PSYC 107 Exam 3
When most people read, they do so by seeing a "window" of about __________ letters. 3 5 7 plus or minus 2 11
11
How many morphemes are in the word "triangle"? 1 2 3 7
3
How many fixations per second does a typical reader have when reading an average page of text? 1 4 20 100
4
After classically conditioning some response, how might one produce extinction of the response? Repeatedly present the UCS alone, without the CS. Repeatedly present the CS alone, without the UCS. Allow for the passage of time without any further training. Punish any responses.
Repeatedly present the CS alone, without the UCS.
How can one extinguish a classically conditioned response? Wait a long time without more training. Repeatedly present the unconditioned stimulus by itself. Repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus by itself. Stop providing positive reinforcements.
Repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus by itself.
If a person goes without sleep for several days, what happens? The person eventually has to catch up on every missed hour of sleep. Sleepiness decreases at the end of each sleepless night, as morning arrives. After a couple of days it becomes impossible to concentrate even briefly. Sleepiness continues to increase, in direct proportion to the deprivation period.
Sleepiness decreases at the end of each sleepless night, as morning arrives.
After a prolonged period of sleep deprivation, what happens to the brain? Brain temperature increases. Some neurons are active but others are as inactive as in sleep. All neurons produce slower than average action potentials. Many synapses begin sending their messages backwards.
Some neurons are active but others are as inactive as in sleep.
What procedure produces extinction in operant conditioning? Wait a long time without more training. Repeatedly present the unconditioned stimulus by itself. Repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus by itself. Stop providing positive reinforcements.
Stop providing positive reinforcements.
What happens to the brain's representation of a sensory stimulus on occasions when people are conscious of it, that does not happen when they are unconscious of it? The activity is mostly in the right hemisphere of the brain. The activity causes secretions by the pineal gland. The activity evoked in the brain is briefer. The activity spreads through much more of the brain.
The activity spreads through much more of the brain.
Someone with right-hemisphere damage ordinarily neglects the left side of objects. What happens if the person closes his/her eyes and tries to describe a scene form memory? The description neglects the left side. The description includes both sides. The description neglects the right side. The description neglects whichever side had more interesting content.
The description neglects the left side.
What enables humans to learn language so much more easily than other species? Humans have larger brains than any other species. Humans can be rewarded by a wider variety of reinforcements. The human brain has areas specialized for language processing. Humans can hear a wider range of sounds than any other species.
The human brain has areas specialized for language processing.
Why is it impossible for sleepwalking to occur during REM sleep? The postural muscles are so relaxed that they would not support a person. The heart rate is so slow that there would not be enough blood flowing to the large muscles. The REM stage is too brief for any prolonged activity. The EEG shows too much spontaneous activity for specific muscles to be stimulated.
The postural muscles are so relaxed that they would not support a person.
The threat of cancer is not always effective in discouraging people from smoking. Why not? The punishment is slow and unpredictable. Weak punishments are more effective than intense punishments. Punishments are effective for some people and not for others. Punishment is effective in childhood but less effective in adulthood.
The punishment is slow and unpredictable.
What do positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement have in common with each other? They both depend on the presentation of a desirable stimulus. They both depend on the presentation of an undesirable stimulus. They both weaken a behavior. They both strengthen a behavior.
They both strengthen a behavior.
What problem do people with sleep apnea experience? They often stop breathing while they are asleep. They suddenly fall asleep in the middle of the day. They walk and talk in their sleep. Once they fall asleep, they have trouble waking up again.
They often stop breathing while they are asleep.
Researchers wanted to present a stimulus that would become conscious on some trials and not on others, while keeping the stimulus itself the same. Which of these methods did they use to make the stimulus unconscious? The administered drugs that interfere with brain activity. They presented interfering stimuli before and after the stimulus. They directly stimulated certain areas of the brain. They presented the stimulus while the person was asleep.
They presented interfering stimuli before and after the stimulus.
"Change Blindness" is a failure to notice changes in 2 versions of the same scene. True False
True
A "saccade" is movement of the eyeballs while reading. True False
True
A green cowboy hat is a good example of a neutral stimulus for dog salivating. True False
True
A person is considered conscious if they are aware of themselves and their surroundings. True False
True
A person's wave is an observable response. True False
True
A person's wave is an observable stimulus. True False
True
All "conditioned stimuli" began life as a "neutral stimulus." True False
True
Behaviorists considered the study of consciousness inappropriate for a scientific psychology. True False
True
Bottom up processing is preattentive processing. True False
True
Broca's area is critical for speech production. True False
True
Classical conditioning refers to behavioral responding that occurs without conscious effort. True False
True
Detecting electric fields on the head is a way to detect and measure brain activity. True False
True
Ivan Pavlov did research on dog salivating. True False
True
Operant conditioning uses a "schedule of reinforcement" to train animals and people. True False
True
Children who are frequently spanked tend to be ill-behaved. What conclusion (if any) can we draw from this result? Spanking leads to undesirable behaviors. Parents prone to violence tend to have children with the same genetic tendency. When children are spanked, they develop psychological distress. We can draw none of these conclusions.
We can draw none of these conclusions.
According to the concept of prototypes, how do we decide whether an item belongs to a particular category? We count how many defining characteristics of the category it has. We consult a memorized list of which items belong to the category. We compare the item to the most typical members of the category. We compare the features of the item to a precise definition of the category.
We compare the item to the most typical members of the category.
When an animal hears a bell, it sits up on its hind legs and drools. Then it receives food. What kind of conditioning is this? classical conditioning operant conditioning We don't have enough information to answer the question. It depends on whether the food always occurs after the bell, or only if the animal sits up. We don't have enough information to answer the question. It depends on what type of animal this is, and what type of food.
We don't have enough information to answer the question. It depends on whether the food always occurs after the bell, or only if the animal sits up.
What evidence suggests that we sometimes consciously perceive a stimulus afterward, instead of simultaneously with it? We don't perceive a brief masked stimulus, but a slightly longer one seems to last the whole duration. The way you perceive a first stimulus sometimes alters the way you perceive a second stimulus. You sometimes fail to notice that a stimulus has changed, unless you were attending to it. Intense stimuli produce more rapid action potentials than weaker stimuli do.
We don't perceive a brief masked stimulus, but a slightly longer one seems to last the whole duration.
What condition is marked by fluent speech despite few nouns, and impaired language comprehension? Wernicke's aphasia Williams syndrome Rett syndrome Broca's aphasia
Wernicke's aphasia
Brain-damaged patient A speaks fluently but is hard to understand, and she has trouble understanding other people's speech. Patient B understands most speech, but he speaks slowly and inarticulately, and he leaves out nearly all prepositions, conjunctions, and word endings. Patient A has _____ and patient B has _____. Wernicke's aphasia... Broca's aphasia Broca's aphasia... Williams syndrome Williams syndrome... Broca's aphasia Broca's aphasia... Wernicke's aphasia
Wernicke's aphasia... Broca's aphasia
Which of these states the disequilibrium principle? Learning is most effective if it is supported by a balance of classical and operant conditioning. You can be reinforced by a chance to do something that you have not been able to do recently. Shortly after performing an action, you tend to perform the opposite action. Learning is most effective if it is supported by a combination of positive reinforcement and punishment.
You can be reinforced by a chance to do something that you have not been able to do recently.
In an experiment on change blindness, people typically take many seconds to notice something. When they finally do, what does their detection depend on? a persuasive process a bottom-up process a preattentive process an attentive process
an attentive process
What is a secondary reinforcer? an event that increases the probability of classically conditioned responses an event that is reinforcing at some times and not others an event that became reinforcing as a result of previous experience an event that strengthens a response previously associated with some other reinforcer
an event that became reinforcing as a result of previous experience
________ lack of empathy may be a virtue in many roles in life, from "bad cop" police interrogator to corporate raider
an opportunistic
In a classical conditioning experiment, what (if anything) occurs on the first trial? a conditioned response an unconditioned response both a conditioned response and an unconditioned response neither a conditioned response nor an unconditioned response
an unconditioned response
at which stage of operant condition does an experimenter make use of shaping?
at the start of training
You are in a field of brown bushes. You could find a motionless brown rabbit by a ____ process. You could find a rapidly hopping brown rabbit by a _____ process. attentive... preattentive attentive... attentive preattentive... attentive preattentive... preattentive
attentive... preattentive
Suppose you find it easier to remember times when something bad happened on Friday the 13th than times when nothing went wrong. You conclude that Friday the 13th is dangerous. This tendency illustrates which of the following? pre-attentive processes phi phenomenon availability heuristic attentional blink
availability heuristic
A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. In this experiment blinking is the unconditioned stimulus. both the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. the unconditioned response. both the conditioned response and the unconditioned response.
both the conditioned response and the unconditioned response.
Your clock makes a clicking sound just before the alarm goes off. Even though you didn't wake up to the clicking sound initially, now you do, due to classical conditioning. Waking up is the conditioned stimulus. both the conditioned response and the unconditioned response. both the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. the unconditioned response.
both the conditioned response and the unconditioned response.
In which of these does a person have the LEAST amount of brain activity and responsiveness? brain death coma minimally conscious state vegetative state
brain death
Which of the following is characteristic of a "minimally conscious state"? low, steady brain activity and no responses to stimulation only limited responsiveness, such as increased heart rate in response to pain brief periods of purposeful action and speech comprehension a tendency to ignore stimuli on one side of the body
brief periods of purposeful action and speech comprehension
A rat learns to climb a ladder to a platform where it can pull a string to raise the ladder and then climb the ladder again. The reinforcement for each response is the opportunity to perform the next response. This procedure is known as shaping. chaining. stimulus generalization. primary reinforcement.
chaining
People often fail to notice something that occurs slowly, or while they are blinking their eyes or while moving their eyes. What is this phenomenon called? the attentional blink the Stroop effect change blindness the representativeness heuristic
change blindness
You examine a scene, and then have a brief interruption, and examine a slightly different scene. You probably don't notice the difference. What is this phenomenon called? phi effect change blindness attentional blink Stroop effect
change blindness
In which condition does the brain show a low, steady rate of activity and no response to any stimulus? brain death coma minimally conscious state vegetative state
coma
A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. The tone is the conditioned stimulus. unconditioned stimulus. conditioned response. unconditioned response.
conditioned stimulus.
Pavlov paired the presentation of food with a sound and measured salivation to each. In this experiment the sound was the unconditioned stimulus. unconditioned response. conditioned stimulus. conditioned response.
conditioned stimulus.
Your clock makes a clicking sound just before the alarm goes off. Even though you didn't wake up to the clicking sound initially, now you do, due to classical conditioning. The clicking is the unconditioned stimulus. unconditioned response. conditioned stimulus. conditioned response.
conditioned stimulus.
A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. The tone is the __________ and blinking is the __________. conditioned stimulus...unconditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus...conditioned response unconditioned stimulus...unconditioned response conditioned response...unconditioned response
conditioned stimulus...conditioned response
A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. The tone is the __________ and the puff of air is the __________. conditioned stimulus...unconditioned stimulus conditioned stimulus...conditioned response unconditioned stimulus...unconditioned response conditioned response...unconditioned response
conditioned stimulus...unconditioned stimulus
The tendency to look for evidence supporting one hypothesis without considering other possibilities is the availability heuristic. sunk cost effect. confirmation bias. framing effect.
confirmation bias.
What is one important function of sleep? conserving energy increasing body temperature increasing blood flow to the muscles increasing blood flow to the brain
conserving energy
Which of the following often produces spatial neglect for half of the body? damage in the right hemisphere of the brain damage in the left hemisphere of the brain damage to the corpus callosum aftereffects from electroconvulsive therapy
damage in the right hemisphere of the brain
On what type of question are people most likely to be overconfident in their answers? questions they have answered before. questions about something they just heard. easy questions. difficult questions.
difficult questions.
Research examining the content of dreams in American and Japanese college students found that American students were far more likely to dream about sex. Japanese students were far more likely to dream about failure. dream content was similar in both cultures. Japanese students claimed not to have dreams.
dream content was similar in both cultures.
During REM sleep, the brain is less active than at any other time. heart rate and breathing rate are low and steady. the muscles are tense and active. dreaming is likely to occur.
dreaming is likely to occur.
After staying awake late many nights, Gloria has become accustomed to going to sleep late and awakening late. Now she tries to shift to going to bed earlier and waking up earlier. This shift is similar to the difficulties people face when they travel north. south. east. west.
east.
_______ in the visual cortex and in the amygdala showed that when one monkey saw the face of another, that information led to a neuron firing first in the visual cortex , then in the amygdala.
electrodes tapping neurons
_______ builds on self-awareness; the more open we are to our own emotions, the more skilled we will be in reading feelings.
empathy
negative reinforcement is also known as
escape or avoidance learning
Negative reinforcement is also known as extinction. shaping. escape or avoidance learning. chaining.
escape or avoidance learning.
A behaviorist would state that your thoughts and feelings do not cause your behavior, because there is no evidence that we have thoughts and feelings. events in the past and present environment cause your thoughts and feelings. unconscious thoughts control all of your behaviors. behavior is random and unpredictable.
events in the past and present environment cause your thoughts and feelings.
In operant conditioning, a continuous reinforcement schedule is one in which every correct response is reinforced. every response, whether correct or incorrect, is reinforced. reinforcement is continuously available, regardless of whether or not the organism makes a response. animals are continuously force-fed through a tube.
every correct response is reinforced.
which of the following statements about extinction following intermittent reinforcement is true?
extinction following intermittent reinforcement is slower than following continuous reinforcement.
Zeke sees someone at the grocery store who looks like a famous movie actor. He assumes it really is the actor and overlooks the fact that about 1% of all adult men look a little like that actor. What error has Zeke made? failure to rely on the availability heuristic failure to use a cognitive map failure to consider base-rate information the Stroop effect
failure to consider base-rate information
A "conditioned response" follows the presentation of an "unconditioned stimulus." True False
false
A lucid dream refers to a dream someone forgets. True False
false
All living things possess language. True False
false
Classical conditioning primarily works with the skeletal muscles. True False
false
In the non-hierarchical network model, similar concepts are connected by long links. True False
false
Most dreams do not include visual content. True False
false
Phoneme and morpheme are two words for the same thing. True False
false
During reading, the eyes alternate between fixations and saccades. Reading--in the sense of understanding the words--occurs during both fixations and saccades. fixations only. saccades only. neither fixations nor saccades.
fixations only
An individual receives a reinforcement for the first response after a 1-minute interval, but not again until the next 1-minute interval has passed. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval variable interval
fixed interval
Your boss provides free coffee and donuts daily at 10:30 am. Showing up at the right time and place is reinforced on which schedule? variable ratio fixed ratio fixed interval variable interval
fixed interval
an individual receives a reinforcement for the first response after a 1-minute interval, nut not again until the next 1-minute interval has passed. this is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement?
fixed interval
you reward yourself with a snack every time you finish reading a chapter in your text. this is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement?
fixed ratio
if reinforcement occurs after every sixth response, which schedule of reinforcement is this?
fixed-ratio schedule
`When the drill sergeant shouts, "fire," the artillery shoots, making a loud sound that makes you flinch. After a few repetitions, you flinch at the word "fire." What is the conditioned response? the word "fire" the loud sound flinching the drill sergeant
flinching
Which of the following is an example of a primary reinforcer? food money a college diploma praise
food
In thinking and solving problems, when do we use System 2? for easy, automatic tasks such as recognizing familiar faces for difficult tasks that require attention for tasks that deal with physical objects for tasks that deal with social situations
for difficult tasks that require attention
If you are trying to think of uses for a brick and you can't think of anything other than building a wall, what error have you made? failure to consider base-rate information demand characteristics sunk cost effect functional fixedness
functional fixedness
what procedure leads to extinction in operant conditioning
give no reinforcement after the response
When faced with an unfamiliar item on a test, some students follow the advice, "When in doubt, choose the longest answer." That advice is an example of what? prototype spreading activation algorithm heuristic
heuristic
The term "base-rate information" refers to information about what percentage of the available information supports a theory. how rare or common something is. how well someone can perform a given task. the relationship between learning and performance.
how rare or common something is.
Which of the following would a behaviorist be least likely to study? rats in a maze human thought processes schedules of reinforcement classical conditioning
human thought processes
The availability heuristic is based on the assumption that if we ask a question in the proper manner, we will get the correct answer. anything that reminds you of a category is probably a member of that category. something that most people believe is probably true. if we can easily remember examples of something, it must be a common event.
if we can easily remember examples of something, it must be a common event.
According to thorndike, reinforcement is an event that
increases the probability of the preceding response
Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of behaviorism? interest in animal learning in laboratory conditions belief that all behavior has causes search for an understanding of stimulus-response relationships interest in the difference between conscious and unconscious thought
interest in the difference between conscious and unconscious thought
Research on the development of expertise reveals that, in general, experts were born with their special talent. it takes about 1-2 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields. it takes about 10 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields. it takes about 20 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields.
it takes about 10 years of concentrated effort to become an expert in most fields.
Responses that are followed by satisfaction to the animal will be more firmly connected with the situation so that they will be more likely to recur in the future. This is a brief statement of the law of effect. principle of temporal contiguity. disequilibrium principle. vicarious reinforcement principle.
law of effect.
in the past, every time a rat has pressed a lever it has received a piece of food. the rats rate of pressing has reached a high level. what procedure would produce extinction of the response?
let the rat press the lever many times without receiving food
The rate of progression through the stages of language ability depends mostly on how much the parents talk to the child. how much time the child spends watching television. maturation. cultural differences.
maturation.
What are algorithms? mental representations of spatial arrangements mechanical, repetitive mathematical procedures for solving a problem strategies for simplifying a problem or for guiding an investigation highly typical members of a category
mechanical, repetitive mathematical procedures for solving a problem
Behaviorism began, in part, as a protest against psychologists who tried to study mental experiences. the effects of reinforcements and punishments. animal learning. reflexes.
mental experiences.
Which of the following is an example of a secondary reinforcer? food money electric shock finding a cool place on a very hot day
money
Each unit of meaning in a word is called a prototype. syntax. phoneme. morpheme.
morpheme.
For most people, REM sleep occurs randomly at any time during sleep. mostly just after the person has fallen asleep. mostly at the middle of the night's sleep. mostly toward the end of the night's sleep.
mostly toward the end of the night's sleep.
_____ from toddlers' repertoire at around two and a half years, at which point they realize that someone else's pain is different from their own, and are better able to comfort them
motor mimicry fades
If you learn to turn off a dripping faucet to end the "drip, drip, drip" sound, your behavior was changed through chaining. negative reinforcement. positive reinforcement. omission training.
negative reinforcement.
Which of the following is the main basis for diagnosing attention deficit disorder? brain scans observations of behavior examination of the chromosomes determination of whether Ritalin or similar drugs improve the condition
observations of behavior
In the presence of a light, an animal makes a response that is followed by food. The food is given only when the animal makes the response. Which type of learning is this? classical conditioning operant conditioning social learning Not enough information is given for an answer.
operant conditioning
When 2- to 3-year-old children speak, they speak better than they understand speech. seldom say a sentence they have not already heard someone else say. overgeneralize grammatical rules. use many verbs but few nouns.
overgeneralize grammatical rules.
"Change blindness" refers to the phenomenon that when people shift their attention they have trouble moving their eyes. people who go through a major change in their lives often suffer visual losses. people who become blind may become more sensitive to other sensory information. people looking at a scene often fail to notice something that changes.
people looking at a scene often fail to notice something that changes.
If you are asked what word starts NEP---, you are more likely to think of NEPHEW if you had recently heard the word NIECE. What do we call that effect? the Stroop effect cognitive dissonance priming a prototype
priming
Damage to the right hemisphere of the brain often leads to which of the following? excessive emotional reactivity loss of language production tendency to be unconscious of the right side of the body and the world tendency to be unconscious of the left side of the body and the world
tendency to be unconscious of the left side of the body and the world
What is meant by the "productivity" of human language? the ability to repeat what someone else said the ability to respond to language with practical actions the ability to learn new words the ability to create new sentences
the ability to create new sentences
the main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that in operant conditioning
the animal's behavior controls the outcomes (including reinforcers)
The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that in operant conditioning every response is reinforced, not just some of them. much simpler responses are required. the animal's behavior controls the outcomes (including reinforcers). the animal is given punishments instead of rewards.
the animal's behavior controls the outcomes (including reinforcers).
The main difference between classical and operant conditioning is that in classical conditioning the animal's responses control the reinforcements. the animal's responses do not control the reinforcements. the animal moves a larger part of its body. the animal receives a reward, not a punishment.
the animal's responses do not control the reinforcements.
_______ of psychopaths, hare believes, is based in part on another physiological patter her discovered in earlier research
the callousness.
________ to feel their victim's pain allows them to tell themselves lies that encourage their crime
the inability
When the drill sergeant shouts, "fire," the artillery shoots, making a loud sound that makes you flinch. After a few repetitions, you flinch at the word "fire." What is the unconditioned stimulus? the word "fire" the loud sound flinching the drill sergeant
the loud sound
______ accuracy occurred in those husbands and wives whose own physiology tracked that of the spouse they were watching.
the most empathetic
When a normal, healthy person falls asleep, REM sleep is least likely when the eyes are moving. the major postural muscles are relaxed. the person has been asleep less than an hour. the person has been asleep more than 8 hours.
the person has been asleep less than an hour.
A tone is followed by a puff of air to the eyes. After several repetitions, subjects blink their eyes when they hear the tone. What is the unconditioned stimulus? blinking the eyes the puff of air the tone the eyelids
the puff of air
You know there are only two librarians who live in your town of 10,000 people. However, when you meet a quiet young woman who likes to read, you decide she is probably a librarian. In your thinking you are relying on an algorithm. the representativeness heuristic. the Stroop effect. a cognitive map.
the representativeness heuristic.
B.F skinner was known for his objection to
the use of mental terms in describing behavior
When the drill sergeant shouts, "fire," the artillery shoots, making a loud sound that makes you flinch. After a few repetitions, you flinch at the word "fire." What is the conditioned stimulus? the word "fire" the loud sound flinching the drill sergeant
the word "fire"
in what way do people sometimes make use of an operant-condition principle when they try to persuade someone to do something?
they reinforce a small amount of cooperation and work up from there.
What was Edward Thorndike's research goal? to explore the higher intellectual capacities of apes and other animals to find a simple behavioristic explanation of learning to test and improve upon Pavlov's explanation of classical conditioning to understand the evolution of intelligence from invertebrates to humans
to find a simple behavioristic explanation of learning
What was edward thordike's research goal?
to find a simple behavioristic explanation of learning
The system for converting a deep structure into a surface structure in language is called transformational grammar. language acquisition device. word superiority effect. base rate information.
transformational grammar.
"ing" is a morpheme. True False
true
A less synchronized bran is a "more" active brain. True False
true
An average reader makes 4 fixations per second while reading. True False
true
Attention is used to focus cognitive resources on things around us. True False
true
Fixed ratio is a "count" based schedule of reinforcement. True False
true
In the context of the brain, a "nucleus" refers to a group of neuron cell bodies. True False
true
In the non-hierarchical network model, knowledge is a node. True False
true
One explanation as to why animals sleep is to save energy. True False
true
Operant conditioning uses a "schedule of reinforcement" to train animals and people. True False
true
Positive punishment refers to adding something undesirable to an organism's environment. True False
true
Positive reinforcement refers to adding something desirable to an organism's environment. True False
true
Priming means to make a memory easier to access. True False
true
Productivity means I can make up tons of sentences using the English language. True False
true
Re-synchronizing the circadian rhythm is easier after flying west, the same direction as the sun seems to rise. True False
true
SCN stands for suprachiasmatic nucleus. True False
true
Sleep progresses through a series of stages. True False
true
Sleep spindles tend to occur during stage 2 sleep. True False
true
Spontaneous recovery is usually temporary. True False
true
Spreading activation is a way to prime related memories. True False
true
The brain is an electronic device. True False
true
The hierarchical model of memory organizes knowledge from general at the top and specific toward the bottom. True False
true
The set of words that make up this statement refers to surface structure. True False
true
The term negative means removed. True False
true
The term operant is derived from the word operate. True False
true
The term positive means added. True False
true
To experience smell, our brain detects molecules. True False
true
Unpleasant dreams are called nightmares. True False
true
Variable interval is a "time" based schedule of reinforcement. True False
true
Wernicke's area is critical for speech comprehension. True False
true
Common chimpanzees that learned to communicate by sign language or visual symbols frequently describe things with the symbols. use their symbols almost exclusively to make requests. often link symbols together to form new sentences. showed little understanding of what each symbol meant.
use their symbols almost exclusively to make requests.
A professor gives unannounced quizzes at unpredictable times. Therefore students must study equally every night. Which type of schedule of reinforcement is this? fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval variable interval
variable interval
An individual receives a reinforcement for the first response after some period of time, but the amount of time changes. Sometimes the individual has to wait as much as 3 minutes, sometimes as little as 10 seconds. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval variable interval
variable interval
Reinforcement on which schedule produces a slow but steady rate of responding? fixed ratio continuous fixed interval variable interval
variable interval
You enjoy getting e-mail messages, so you occasionally check your e-mail to find out if you have any new messages. Which schedule of reinforcement is present in this case? fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval variable interval
variable interval
You scan the night sky looking for meteors. Sometimes there is a brief time period between meteors, but sometimes you have to wait for a long time after seeing a meteor until another one appears. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval variable interval
variable interval
if you like to go fishing and the fish are biting on some day s and not others you are reinforced on which schedule.
variable interval
reinforcement on which schedule produces a slow but steady rate of responding?
variable interval
The more lottery tickets you buy, the greater your chances of winning. However, you have no way of knowing how many tickets you will have to buy before you win. It might be fewer than ten; it might be more than a million. This is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement? fixed ratio variable ratio fixed interval variable interval
variable ratio
an individual receives a reinforcement after a certain number of responses. sometimes 5 responses are necessary, sometimes 2 and sometimes 10. this is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement.
variable ratio
the more lottery tickets you buy the greater your chances of winning. however you have no way of knowing how many tickets your will have to buy before you win. it might be fewer than ten; it might be more than a million. this is an example of which type of schedule of reinforcement?
variable ratio
If you like to go fishing, and the fish are biting on some days and not others, you are reinforced on which schedule? fixed-ratio variable-ratio fixed-interval variable-interval
variable-interval
You attend every new movie that appears at your local theater. You find that most of them are dull (not reinforcing) but really enjoy about one-fourth of them. This is an example of a __________ schedule of reinforcement. fixed-ratio variable-ratio fixed-interval variable-interval
variable-ratio
you attend every new movie that appears at your local theater. you find that most of them are dull (not reinforcing) but really enjoy about one-fourth of them. this is an example of a
variable-ratio
classical conditioning applies primarily to ____ responses; operant conditioning applies primarily to ______ responses
visceral, skeletal
Your clock makes a clicking sound just before the alarm goes off. Even though you didn't wake up to the clicking sound initially, now you do, due to classical conditioning. What is the unconditioned response? waking up to your alarm the alarm the clicking waking up to the clicking
waking up to your alarm
children who are frequently spanked tend to be ill-behaved. what conclusion if any can we draw from this result
we can draw none of these conclusion
In an experiment a cough or a tone replaced the first "s" in the word "legislatures" in a sentence the subjects were listening to. The results of this experiment support the idea that we first hear each letter separately, then combine them into words. we hear words as a whole, rather than a group of separate sounds (letters). we interpret words independently of their context. we block from consciousness any word that does not make sense in a sentence.
we hear words as a whole, rather than a group of separate sounds (letters).
__________to show any empathy with a particular range of emotion in the child-joys, tears, needing to cuddle, the child begins to avoid expressing, and perhaps even feeling those same emotions.
when a parent consistently fails
When is it better to use heuristics than an algorithm to solve a problem? when there are too many possible hypotheses to test them all when it is necessary to get an answer that is precisely accurate when it is possible to calculate the correct answer quickly and simply when the question concerns physics or chemistry
when there are too many possible hypotheses to test them all
Under what circumstance would you prefer to use a heuristic instead of an algorithm? when you want to calculate a mathematical answer when you want to test every possibility to find the best one when you want to maximize instead of satisfice when you want to simplify a problem
when you want to simplify a problem
Suppose we want to find an event that will serve as an effective reinforcer for a given person. According to the disequilibrium principle, we should begin by determining which brain areas are more active than average for this person. which other people this person admires and wants to resemble. how old this person is, and how old are his or her friends. which behaviors the person has recently not had an opportunity to do.
which behaviors the person has recently not had an opportunity to do.
What does the concept of spreading activation attempt to explain? why it is sometimes difficult to do two things at the same time why some people can control their attention better than others why it is easier to read words than to say the color in which they are written why you think of a particular word at a particular time
why you think of a particular word at a particular time
In which situation would a heuristic be most useful? when you have no hypotheses about how to solve a problem when you have committed yourself to one hypothesis you cannot think of a way to test a hypothesis you have too many hypotheses to test
you have too many hypotheses to test
Which of the following is true of a child's language development? To develop language, a child needs immediate reinforcement for correct statements. As early as age 2 1/2 to 3 years, children's language errors imply that they are using grammatical rules. The stages of language development and the mean ages of reaching them vary greatly from one society to another. Up to at least age 4, most of a child's phrases and sentences are copied directly from what they have heard other people say
As early as age 2 1/2 to 3 years, children's language errors imply that they are using grammatical rules.
To what extent is infants' babbling influenced by what they hear? At first, what they hear makes no difference; later they copy sounds they hear. From birth onward, the amount of babbling is directly proportional to how much the parents talk to the infant. At first they copy sounds they hear; later they invent new sounds. The more speech the infants hear, the less they babble.
At first, what they hear makes no difference; later they copy sounds they hear.
Why do cats sleep more than sheep? Cats are more intelligent. Cats are more active during the day. Cats are in less danger while they sleep. Cats are more closely related to human beings.
Cats are in less danger while they sleep.
When Thorndike found that cats gradually improved their performance in a puzzle box, without any point of sudden improvement, what did he conclude? The puzzle box has many conditioned stimuli, not just one. The correct response requires a mixture of learned and inherited responses. Cats don't solve the problem by understanding. Operant conditioning requires conscious reasoning.
Cats don't solve the problem by understanding.
In the early 1900s, several psychologists reared chimpanzees as if they were children and tried to teach them to talk. What was one major reason for their failure? The studies were done before psychologists learned about operant conditioning. The psychologists did not provide adequate reinforcements for speech. Chimpanzees have trouble making human sounds. Chimpanzees cannot learn to communicate in any way.
Chimpanzees have trouble making human sounds.
Which of the following best describes the relationship between light-dark cycles (from the rising and setting sun) and circadian rhythms? Circadian rhythms are completely independent of light-dark cycles. Circadian rhythms are completely determined by light-dark cycles. Circadian rhythms function only during the day (light cycle). Circadian rhythms are generated by the body, but reset by light-dark cycles.
Circadian rhythms are generated by the body, but reset by light-dark cycles.
Under what circumstances do we see spontaneous recovery of a learned response? An individual is reinforced for responding to one stimulus but not to another. A distracting stimulus increases a weakly learned response. After a response is extinguished, the subject is given a delay and then tested again. The subject is exposed many times to the CS alone.
After a response is extinguished, the subject is given a delay and then tested again.
What evidence indicated that a woman in a vegetative state may be conscious? She moved her eyes one direction or the other depending on who was present. She pointed her finger toward the direction of certain sounds. She smiled or cried after people told her various kinds of news. Her brain activity responded to commands such as "imagine playing tennis."
Her brain activity responded to commands such as "imagine playing tennis."
Which of the following is true of brain activity during sleep? Most brain neurons cease all activity during sleep. Neurons generate normal activity but their action potentials become much slower. Neurons generate normal activity but their axons fail to release neurotransmitters. Increased inhibitory messages prevent excitation from spreading in the brain.
Increased inhibitory messages prevent excitation from spreading in the brain.
What evidence suggested that some people in a vegetative state are conscious? Instructions to imagine something activated the same brain areas as in intact people. Body temperature increased and decreased at various times of day. People with psychic ability said they could read their minds. The people learned to blink their eyes in a code to spell out words.
Instructions to imagine something activated the same brain areas as in intact people.
How does dreaming differ from other thinking? On average, it has happier emotions. As a rule, it includes no emotions at all. It accurately predicts future events. It has less sensory input and less voluntary control.
It has less sensory input and less voluntary control.
Which of these sentences has the same deep structure as "John is easy to please"? John is not easy to please. John is greasy with fleas. It is easy to please John. I need to go to the john, please.
It is easy to please John.
How would the activation-synthesis theory explain why people dream of an inability to move? People have unusually vigorous eye movements during such dreams. Activity increases in the occipital lobe of the cerebral cortex during such dreams. Sexual arousal is most likely during such dreams. It really is difficult to move the muscles during REM sleep.
It really is difficult to move the muscles during REM sleep.
Thorndike's cats improved their ability to escape his puzzle boxes gradually, not suddenly. What conclusion did he draw from this observation? Learning is based on strengthening responses, not on insights. Some animal species are more intelligent than others. Behaviorist assumptions do not apply to operant conditioning. Learning depends on both classical conditioning and operant conditioning.
Learning is based on strengthening responses, not on insights.
A little boy has learned to get candy by crying. What procedure would lead to extinction of this response? Punish the child for crying. Give candy before the child has a chance to start crying. Explain to the child why crying is inappropriate. Listen to the crying without responding.
Listen to the crying without responding.
Which task is more difficult for an experienced reader to perform than it is for someone just learning to read? Look at the names of colors written in different colors and say the color of each word, rather than the word itself. Look at a word flashed on the screen and identify the whole word. Look at two complex pictures flashed on the screen and say whether or not they were the same. Look at a series of words and identify the one that is written right to left instead of left to right.
Look at the names of colors written in different colors and say the color of each word, rather than the word itself.
Which of the following is NOT characteristic of REM sleep? Most of the body's muscles are tense and active. The eyes move rapidly. It begins about once every 90 minutes during the night. Dreams are likely to occur.
Most of the body's muscles are tense and active.
A worker at International Amalgamated, Inc., is currently working from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. The company wants to shift her to a different work time. For the sake of her physical and mental health, which of the following would be best? Move her to the 4 p.m. to midnight shift, then to midnight to 8 a.m. shift. Move her to the midnight to 8 a.m. shift, then to the 4 p.m. to midnight shift. Ask her to alternate between the 4 p.m. to midnight period one day and the midnight to 8 a.m. period the next day. Ask her to work 24 hours in a row one day followed by two days of not working at all.
Move her to the 4 p.m. to midnight shift, then to midnight to 8 a.m. shift.
What does it mean if you wake up and find yourself temporarily unable to move? You are starting to develop a muscle disorder. You are starting to develop a psychological disorder. You had an extremely frightening dream just before awakening. Part of your brain is awake and another part is asleep.
Part of your brain is awake and another part is asleep.
Top down processing isn't even a real thing. True False
False
When researchers measured brain activity during a binocular rivalry task, what did they find? Whichever stimulus became conscious activated the left hemisphere. Whichever stimulus became conscious activated the right hemisphere. A consciously perceived image activated large portions of the brain. Each stimulus activated one brain hemisphere or the other.
A consciously perceived image activated large portions of the brain.
Suppose people hear an ambiguous sound that is half-way between dent and tent. What determines what they hear? A person hears either dent or tent, randomly. A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by the preceding context only. A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by preceding context and the next two or three words. A person may hear dent or tent, influence by the entire sentence, no matter how long it is.
A person may hear dent or tent, influenced by preceding context and the next two or three words.
What evidence do we have that children exposed to no language at all would invent their own? Children who were reared in orphanages in the 1930s invented a new language. The Basque language of Spain is entirely different from that of other European languages. Deaf children who fail to learn spoken language generally invent a sign language. A child and a chimpanzee communicated by a system of grunts and whistles.
Deaf children who fail to learn spoken language generally invent a sign language.
If you want to determine whether some example of learning qualifies as classical conditioning or operant conditioning, which question should you ask? Who did the learning, a human or a laboratory animal? Did the individual's responses control the outcomes? How quickly did the individual learn the response? What kind of reward was used?
Did the individual's responses control the outcomes?
Which of these questions would people answer most quickly? Do politicians sometimes eat spaghetti? Do politicians sometimes get pneumonia? Do politicians sometimes carry an umbrella? Do politicians sometimes give speeches?
Do politicians sometimes eat spaghetti?
It takes many months for an infant to learn how to blink, but eventually they do. True False
False
Laptops in class is good for everyone. True False
False
The ears are most like a radio antenna. True False
False
The eyes take in information even while moving. True False
False
According to the conceptual network approach, we learn that a canary is a kind of bird, which is a kind of animal. We also learn the distinctive characteristics of canaries, birds, and animals. What evidence supports this view? People deal with many categories that are not clearly defined, such as "shore birds." People answer faster when asked whether a canary is yellow and slower when asked whether a canary has skin. People who answer (correctly) that a canary has skin are likely also to say (incorrectly) that a canary has hair. People have trouble answering questions about kinds of birds that they have not personally seen.
People answer faster when asked whether a canary is yellow and slower when asked whether a canary has skin.
Students watched an experimenter fill two jars with sugar. They were then given two labels and instructed to label either jar with "sucrose, table sugar" and the other with "not sodium cyanide, not poison." Then the students could use either jar to make Kool Aid. What did the results indicate? People don't fully process or trust negative statements. People respond strongly to any reassurance that something is not dangerous. People are generally indifferent to messages on labels. People prefer the label with the longer message.
People don't fully process or trust negative statements.
The Choice-Delay task offers a small immediate reward or a larger, delayed reward. Who is more likely than average to prefer the immediate reward? People over age 60 People high in executive function People who live in warm climates People with attention deficit disorder
People with attention deficit disorder
In Pavlov's experiment on classically conditioning salivation to a sound, what procedure produces spontaneous recovery? Repeatedly present the sound without food. Repeatedly present the food without the sound. Present the sound without food, and then wait a long time before testing again. Present a similar sound without food.
Present the sound without food, and then wait a long time before testing again.
During which stage of sleep is the brain most active? stage 2 stage 3 stage 4 REM
REM
The terms "light sleep" and "deep sleep" are not very useful because dreams occur during both REM and non-REM sleep. brain activity increases in stages 1 and 3, and decreases in stages 2 and 4. all stages of sleep are equally "deep." REM sleep is deep in some ways and light in others.
REM sleep is deep in some ways and light in others.
To use shaping to train a rat to press a lever, what will the experimenter do first? Demonstrate how to press the lever. Mold the rat's body into the correct position to press the lever. Change the dimensions of the lever. Reinforce the rat for something simple, like sitting up.
Reinforce the rat for something simple, like sitting up.
In binocular rivalry, you see one image in the left eye and an incompatible image in the right eye. What do you perceive? an alternation between one image and the other one superimposed on the other something halfway between one and the other something entirely different from both
an alternation between one image and the other
Which of the following is an example of discrimination in operant conditioning? After you have learned to operate one brand of computer, you quickly learn to operate another brand as well. You have learned to buy Ida brand potato chips, which are always fresh, and to avoid Hoe brand, which are usually stale. After you shifted from using one brand of computer to using another, you found that you made certain mistakes when you returned to the first brand. After you ate some stale potato chips, you found that you were thirstier than usual.
You have learned to buy Ida brand potato chips, which are always fresh, and to avoid Hoe brand, which are usually stale.
If you were on a submarine with constant artificial light and no sunlight, what would happen to your sleep-wake cycle? You would alternate between sleep and wakefulness on a 24-hour cycle. Your periods of wakefulness and sleepiness would follow no regular schedule. You would be constantly wakeful or sleepy, depending on the brightness of light. You would be alert when other people are alert and sleepy when they are sleepy.
You would alternate between sleep and wakefulness on a 24-hour cycle.
Ordinarily, you have short eye fixations when reading something easy and long fixations when reading something difficult. If your fixations start to become about the same for easy and difficult material, what is probably happening? Your reading ability is improving. Your attention is wandering. You are about to start a migraine headache. Your heart rate is increasing.
Your attention is wandering.
What is meant by the "language acquisition device"? a built-in mechanism for acquiring language a computer that generates sentences and answers questions the device that measures brain activity while someone is talking the computer terminal used by bonobos to "speak" on the Internet
a built-in mechanism for acquiring language
Our tendency to feel wakeful and sleepy on a 24-hour basis depends mainly on a cycle generated by a mechanism in the brain. our perception of environmental stimuli such as heat and light. a cycle generated by hormone-producing organs such as the adrenal gland. wear and tear on the muscles followed by a period of repair.
a cycle generated by a mechanism in the brain.
Narcolepsy may be caused by excessive alcohol use. brain abnormalities in the medulla that interfere with breathing during sleep. a circadian rhythm that is out of synchrony with the outside world. a deficiency of the brain chemical orexin.
a deficiency of the brain chemical orexin.
when your professor arrives and opens his notes, you stop talking to the person next to you and prepare to take notes. this situation illustrates the influence of
a discriminative stimulus
What is a conditioned response? an automatic, unlearned response to the unconditioned stimulus a learned response to the unconditioned stimulus an automatic, unlearned response to the conditioned stimulus a learned response to the conditioned stimulus
a learned response to the conditioned stimulus
You look at a series of gauges. Most have their indicators pointing to the right, but one is pointing down. You notice the odd one immediately, regardless of how many other gauges are present. What directed your attention? an aversive process a top-down process an attentive process a pre-attentive process
a pre-attentive process
Someone who stays in a cave with no light alternates between sleepiness and wakefulness on about a 24 hour cycle. Why? changes in temperature a rhythm generated within the person's own brain detection of tides and magnetic fields learned habits
a rhythm generated within the person's own brain
____________ "thanks", a grateful "thanks" and an angry "thanks" all had the same neural meaning for them.
a sarcastic
What is a prototype? an exception to the rule a defining characteristic or list of characteristics a term that has not been defined a typical example of a category
a typical example of a category
A saccade is a word with more than one deep structure. a person who sees words and letters backward. the contextual cue that helps you interpret an ambiguous word that you hear. a voluntary eye movement.
a voluntary eye movement.
Under a continuous schedule of reinforcement, when is the animal reinforced? after a fixed number of responses. after a fixed amount of time. after a variable number of responses. after every response.
after every response.
In general, behaviorists accept the assumption that the only way to change behavior significantly is by changing the individual's genes. we understand people's actions only by understanding their beliefs and ideas. human behavior follows different principles from those of laboratory animals. all behavior follows cause-and-effect relationships.
all behavior follows cause-and-effect relationships.
what is chaining in operant conditioning?
reinforcing each behavior by the opportunity to do the next behavior
What did B.F. Skinner mean by "shaping"? gradually increasing the reinforcements for a behavior. reinforcing successive approximations to a behavior. forcing an animal to do something. the strategies the animal uses to resist the procedures by the experimenter.
reinforcing successive approximations to a behavior.
Shaping (in the context of operant conditioning) means positive reinforcement. reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior. physically forcing a response. withholding reinforcement until an undesirable behavior ceases.
reinforcing successive approximations to a desired behavior.
what did thorndlike mean by the law of effect?
responses that are followed by reinforcement become more probable.
In decision making, searching until you find something that is good enough is called satisficing. availability heuristic. representative heuristic. maximizing.
satisficing.
The Stroop effect relates to which difficulty? saying the color of ink instead of reading the word noticing that one item has changed in an array of items noticing an item that appeared shortly after something else caught your attention performing two complex tasks at the same time
saying the color of ink instead of reading the word
an event that can serve as a reinforcer only because of its previous association with other reinforcers is known as
secondary reinforcer
An operant conditioner such as B. F. Skinner might provide you with a reinforcer after you make a sound, then after a louder sound, then after a more pleasant sound, and so forth until you are singing. This procedure would be an example of shaping. extinction. generalization. the Premack principle.
shaping.
Skinner trained a rat to raise a flag and salute during the playing of the "Star-Spangled Banner." The training involved a combination of __________ and __________. positive reinforcement...negative reinforcement positive reinforcement...punishment shaping...chaining operant conditioning...classical conditioning
shaping...chaining
Who would be LEAST likely to show the word-superiority effect? someone who is fluent in two languages a typical college student someone who is just learning how to read an expert chess player
someone who is just learning how to read
what is a secondary reinforcer
something that became reinforcing by previous experience
When people are asked how many animals of each species Moses took on the ark, many people answer "two" instead of noting that Noah, not Moses, was the ark-maker. This error has been interpreted in terms of spreading activation. categorization by prototypes. the Stroop effect. the word-superiority effect.
spreading activation.
The brain activity associated with REM sleep is most similar to that associated with stage 1 sleep. stage 2 sleep. stage 3 sleep. stage 4 sleep.
stage 1 sleep.
The ability of a stimulus to encourage some responses and discourage others is known as spontaneous recovery. stimulus generalization. stimulus discrimination. stimulus control.
stimulus control.
The sequence of words as they are actually spoken or written is called the ____ surface structure. prototype. deep structure. transformational grammar.
surface structure.