Sins of Memory Test 2

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Subjects

-1,263 undergraduates at 2 southern universities -Completed 3 (object: neutral, novel, and weapon) x3 (timing: before, during, and after) x2 (line-up: target absent and target present) -Incentive was used (fulfillment of participation requirement for school)

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 2 apparatus stimuli

-Same as experiment 1 -40 pics selected from IAPS -20 pics that did not -weapons were identified as emotionally arousing; other 20 as neutral -Independent two-tailed test revealed that emotionally arousing and more negative

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Aim

-This study introduces a new paradigm that eliminates the priming phase so that competitors are at baseline accessibility prior to the retrieval attempt -(1st experiment)Results show that among young adults, a single retrieval attempt is sufficient to produce below-baseline suppression of competitors and the extent to which individuals suppress competitors in this task predicts their performance on the operation span task (which is a well-validated measure of memory)

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1 scoring compliance

-To ensure confederates did not lead subject when the blind was broken: Screen transcripts of subjects discussion w confederates They never deviated from interview protocol and they are therefore confident that each condition were treated equally -Judged as having compliance if they signed the confession statement on the first or second request

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Independent Variable- Role of unusalness

-Unusal objects draw more attentention and decrease eyewitness memory accuracy -May be caused my reduced attentional capacity -3 conditions, glass (normal), rubber chicken(novel), and airsoft gun(threating)

Otgaar paper:Who is a better eyewitness-Suggestibility

-younger children are for susceptible -Specifically older kids

Collof 2021;Lineups and Own Race bias;Particpants

Experiment 1 (N=220), Condition 1 (Static photo lineups) or Condition 2 (Interactive lineups) Experiment 2 (N=8,507), Condition 1 (interactive lineups sequentially) or Condition 2 (Simultaneously w/ Interactive Lineup —> Independent movement) or Condition 3 (Simultaneously w/ Interactive lineup —> jointly to static photos)

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 1 naming time results

--for unrelated trials it took them longer to produce a word bc they had to suprress target -for related there was no time delay -Results: Naming of unrelated targets was slower than naming of either control words or related targets (control was fastest) -Showed below baseline suppression of associates from the unrelated trials

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 2 participants

-15 university students (4 male, 11 female) -2 had participated in experiment 1

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1-procedure

-2 experimenters, one confederate -Extensively trained with interview protocol to ensure they would behave consistently and similarly -Subjects met w same experimenter as sessions 1 and 2 -2 sessions

Kensinger and Schater: positive and negative memories-Prior studies

-Negative memories are normally vivid and good detail -Positive memories are familiar and non-descriptive

Collof 2021;Lineups and Own Race bias;Limitations

one condition the researchers forced the participants to rotate the faces in a specific orientation and this could be problematic as it's unnatural for the participants.

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 procedure

- read instuctions -sat infront of monitor and calibrate eye tracking movements -digit ID task;Asked to press space key to present fixation cross and instructed to fixate on fixation cross, After random-dot mask was presented for 500ms participates answered a question about detection -120 trials -2 types of objects x5 levels of retinal eccentricity x presence or absence of digits x 6 repetitions -order was randomized

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1 confabulation

-No confabulation -Hypothesizing Subjects required to speculate about what could have happened without implying that was how it did happen "I probably expected I was right, and didnt take any notice of the cross" -Full confabulation Required to describe how the act occurred "I was concentrating so hard on the money i forgot to give rather than take when I was wrong"

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 2 results

-Retinal eccentricity in the emotional arousal conditoin did not singifcantly differ from that in neutral condition -Suggests that increased emtional arousal does not shrink paritpates FFOV

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Inhibitory account

-Retrieval-induced forgetting is the consequence of an inhibitory process that resolves interference during retrieval -Retrieval-induced forgetting is the consequence of an adaptive mechanism that facilitates remembering by causing forgetting

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Limitations

-Scales might be hard for kids to use (probability between red and black is 50-50, and then you are asked to provdie a percentage of how accurately you beleved you answered the question -Adults did not get the training for in study used to compare

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Grouping of memories;Event related fMRI study;results

-Sensory activity is greater for true memories than it is for false memories -Regions in medial temporal lobe seem to be involved in false memory formation -Regions in prefrontal cortex seem to be involved in memory monitoring processes resulting in the reduction of false memories

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Storm and Angello and Bjork

-Studied series of cue-response pairs, but only a subset of the cue words from those pairs were used to form the RAT problems -after problem solving given a surprise test Results: fixating associates were significantly less recallable than were the non fixating associates -shows problem solving induced forgetting

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Focusing on a particular memory;results

-True memory reports tend to contain more detail (especially sensory detail) than false memories do -The more elaborate/detailed an implanted false memory is, the more real and authentic it will seem to the individual and the harder it will be to determine whether true or false

Collof 2016-Unfair lineups and likelihood to confuse innocent and guilty suspects-important notes

-focusing on retrieval rather than encoding -Labor intensive Paradigm -lineup has foils which may be chosen based on witness's memory, which prevents suspects with distinct feature

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1 gambling task

-general knowledge MC Questions -15 questions -each answer assocaited with a diff odds ratio -selected answer and how much they wanted to gamble -33% accuray -15 mins to do

Collof 2016-Unfair lineups and likelihood to confuse innocent and guilty suspects-Hypothesis

-if a suspect does not have distinct features the victim is less likely to pick them -nuetral face allows for emotions to not play a role

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Independent Variable- Temporal manipulation

-in previous studies perp was visible either b4 or at the same time on weapon -3 conditions same time, weapon b4 face, and face b4 weapon

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Suppression

is manifested as a reduction of intial priming

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Threat and Arousal

object type DID NOT have significant impact on descriptions or lineup selection, but eye fixation and durations were greater on the gun than the check

Collof 2021;Lineups and Own Race bias;Results

simultaneous interactive lineups yielded the most improvement compared to sequential or static lineups— when it comes to which is best to implement they talk about how simultaneous independent interactive lineups would be most ideal.

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 Appartus

-Computer was used to control presentation of stimuli and to collect data -Stimuli displayed on 17 in LCD monitor -Data process board Nac IMage tech used to record eye movement -Stimuli made using MATLAB w psychophsyci toolbox extensions

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 design

-2 independent variables: All within-participant factors A.Types of object (weapon or control) B.Retinal eccentricity for peripheral digits ( visual angles 1, 3, 6, 9, or 11) -4 DV -Hit rate Calculated from proportion of 'yes' responses in digit present trials -False alarm rate Calculated from proportion of 'yes' responses in digit absent trials -Correct identification rate Defined as proportion of trials in which participates correctly reported digit presented (1, 3, 4 or 7) -Duration of fixation 10x10 squares were superimposed on weapons and control objects in center of each picture Defined as duration in which the gaze of the participants' left eye stayed in the square

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 2 design

-2 independent variables: within-participant factors A.Types of picture (emotionally arousing or neutral) B.Retinal eccentricity for peripheral digits (visual angles 1, 3, 6, 9, or 11 degrees) -3 dependent variables: calculated by same procedure as experiment 1 A.Hit rate B.False alarm rate C.Correct identification rate

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 Stimuli

-2 types of colored pictures: A.One with weapon (handgun, army knife or kitchen knife) B.One with Control object (cellphone, book, wallet) -Weapon or control objects were in central area of each picture -120 pictures used, half w weapon half without -4 pictures used were selected from international affective picture system, rest taken by author

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 1 procedure OSpan task

-2-5 words presented on each trial -After each word, simple math equation was presented for them to answer -This task is known to be vulnerable to interference After trial, participants attempted to recall the words in serial order

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 Methods

-23 university students: -13 male, 10 female -Ages 19-32 -Paid for participation -Unaware of purpose of experiment -Some were asked to remove contact lense/glasses

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Calibration Measures

-3 calibration measures were used to analyze degree of realism in participants confidence judgements -Calibration- relationship between confidence ratings ands accuracy -overconfidence /underconfidence measure indicates whether an individual is overconfident (positive value) or underconfident (negative value) -Resolution reflects the ability of the subject to distinguish between 2 sets of answers, one correct one incorrect(To have maximal resolution a subject within each confidence class has to assign lowest confidcen to all questions answered incorrectly AND Higher value reflects better resolution than a lower)

Collof 2016-Unfair lineups and likelihood to confuse innocent and guilty suspects-Methods

-4x2; 8 groups;between subjects -n=8,925 -4 30s videos with 4 different encoding conditions 1.The appearance of the target 2. The distinctive feature on the target 3. The crime committed 4. The exposure/duration of the target in each video A.Subjects watched a video of a crime B. A filler phase: subjects worked on 3 questionnaires and an anagram puzzle for a total of 8 min. C. Subjects were asked to indicate their confidence that they would be able to recognize the culprit on a likert-type scale ranging from 1-1009

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 2 participants

-70 older adults (60-77), 38 younger (17-34) -Age-related differences in education and vocab were significant -Trimming; less than 1% younger adults, 2.6% for older

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Particpants

-81 children (41 girls and 40 boys) -Ages 11-12, grades 5-6 -Middle class area in south of sweden -Received $115 for school trip for participation -None had previous experiences of this type of task

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Procedure

-9 volunteers (5 men) were photographed to appear at bar taken from first-person perspective of bartender, 7 volunteers seen from waist up were seen gesturing toward camera ordering drinks, remaining 2 were fillers -bartending training(focused on price of drink) -Photos taken 4 each condition -Shown 6 slides -told the last person was the perp -photo line up either TA(6 foils used)or TP -told they may or may not be in lineup -2 qs about how surprising/frightening objects -2qs about qualities of object and how they would encounter the object in real life

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Focusing on a particular memory;General info

-Analyzing the content of the memory report is an approach to determine if an individual memory report is authentic -Written and verbal statements that are suggestion free

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Focusing on a particular memory;loftus and Pickle

-Asked parents of subjects to describe 3 real events that occurred in child's life Subjects read 3 events plus 1 false event; told that parents gave them the stories -Subjects then try and recall the 4 events -Three successive interviews separated by one week -25% believe the false event

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence:Hypothesis

-Based on metacognitive model, they predicted that telling subjects that incriminating video evidence exists would challenge their beliefs about the reliability of their memory and lead some of them to confess -Showing subjects a doctored video they predict would both challenge their beliefs about the accuracy of their memory and provide an external source that they could use to infer the act occurred

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-DVs

-Calibration, -over/underconfidence, -resolution, -accuracy, -confidence

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Grouping of memories;Event related fMRI study

-Combine ERP and fMRI technique to reveal temporal and spatial information within the same human subjects bc ERP has good temporal resolution and bad spatial resolution, opposite for fMRI -ERP and fMRI studies involve semantically related word lists that indicate valuable information about brain areas that might be associated with the production of true and false memories

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Conclusion

-Context of memory: inhibition facilitates the retrieval of target items in the face of interfer- ence from nontarget items -Context of problem-solving: inhibition facilitates the generation of viable solutions in the face of interference from nonviable solutions -Possible inhibition has capacity to facilitate an act of remembering, thinking or problem solving that relies on the ability to overcome fixating consequences -The ability to forget appears to reflect the adaptive functioning of memory, not its failure

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence:Reasons y doctored video may not increase likihood of false confession

-Diagnostic- decoding that having no memory confirms that the event never happened (part of metacognitive model) -Research shows that memories of recent events include perceptual, contextual and semantic details, since there is no vivid memory this could lead to sckepitsm which leads one to look back at their memories and the reliability of the video evidence -Revealed that verbal descriptions of a false event were more likely to elicit illusory beliefs than doctored photographs

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Methods(procedure)

-Each group watched a video of a woman being kidnapped at a busstop by 2 men. They pull up in a car, distracted the woman with a business card, then take a handkerchief out and put it over her mouth and nose -44 questions concerning the movie were used, each having 2 answer alternative -After each questions, participants were asked to make a confidence rating (rated how sure they were that they answered correctly on scaling range from 50% to 100% 50%: he/she were guessing; 100%: was absolutely sure of being correct -At the end of the experiment participants performed a frequency judgment (estimated how many of the 44 questions they answered correctly

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 1 procedure data processing

-Eliminated reactions times faster than 200ms or slower than 2000ms to control for outlying responses -After this, any values more than 2.5 SD from the mean were replaced with a value equal to the mean plus or minus 2.5 SD (.23% of responses) -Trimming rate was 1%

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Asland And Bauml

-Examined retrieval-induced forgetting and working memory capacity -Found that individuals with greater working-memory capacity exhibited more retrieval-induced forgetting than did individuals with less working memory capacity

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Storm and White

-Examined retrieval-induced forgetting in ADHD -Results: individuals with ADHD exhibited significantly less retrieval- induced forgetting than did individuals without ADHD (supports inhibitory account)

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 Aim

-Examined whether the presence of a weapon shrinks participants FFOV while controlling the emotional arousal of pictures -Viewed 2 types of photos equal with respect to level of emotional arousal A.One included weapons B.Other included control objects

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 data anylsis

-Excluded data if participant moved their eyes more than 2 degrees during presentation of digits or if location of the digits calculated by the program was outside of display; excluded 4.6% of data -Excluded all data from one parit[ants because his correct identification rate was exceedingly low

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: General Discussion

-Experient 1: participants' FFOV became narrower when they viewed the weapon pictured in comparison to contorl pictures Supports idea that participants FFOV shrinks when they view a scene including a weapon -Experiment 2: increased emotional arousal DID NOT narrow the FFOV These 2 results suggests that FFOV shrinks because the scene includes a weapon, NOT bc a weapon increases emotional arousal -In experiment 1; found that duration of fixation on a weapon did not differ from that on a control object -Results suggest that the presence of a weapon shronks partipants FFOV and that in creased emotional arousal does not shrink the FFOV

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Implication

-Experiments support inhibition accounts; individuals exhibiting more forgetting, as a consequence of either retrieval or problem solving, were significantly less likely to suffer problem solving fixation than were individuals exhibiting less forgetting

Collof 2021;Lineups and Own Race bias;Methods experiment 2

-FINAL COUNT: n=8,507 White (n=4,293) and South Asian (n=4,214) 16-82 y/o -Sequential independent interactive lineup instead of sequential static photo lineup improved by 18% -Simultaneous joint interactive lineup instead of sequential independent interactive lineup improved by 23% -Faces are easier to recognize/identify if the photo is the same angle studied -ORB makes it even more difficult to obtain an accurate identification

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Person reporting the memories;Results

-Findings are mixed when using individual difference measures -One reason is because false memories and individual differences are measured differently across studies -Meta-analysis and battery of self-report and behavior measures are needed

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Answering Hypothesis

-First hypothesis was confirmed; when compared with a similar study w adult partiticpants, children were much more overconfident than the adults -Second hypothesis confirmed: children's metacognitive realism measured by different confidence scales did not differ -Third hypothesis confirmed: chidlrene showed overconfidecne in their judgements of their number of correctly answered event memory questions (frequency judgementrs) -Fourth hypothesis NOT confirmed: there is no gender effects (used previous study on adults) -Results demonstrated worse realism in bioth confidence and frequency judgments than has veen the case for previous adult studies -Children had only somewhat lower accuracy than the adults

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence:Aim

-For their study, comparison between seeing incriminating evidence and being told that incriminating evidence exists is important bc in the USA interrogators can legally tell suspects that incriminating evidence exists and can fabricate evidence in order to elicit a confession -Difference from kassin and Kiechels computer-crash method was that subjects in their experiment saw the computer crash whereas in Nash and Wade the subjects did not witness the false event

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 results

-Hit rate: ANOVA on hit rate w the factors of object type and the level of eccentricity for peripheral digits indicated that the main effect of levels of eccentricity was significant, but neither the main effect of object type nor the interaction between object type and eccentricity was significant Hit rates 1, 3 and 6 degrees were higher than those at 9 and 11 degrees; hits at 9 higher than 11 False Alarm: 2-tailed t-test revealed difference between weapon and control conditions was not significant Correct identification: ANOVA; indicated that interaction between object type and eccentricity was significant -Gaussian functions fitted to correct identification rates for weapon and control conditions using maximum likelihood method to examine interaction quantivate

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 2 procedure

-Identical to exp. 1 except for 3 modifications: A.Instead of accusing subjects of taking money from the bank when they answered one question incorrectly, experimenter accused subjects of taking money from the bank on 3 separate occasions when they answered 3 questions incorrectly B.Doctored 3 sections of see-video subjects original recordings: fake videos depicted them improperly taking money from bank 3 times C.Increased length of quiz from 15 to 18 (added 3 questions) and gave subjects more money to gamble (265) and made questions slightly easier ^to ensure that subjects answered at least 3 incorrectly -2 independent observers blind to which condition each subject was in categorized subject discussions w the confederate

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 1 suppresion v episodic blocking results

-If slowing effect reflects resolution of memory interference, then Individuals who show more slowing time in this paradigm (stronger suppression) should perform better on memory tasks compared to those who have weaker suppression -Blocking account: slowing in the unrelated condition occurs bc participants fail to control interference from the word-generation task during the word-naming task -Slowing reflects failure of interference regulation (not a positive correlation with OSpan) -Suppression account: slowing occurs bc participants succeed in reducing interference by suppressing the activation of the strong association -People with higher suppression scores should perform better on memory tasks that require controlling interference (OSpan task) -Higher suppression scores were associated with better OSpan score

Schmolck- OJ Simpson Trial:Materials and Procedure

-Initial collection:questionnaire filled with criteria questions -2nd collection:same questyion but they were also asked about the confidence and if they remember the initial questionnaire

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Interfernce v inhibition

-Interfernce is not helping -ibhibitiopn helps

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1 internalization

-Internalization: No internalization Partial internalization Subjects had to make statements indicating that they believed they might have commit the act "i think i messed up the experiment" -Full internalization Had to make statements indicating that they believed they did commit the act

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Aim

-Investigated the degree of realism in the confidence judgments of 11-12 year olds on their answers to questions relating to a short film clip showing kidnapping events. Results indicated that their confidence in and estimations of their own event memory how poor realism (overconfidence and overestimation)

Schmolck- OJ Simpson Trial: Issue with the size of the distortion

-It is subjective they used 2 raters who determined size of the distortion(98% similarity; good rubric), final person made the decision -May be good that they don't remember the survey because they are recalling the events rather than survey

Infantile/Childhood Amnesia

-Lack of clear memories before the ages of 3/4 -early memories tend to be emotional -but at the age of 2 they have good episodic memory

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Discussion

-Line-up analyses: Found significant weapon focus pattern within the during contition, with fewest target selctions in the gun condition, followed by the chicken and the most in the glass codnition -Important bc it replicates effect produced by typical paradigm employed for this research -Novelty hypothesis was not found -Possibly because people did not know what chicken was -Line-up analysis of full design DID NOT reveal classic weapon focus pattern for suspect selection from TP line up

Emotion and Item memory

-Memory for detail v. general features -studied items then looked at a new list and said if they were same, similar or new -When you combine both same and similar memory performance is the same -Overall you are not remembering more emotional items rather more details

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence:Previous research-Mazzoni loftus and kirsch

-Metacognitive model: to develop false beliefs subjects must first become confident that a false event happened -presented with counterfactual suggestion -giving false information can lead them to think their memory is unreliable therefore they turn to external sources

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1 results

-Most subjects extremely surprised when revealed to them true nature of study -All subjects believed the purpose of study was to investigate gambling behavior -Suggest that the results are not product of experimental demand -All subjects signed confession form (complied) on first or second try Replaicates (kassin and Kiechel 1996) -87% of subjects signed on first request, 13% on second -20% partially internalizaed the act, 63% full internlaizaed act

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Previous study limitations

-Most weapon focus studies have been under-powered -Few participants per condition -Almost all weapon focus studies have relied only on target-present lineups

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Limitations of retrieval

-Multiple items can be associated with the same cue, if a target item is less strongly associated with the same cue and if a target item is less strongly associated with that cue than the other non target items, the target item will suffer interference

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Methods(contidions)

-Numeric scale (n=20) Estimate consisting of any number from 50% (guessing) to 100% (absolutely sure) -Picture scale(n=22) Consisted of 6 heads with mouths representing sadder to happier with a talk bubble with 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90% and 100% and text indicating how well they are sure for their responses -Line scale (n=20) Instructed to indicate their confidence by drawing a vertical line over a horizontal rectangle indicating what percentage that feel confident -Written scale(n=19) Instructed to put across to the left of the probability estimate that best correspond to their feelings of confidence in the specific answer being correct

Collof 2021;Lineups and Own Race bias;General info

-Other Race Effect (Own-Race Bias): Often seen in eyewitness misidentification, ORB is when Same-race faces are recognized easily and more accurately -true with suspects of same or different race as participant -there was an overall reduction in eyewitness errors -Simultaneous Interactive Lineups > Sequential Interactive Lineups > Static Photo Lineups

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 1 procedure word naming task

-Participants read series of words as quickly as possible, these series included the targets from the related and unrelated cue-target pairs and targets that were not presented which served as the control words -Task began with 8 filler items and remaining items were divided into four blocks(each one had 5 related, unrealted and control words and 23 filler items -then did Ospan

Allwood-Child Witnesses' Metamemory Realism-Results

-Participants showed overconfidence in all four conditions -No significant differences between the four scales were found for any of the dependent measures -To test first hypothesis: compared their results for over confidence with results for adult participants condition from a different one of their studies (used same set up) -Girls were better calibrarted than boys -Girls believed they had fewer accurate answers than did the boys -Both genders believed they has answered more questions correctly than they actually had(boys did so to a higher degree) -Girls showed lower confidence

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Grouping of memories:Past research/manipulations

-Past memory researchers focused on groups of memories for pallid material such as nonsense syllables and words Use recall tests, recognition tests, word study -Manipulate the depth of processing (generating synonym for word, unscrambling words) Presenting semantically related word lists without a critical lure word Critical lure word is usually falsely remembered

Kensinger and Schater: positive and negative memories-Participations

-Positive valance n=41, this is a limitation bc the flyer were hung in the boston area -Neutral valence n=15 -Negative valance n=20 -Equalish ratio of males and females if it was an older person they have a positivity bias

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 2 aim

-Possible that confession rates in experiment one were was because cheating was somewhat plausible -To ensure findings were not because of highly plausible 'crime', experiment #2 attempted to replicate findings by accusing participates of something less plausible: inappropriately taking money from the bank on 3 occasions

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 prelim study 2

-Purpose: conducted to confirm that the weapon and control pictures were controlled with respect to emotional arousal -10 participants viewed weapon; 11 viewed control -After viewing, estimated emotional arousal levels using Japanese UWIST Mood adjective -Composed of tense arousal (represents neg emotional estate) and energetic arousal (positive emotional arousal state) -Independent 2-tailed test revealed no signifcant difference -4 digests used to measure range of FFOV: 1, 3, 4 and 7 -Random-dot pattern consisting of 3000 small squares w width of .4 degrees used to maks digests; covered whole display screen

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 prelim study 1

-Purpose: to examine whether presence of weapons in pictures impaired memory accuracy for peripheral details -15 participants viewed weapon pictures, other 15 viewed control -Pic presented for 500ms -After viewing, asked to fill out memory questionnaire -Compired 57 yes/no recognition items about peripheral details in picture -21 were present item, 36 were absents items (no presented) -2-tailed t-test revealed participants recognized peripheral details less accurately in pictures with weapons (weapon focuz effect occurred for weapon pictures)

Kensinger and Schater: positive and negative memories-Results

-Quantity; negative is stronger than positive which is stronger than neutral -Personal details;negative is stronger than positive which is stronger than neutral -consistency; emotions negative, detail positive -confidence; event related negative, personal details positive -Vividness-personal details are stronger than event related details -Research is not ideal because there are logistic issues

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Smith and Blakenship

-RAT: remote associates Test -Shown 3 cues then asked to generate what is associated with each of the word (ex. Manner, tennis, round = "table" -Found that exposing participants to inappropriate associations prior to asking them to name the associated word impaired performance

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Grouping of memories;Surgically implatned electrode procedure

-Record electrophysiological activity in epileptic patients -Better temporal and spatial resolution than fMRI produce -Electrodes help locate brain regions repsiple for seizures -Study found that gamma was best frequency band for distinguishing between true and false memories

Rubin-Memory

-Reminiscence bump; increased memory of childhood and young adulthood, in those over 40 -The memories are typically emotional

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Aims

-Research on retrieval-induced forgetting has shown that retrieval of one item can cause the forgetting of other items -Research from the article suggest that individuals who exhibit MORE retrieval-induced forgetting are BETTER at overcoming interference in other contexts

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Implication storm et al

-Results: participants who exhibited the most problem-solving-induced forgetting solved significantly more problems than did participants who exhibited the least problem-solving induced forgetting

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 2 results

-Vast majority of subjects signed confession and internalized the false act -93% complied, 87% on first request and 7% on second -30% of subjects partially internalized, 43% fully internalized -10% hypothesized, 7 confabulated -Even when subjects were accused of committing a relatively implausible act there was still extremely high levels of false confessions and false beliefs -See-video and told-video subjects were equally likely to confess (agrees w expert. 1) -See-video subjects were more likely to fully internalized guilt than told-video subjects -In experiment 1 there were no group differences bu in experiment 2, see video subjects were more likely to hypothesize or confabulate than told-video subjects -Results replicate experiment 1, viewing the video led to higher internalization rates than being told the video exists -Experiment 2 rule out possible counter explanation for high confession rates observed in exp. 1 (plausibleness)

Cahil- Emotion and Recall

-View 12 clips that are either emotional or not -3 weeks later they have a PET scan during recall -It showed more activity in the amygdala which is associated with emotions especially negative

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;Weapons focus effect and why its been disputed

-When an eyewitness suffers an impairment of memory for a perpetrator because the criminal used a weapon during the crime -Some argue that the presence of a weapon increases state anxiety resulting in narrowed attention, leaving fewer resources for processing other details -Some argue that the weapon focus effect is driven primarily by the weapons contextual novelty, leading eyewitnesses to focus more of their attention on the unexpected object and relatively less on the perpetrator

Collof 2021;Lineups and Own Race bias;Methods experiment 1

-White / South Asian Participants -Interactive or Static -Present or Absent -Mock crime videos (4 possibilities: Burglary, Drink Spiking, Laptop Theft, or Theft from a car) -224 students, 116 —> Psychology students. 4 excluded after reporting not white or South Asian. -Called study "Perception and Memory" -"ROC analysis in the traditional way that it has been used for decades in the basic scientific literature, directly tethered to a longstanding model of decision-making—signal detection theory."

Emotion and Memory

-You remember emotional items more then neutral ones -Works even with sound -True for both episodic and autobiographical memory

Neural explanations-emotion and memory

-activity in amygdala and orbitalfrontal cortex(regions engaged in processing emotions) information -This corresponds with with accurate memory for negative memories -Strong correlation between amygdala and hippocampus for negative memory -individuals do not use distinct set of neural processes -Rather emotional specific processes influence the hippocampus

Otgaar paper:Who is a better Eyewitness; Developmental Reverse Phenomenon

-adults more easily make spontaneous false memories bc they rely more on schemas -schemas can be personal knowledge

Wright paper;when eyewitness's talk-normative influences

-agree withsomeone bc coist of memory error/cost of disagreeing -McCmartin Pre-k case- suggestive teach via praise and punishment. the effect was false convictions -Baron,Vandello, Brunsman-easy or difficult task, cost of error, little importance

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence:Previous research Kassin Kiechel

-asked people to complete computer based RT time task -subjects told NOT to touch ALT key bc the computer would crash -it did regardless, and experimenters accused them -1/2 confronted with false eyewitness tesimony -65% told a confederate they had accidentally hit the key -results is that false testimoney is powerful but can lead to a false confession

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Person reporting the memories;latter approach

-attempt to detect whether someone is lying either intentionally or unintentionally -People can think they are telling the truth when they are reporting smt false -Tools: interview techniques such as polygraph, interrogation -Can use microexpressions of facial emotions/inconsistent facial expressions to detect deception

Why is it hard to compare research about negative and postive items?

-because findings about postive items don't trigger the same intensity of a response as negative items

Otgaar paper:Who is a better eyewitness-false memories

-can have different causes -spontaoues false memories; dervive from reliance on scripts, no one suggests things, more common in adults

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Focusing on a particular memory;rich false memories

-detailed memories of individual events that never occurred -Being told they saw bugs bunny at disney world which is impossible because bugs bunny is not apart of disney

Otgaar paper:Who is a better Eyewitness; Conclusion

-difficult to decide wether adults or children have sufficient background knowledge -children show hightened susceptibility to suggestions -adults are at greater risk of accepting a false memory -lack of knowledge might protect children

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 1 Data collection

-eye movement -Monocular eye movement sampled at 60Hz using EMR nac image tech infrared eye tracking system -Spatial resolution visual angle approximately .1 degree -Image data sent to EMR-8 controller and converted into coordinate data -Time lagg between recording eye tracking and using data was 10ms in experimental setting

Schmolck- OJ Simpson Trial:Previous studies

-flashbulb memories were 1rst defined by brown and kulik -Previous studies only 1 of the 6 criteria was required -The criteria: where who, what, one's own feelings, another's feelings -Previous studies showed personal involvement is a predictor of recollection, which can be very inaccurate, clearest distortions at 3 years

Schmolck- OJ Simpson Trial:Background

-flashbulb memories were first defined by brown and kulik -They were described as photographic like memory for highly emotional events -Out of the 6 features of a flashbulb memory, 5 are required in this study -its typically 1

Erickson:Weapons focus effect, TA and TP line ups;I Results

-indicate that even thought the chicken and gun were more surprising than the glass, the glass and chicken were both less threatening -Gun and chicken attracted more attention than glass (inline w hypothesis) -Results of SEMs indicate that surprise has the biggest influence of an objects presentation on attention to the object -More attention to the face produces more perpetrator identification from TP lineups and more correct rejections of TA lineups -Significant weapon focus effect witjin the during condition -The novel hypiothesis regarding the novelty of an object was found to not be significant -Lineup analysis didnmt reveal a weapon focused pattern for sus[ect TA lineup produced more false indefntifcaiton -In regards to timing manipulation, results showed the weapon effect is more prevalent

Wright paper;when eyewitness's talk;what is memory conformity

-it occurs when you want to agree with someone with someone bc: normative influences(need to be liked), informational influences(need to be right, impacted by relative confidence), memory distortions -the effect...inaccurate report of info

Schmolck- OJ Simpson Trial:Results

-many errors were source errors -Major distortion for 32-month group -more in 15 groups said they didn't recall -highest confidence 4 minor distortions -The 32-month group answered for questions and was more confident because they had more time to recall the events during which they altered them via the recollection effect

Otgaar paper:Who is a better eyewitness-What caused the increased interest in the reliability of a child's memory

-more daycare CSA/CA cases -not only in the US but world wide

Why might we remember more emotional memories

-more rehearsal -more distinct -Differences in neurobiology -Deeper processing

Schmolck- OJ Simpson Trial:Subjects

-n=222, split into 3 groups, 15 months, 32 months, and ??? -High attrition rate which is common with longitudinal study

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 2 method

-n=30 Uni students -got $60

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1- methods

-n=30 students -random assignment to see video or told conditions

Otgaar paper:Who is a better Eyewitness; Association Activation Theory

-nodes(concepts) or words -predict false memories and changes over time -false memories arise thru the activation of the network of nodes -older you are=more knowledge=more false memories

Wright paper;When eyewitness's talk;informational influences

-public v private interviews -An eyewitness picks who to trust based on confidence, situation @ encoding, and reliability -relative confidence-pick response based on confidence -reliability of other witnesses influences decision

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Storm and Angello

-replication of smith and blakenship -Hypothesis: if retrieval-induced forgetting is caused by an inhibitory process that acts to overcome interference in memory, then individuals who exhibit more retrieval-induced forgetting should be better at overcoming interference in other contexts as well -Low retrieval induced forgetting performed better than high-RIF in baseline, this was reversed under fixation which suggest that individuals CANNOT take advantage of 'benefit' of lacking inhibition when the cost of lacking inhibition make them more susceptible to fixation -Suggest that differences in retrieval-induced forgetting reflect ability to overcome interference in memory retrieval and creative problem solving

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Inhibitory account counter argument

-retrieval-induced forgetting is the consequence of blocking or interference

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 2 aim

-same paradigm as #1 but with young and older adults -goals for using older adults A.additional test 4 supression interpretation of slowing effect(If slowing effect due to interference during word-naming task (blocking) older adults should show more slowing than younger adults bc older adults have increased susceptibility to interference) B.Allowed for a direct test of influential theory that suppression biomes impaired w age(If they have difficulty suppressing interfering info, they should show less slowing in the word-naming task than younger adults)

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 2 results

-same results for younger adults as exp #1 -Naming of unrelated targets was slower than naming of either control words or related targets (control was fastest) -Older adults showed no evidence of suppression -For older adults, RTs for unrelated targets did not differ from RTs for either control items or related targets -Slowed competitor naming for younger but not older adults -Suppression facilitates interference resolution -When young adults rejected close associates of a cue, they suppressed the associate to below-baseline accessibility -Young adults who showed stronger suppression performed better on a memory span task -Suppression occurs even when the competing info is never expocity presented

Bernstien and Loftus-How to tell if a memory is false:Focusing on a particular memory;criteria based content analysis

-scores of memory reports using 19 cognitive and motivational criteria, either present of absent -(logical structure, unusual details, spontaneous corrections) -Idea that false statements are inherently different from and differentiable from true statements -Applies to both lies and false beliefs and memories Some success but in differentiating difference however they are small -Review of 37 studies, amount of detail was the criterion that best differentiate true from false statements -Most useful as a first-step in helping police form rough ideas about the truthfulness of witness statements

Wright paper;When eyewitness's talk;memory distortion

-semantic v episodic memory -false memories are created via misleading Qs, source monitoring errors, false info introduced by other people

Manipulating emotion experiment

-shown different photos from a hospital -emotional-surgery -non-emotional-doctor with is son -2 weeks later their is 3 times recall for emotional slides

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 2 procedure

-similar as first experiment -Stimuli presented for 100 ms (not 500) different to prevent participants from fixating salient -Digit then appeared for 100 ms in half of trials (location same as exp. 1) -Total number of trials: 40 (2 emotional arousal x5 levels of retinal eccentricity x presence or absence of digits x2 repetitions) -2 repetitions in each condition in order to avoid affective habituation -Order of trials randomized -Diff images randomly assigned to each of 5 eccentricity levels across participants

Healy-Below-Baseline Suppression of competitors during interference resolution by Younger but not older adults:Experiment 1 procedure word generated task

-single random order -within subjects? -cue word presented for 250 ms then based on condition u either produce a related or unrelated word -response is followed by 1500 ms interstimulus interval -20 trials randomly intermixed with equal # of conditions in each 10 tial block -then completed word naming task

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1 session 2

-subjects told they was an issues with session 1, a video existed that showed people taking money -told group is told that this would result in the invalidation of the study -video group is shown the video, twice if they request -asked to sign a confession that stated that they wouldn't recieve payment -told if they did NOT sign they would have to meet with the lead experimentor -asked again to sign -if they didnt they were asked what they thought the study was -Confederate posing as another subject in waiting room initiated conversation and encouraged subject to describe accusation enquiring which study they were participating in and why they were waiting -Unless subject stated that they clearly did not believe they had committed the act, confederate asked if they could remember how the error occurred -Conversation recorded using digital voice recorder, served as measure of internalization and confabulation

Schmolck- OJ Simpson Trial:Limitations

-the undergrads may not care and lie

Collof 2016-Unfair lineups and likelihood to confuse innocent and guilty suspects-Lineup fairness

-they couldn't tell which photo was digitally altered -we may remember distinct feature more -keep unique features that can not be removed should be kept

Kensinger and Schater: positive and negative memories-Methods

-time 1 0-6 days post game, tested for quantity of memories -time 2 23-27 weeks after the game; tested quantity, consistence, confidence, vividness(these should be accurate at 6 months) -The scores are calculated by scores outcome measures

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1-session 1

-told to complete a computerized gambling task -they werent told the true nature of the study -completed task and collected money when they did well - 2-3 hours break inbetween sections -session 2 after

Nash and Wade:Innocent But Proven Guilty: Eliciting Internalized False Confessions Using Doctored-Video Evidence: Experiment 1 creating video

-used final cut pro to create videos, they replaced the green check mark with a red x -this indicated that subjects where not honest about their earnings

Storm;The Benefits of forgetting:Retrieval-Practice paradigm

0participants are exposed to a series of category-exemplar pairs followed by selective-retrieval practice fro half of the exemplars from half of the categories -a subset of learned material is repeatedly retrieved, and the effect of this manipulation on later memory for the practiced and unpracticed material is examined -Retrieval practice causes the retrieval-induced forgetting of non practiced exemplars from practiced categories

Collof 2016-Unfair lineups and likelihood to confuse innocent and guilty suspects-Hypothesis

1.The suspect does not unduly stand out, the witness should be less willing to identify the suspect 2. The distinctive feature appears either on every lineup member or on none of the lineup members. The witness should be more likely to weight something other than the distinctive feature

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Aim

Purpose of the study was to examine whether the functional field of view (FFOV) shrinks because of the presence of a weapon or because of an increase of emotional arousal.results from experiment 1 show that the presence of a weapon impaired identification of the peripheral digits, even when the pictures were equal with respect to emotional arousal level. In experiment 2, th4 results revealed that the increased emotional arousal did not impair identification of the peripheral digest. These results suggest that FFOV shrinks because of the presence of a weapon, but not because it increases emotional arousal.

Harada-The Presence of a Weapon Shrinks the Functional Field of View: Experiment 2 Aim

Used pictured that DID NOT included weapons and varied their emotional arousal Measured FFOV for emotionally arousing pictures and neutral pictures

What details are remember and which forgotten

When its neutral you remember more of the background