower frequencies -Basilar membrane creates a spatial representation of component frequencies of sound entering ear— a Fourier analysis of sound
Basilar membrane
thin tissue that runs down the central core of cochlea's spiral interior. Thickest at end nearest oval window, thinnest @other end→ different frequencies set fluid in vibration= resonance! (Thick end vibrates= high frequencies; thin end=low frequencies) Creates spatial representation of component of frequencies of sound entering ear-- Fourier analysis of sound!!
magnetic field strength: Gauss, Tesla
tesla: unit of magnetic field strength earth's magnetic field ~0.5 gauss
Paul Ekman
tested constructivist versus evolutionary perspectives comparison of facial expression across cultures... found basic emotions were universal across many human societies (even isolated tribal groups) discovered there were culture-specific "display rules" - who could show emotion to who
THC has been identified as the primary psychoactive chemical component in the plant Cannabis. What is the complete name of THC?
tetrahydrocannabinoldelta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol
What is a receptive field of a cell?
the area on the retina, corresponding to the area of the visual field, to which a cell is responsive (shining light on a neuron doesn't activate neuron; shining light on some part of visual space activates photoreceptors which activates neuron) -- there is one to one mapping between input and neuronal activity
electromagnetic spectrum
the electromagnetic spectrum of radiation encompasses an enormous range of energy, from very high-energy gamma rays and x-rays to moderately high-energy ultraviolet radiation, to visible light, to infrared radiation, to microwaves, and finally to relatively low-energy radio waves
You decide to replicate Roger Sperry's classic frog experiment. You begin by surgically rotating a frog's left eye 180°, thereby inverting the vision in that eye. You then cut the optic nerves in both eyes and allow them to re-grow. Which of the following statements regarding the frog's vision is TRUE?
the frog will have normal vision in the right eye, and inverted vision in the left
color anomalous
the inability to discriminate different colors. Certain changes in amino-acid sequence of an opsin protein will leave the protein functional, but altered in its way that the result is a small change in ability to discriminate colors
ephaptic coupling
the influence of electric fields on nearby neurons responsible for dark energy substrate for coupling sensory input and motor output: perception and action
tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
the major psychoactive chemical constituent of cannabis
Nasal Epithelium or Olfactory Epithelium
the moist/ mucousy tissue lining interior of nasal passages -- within nasal epithelium there are stem cells (not primordial stem cells) but they can differentiate into different types of olfactory receptor cells -- olfactory stem cells allow receptor cells to be regularly replaced (happens about every 1 or 2 months) and this is important because direct exposure of receptor cells to potentially toxic substances from environment results in accumulation of cellular damage. HENCE the cost of chemoreception
beta-carotene
the most chemical precursors to retinal and retinol in nature that gives carrots their orange color
color blindness
when a more substantial change in color perception comes about if there is enough change in opsin gene to render the resulting cone-opsin protein nonfunctional, and in this case, one entire type of functional cone receptor is lost
retina: bipolar cells, ganglion cells
three major layers of cells: photoreceptor cells, bipolar cells, and ganglion cells bipolar cells: transmits signals from the photoreceptors to the ganglion cells ganglion cells: axons form optic nerve; collect visual information in their dendrites from bipolar cells and amacrine cells, then transmits this to the brain
Otoliths
tiny ear stones, crystals of calcium carbonate. They are suspended in fluid above hair cells to bend hairs for sensory signal and balance.
Which of these molecules would be most likely to cross the blood brain barrier without the assistance of a transporter:
to cross the blood-brain barrier without a transporter requires that a molecule be sufficiently hydrophobic to diffuse through the hydrophobic interior of lipid bilayer membranes. no -OH
intelligence
to discern or comprehend does not include awareness, inner subjective experience, or sentience
hydrogen (found in water)
to obtain image of internal, spatial patterns of an organism, MRI measures spin property of this molecule
neglect syndrome
touch sensation is intact but usually ignored unless special attention is drawn to it
neglect syndrome
touch sensation is intact, but it is usually ignored or not recognized, unless one's attention is specifically drawn to it (lesion in 2nd SS cortex)
mindfulness meditation
training and practice in bringing one's awareness back to the focus of attention (breadth)
mindfulness meditation
training and practice in bringing one's awareness repeatedly back to a focus of attention (breath) ⇒ prosocial emotion and emotional balance, lowered depression and anxiety, lowered stress, enhanced function of immune system.
alchemy
tranformations of matter and psyche
alchemy
transformation of matter and psyche; became redefined as chemistry through 17th and 18th centuries to be devoid of psyche
iontrophic receptor
transmitter binds to one receptor protein and opens ion channel does one thing VERY QUICKLY Neurotransmitter binds to postsynaptic receptor→ ion channel opens → specific ions flow in → membrane potential changes ⇒ rapid change in excitability!
nucleotide codons
triplet sequences of nucleotides in DNA that represents amino acids
causes of seizure
tumor, brain infection, high fever, injury to head, drugs, sleep deprivation, bright light
REM sleep and dreams
twitching of eyeball and time spent in REM sleep decreases throughout childhood 1.5hrs - 2hrs / night in adulthood found in mammals and birds but not reptiles, etc.
utricle, saccule
two bulbous cavities that are apart of the vestibular system that help detect the orientation relative to gravity inside the bony labyrinth has receptor cells that detect movement of fluid in the 3 semicircular canals.
olfactory bulb
two lobes on the bottomside of the brain gathers the messages from the olfactory receptor cells and send the information to the brain
Camillo Golgi & Santiago Ramon y Caja
two men who found elaborate interconnecting nerve cells in the brain pioneers of brain neuroanatomy
receptive map (neural pathway)
two optic nerves leave both eyes then right one goes to left side of brain and vice versa world > retina > cortex 10% to superior collocus 90% to thalamus then to LGN
annihilation
when a particle encounters an antiparticle mass gets converted to energy via 2 high-energy gamma-ray photons sent in opposite directions gamma-ray detectors use triangulation property to determine the precise location of the radioactive decay how a PET scan localized decay of an isotope
gustatory neural pathways
two tracts one to thalamus and to somatosensory in parietal lobe and then one to hypothalamus and amygdala cranial nerve #7, 9, 10 > lower brainstem > nucleus solitarius > thalamus ( > somatosensory cortex OR > insula) OR > hypothalamus and amygdala
oligodendrocyte
type of glial cell in the brain that helps form the myelin
Schwann cell
type of glial cell in the peripheral nervous system that helps form the myelin
fatty acid
type of lipid molecule with carboxylic acid group (-COOH) at end of hydrocarbon chain
premotor mirror neurons
type of neurons in Broca's area active in observation and generation
stem cells, cell differentiation
undifferentiated cell capable of making many more of the same type under cell differentiation can give rise to other cell types
protein tertiary structure
unique overall 3D shape of entire protein molecule created by electrical/geometric properties of amino acids guiding how they fold
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
uses quantum spin to interact with magnetic fields and produce 3D reconstruction of the brain's internal structure more detailed than CT
neurotrophins, nerve growth and guidance factors
variety of protein molecules and mechanisms that regulate processes of cell growth, differentiation, migration, and synaptogenesis NGF: nerve growth factor promotes survival and growth
electroceuticals: vagus nerve stimulation, TMS, etc.
vegal nerve stimulation (VNS) is a medical treatment involved with delivering electrical impulses to the vagus nerve, used as a adjunctive treatment for certain kinds of intractable epilepsy and treatment-resistant depression TMS is transcranial magnetic stimulation, magnetic fields stimulate nerve cells to improve symptoms of depression
honeybee waggle dance
waggle to signal other bees
sleep walking
walking while still asleep, typically during slow wave sleep usually, if awakened during this, sleeper will not remember the dream
audition: very low and very high frequency sound detection
we humans are capable of hearing within approximate range of 20 to 20,000 cycles of vibrations per second (or hertz)
human pheromones, vomeronasal organ
we may or may not, research iffy may be responsible for menstrual synchrony in women, sexual attraction, leukocyte antigen genes, tears vomeronasal organ: in rodents (not humans), nasal cavity responsible for pheromone detection
memory: working or short-term, long-term
working tends to last from seconds to a few minutes (generally less than 10 items) long term: involves information storage and retrieval
Visual Map
world→ retina→ optic nerve→ optic chiasm (intersection of 2 optic nerves) w/ axons of each nerve going to opposite side of brain.
Erwin Schrodinger
wrote What is LIfe? investigation of life at molecular and atomic level... led to discovery of new physics laws
CT scan
x-ray image taken from multiple angles to increase precision and create a 3D image
static / structural brain imaging
x-ray, CT, MRI