Ed Psych Exam 3

Exercise and the brain.

increases BDNF BDNF and molecular cascade leading to synaptogenesis and neurogenesis- greater cell plasticity. Hippocampus has high rates of neurogenesis.

exercise and older adults

increases executive function, control, spatial, speed

brain derived

intervention derived from neuroscience data and theories- brain activation in areas has not been

HPA axis- what is it? role?

releases cortisol in response to environmental stress increased cortisol levels hinder PFC, hippocampus activation, with increased cortisol levels, the amygdala grows, then atrophies

Place Cells Where are they? What might their role be in learning?

respond when an animal is in a specific location- had mice run a maze, place cells will fire when in a certain location, pattern of cells firing and these pattern of cells firing when they are sleeping are the same- the brain is replaying activity that occurred during the day- pattern of cells firing when they are doing the maze is the same when we are sleeping- consolidating our memories. hippocampus while we sleep we are closing down our sensory systems and allowing our brain to replay, we are consolidating our memories and moving our memories from the day to our long term memory, during sleep we are actively replaying that activity in the hippocampus

White matter

increase in white matter- more myelination

Basics of NMDA

"coincidence detector": glutamate (a neurotransmitter) from cell A dislodges (by depolarizing the ion channel a magnesium ion from cell B. This opens the NMDA receptor, which triggers long-term potentiation.

How are mindsets transmitted and reinforced by parents?

- Gunderson et. al- Boys were given more process praise than girls, girls are getting more person praise like youre really smart- the process praise given to boys is consistent up until 7 to 8 years of age. Parents who gave a less process praise had more of a growth mindset. Parents who had more of a growth mindset had difficulties portraying their mindset they gave more of an intelligent person type of praise. If you are given process praise no matter what the child will have a growth mindset. Parents who have a growth mindset are more likely to give process-praise while those with a fixed mindset are more likely to give person-praise. Although some parents with a growth mindset give person-praise because they do not know how to portray it.

dlPFC

- cool aspects- used for many different things- plotting different types of tasks like response conflict, task novelty, working memory delay, working memory capacity, difficulty found that the closer to the front of the prefrontal cortex there is more abstract reasoning.

Role of family obligation

- task a balloon will explode before you get your payout- see with increased family obligation; decreased regulation in emotion regulated areas, think you shouldn't be doing something because your family will be impacted more likely to make a reasonable decision.- They added family obligation to a task and there was decreased activation in the reward system when family obligations are involved. Higher activation in the prefrontal cortex when family obligation is involved. - telzer et al. Did a driving task with a yellow

Juggling and the Brain

- took people who haven't juggled and trained them for a couple weeks. Scanned before and after brains- found brain changes involved in hand eye coordination and coordination with the hands and eyes. This is a result of experience. Taught people in their 60s and 70s and they did not do as well as the people in their 20s. but they did show increased hand eye coordination and some sub cortical areas mid brain areas is relaying info to other areas- looked at gray matter before and after

Know reward system circuitry

- ventral striatium- responsible for dopamine, light up when adolescents are doing risky things in front of their friends

limbic system and PFC development

Adolescence are reward sensitive- their limbic sensitive becomes activated when there is a reward or when they are receiving positive feedback from peers,. Seek high levels of novelty and stimulation to achieve same subjective feeling of pressure. Getting a euphoric high and need that emotional arousal situation- they are hard to regulate. There is also a disconnection between the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex region. The prefrontal regions cannot seem to catch up to the limbic system. Primarily why adolescence do such risky things. PFC using your head and your heart to make a decision- orbital cortex is responsible for those things. - taking all that stuff that you are thinking, planning, and feeling. Orbital frontal cortex is involved emotional system develops more quickly than responsibility part of brain.

Amygdala in ASD

Autistic kids have the same response when they see a neutral face and an angry or excited fact. A lot more connections for sensory things to the eye in people with autism. Autistic children don't look at faces so downward cycle as to why they don't understand facial expressions and their meanings. Distinct lack of amygdale activation. If you don't develop that foundational skills associated with socializing, youll never work your way up to the more difficult skills, don't look at face- don't learn how to interpret faces- avoid looking at faces- don't learn how to interpret faces.

o Know Johnson's hypothesis on face processing/orienting

Babies will track faces and face-like things further than non-face things- even at an early age kids are more interested in faces. 10 weeks- more interested and maybe they get more reward while looking at them at this stage- by 19 weeks, they become uninterested because they understand. Not until 4 or 5 the fusiform becomes activated. Right figure shows affinity for faces in infants- 5 week old infants look at the face and the Picasso face- this could imply they enjoy looking at faces and the Picasso faces. 10 week old infant- look at face the longest- might have learned that you can learn a lot from a face. 19 weeks, the novelty has worn off and they do no prefer faces anymore. Shows that babies have an affinity for faces at a very early age.

Selective listening task and attention ERPS

Child is looking at a screen and hearing two different stories from two different ears and decide which story is being played on the screen- have linguistic probes to see how much they are attending and how much they are not attending. For Low SES families there is no difference in brain activity when they are attending and when they are not attending. unable to inhibit unnecessary story. Higher SES there is a difference when they are attending and when they are not attending. Selective listening task and attention showed that High SES families had better attention and listening ERP's There was a significant difference between the low and high SES children - steven and bavelier, 2012

Know Jones and Klin (2013) study eye gaze

Children with autism tend to look at the mouth and at other things not really at the face, their focus is really not on the face it is on maybe their outside perception- looking at other things. ASD kids don't focus on eyes as much as TD kids. - This study done by Redcay et. al 2013. Derficits of activation in the superior temporal sulcus in kids with autism associated with joint attention- ability to coordinate attention to someone- really important for learning. Don't follow social cues- joint attention is an example of this- move their eyes less because of this.

SES & Cog Function

Cognitive functions significantly better for HIGH SES, except reward processing

Discrepancy between performance on cold and hot tasks in adolescence

Do really well on cool tasks because there are alone, it may be in a lab, hypothetical, low arousal, no social pressure. Hot tasks- daily life, with groups, peer pressure, high arousal,

Praise given from Growth Mindset.

Effort or Process Praise- Wow that's a really good score you must have tried really hard -Growth mindset- these groups of children had the lowest proportion of performance goals- solved significantly more problems as the trials continued and the problems got harder Control group- Wow that's a really good score. Showed us to get away from performance goals because it shys children away from challenges. Focus more on process praise instead. Growth- It's about learning, Capitalize on Mistakes, Confront Deficiencies

Prevalence Spectrum Disorder and prevalence, variability on the spectrum and causes

Extremely variable- 1 in 68 children diagnosed prevalence rate of 14.7/1000 or 1.47%. 5 times more likely in boys than girls 1/42 in boys compared to 1/189. Spectrum disorder- high variable. Causes ; paternal age, maternal illness in first trimester, genetic code variation, vaccines DO NOT cause autism

General structure of sleep. (i.e., what are the components of sleep and when do certain types of sleep happen?)

First you lay down to sleep and here you are relaxed wakefulness and the waves we see are alpha waves and these waves have high frequency and lower amplitude. Then you go into stage one of sleep and here there are more theta waves so you are almost asleep but not quite there. The next stage is stage 2 and here you see sleep spindles and K complexes and these K complexes are really high in amplitude and your brain is getting ready to sleep Stage 3 and 4 you have delta waves and these have high frequency and low amplitudes and here you are in Slow wave sleep. And you are less likely to wake up from someone walking into your room. And lastly there is REM sleep and here is where you are dreaming and they lower amplitudes and a little less frequency than relaxed wakefulness stage- REM sleep more likely to wake up from a roommate or someone MORE SWS earlier and REM later.

Economics of Preschool

Heckman- how much we invest in people- cost benefit of preschool if you invest in preschool program you get greater return from the child- there was a reduction of crime and incarcination of these children- the total net profit for sending a child 8.74 after calculating how much it is to send a child to preschool. High quality preschool can have as big an effect as the number 1 predictor is education level. -Heckman 2006 and Melhuish 2011. preschools coupled with parental interventions are particularly effective. this is also true for ASD therapy.

o Differences in sub-cortical and cortical processing between adults and adolescents, especially hot processing, and potential impacts on behavior.

Hot and cold cognitive function gets better with age. Adolescents are not caught up with their psychosocial maturity yet- more with hot cognitive situations, get better with age when making decisions. For adults your intellectual ability is about even with your psychosocial maturity but in adolescents your intellectual ability passes your psychosocial maturity. When given a socially based decision, you are less likely to reason well. Get worse at hot cognition when you get older????????? Steinberg et. al 2007 Teens are able to reason through things but they still do risky behaviors, but at the same time they also want to impress their parents- ex. Want to be home on time, but it is also hard not doing these risky behaviors when there are other peers around. Adults have more activation in the regions like the amygdale and the insula- insula controls your gut feeling vs. teens have more regions of their brains associated with reasoning- as in the prefrontal cortex and this is immature in teenagers- they also take longer to answer the questions about risky behaviors because they are actually using reasoning to answer them. They use these areas because they cannot related to these experiences or have not experienced them yet- engaging in emotion and cognition is needed for teenagers. Adults know what can possibly happen but teenagers do not know

Impacts of drowsy driving?

If you are sleep deprived behind the wheel it is just as dangerous as being drunk, more accidents between 18-25- we need to think about the school start times and how they are affecting teens.- teen drivers who sleep less than 8 hrs are 1/3 more likely to crash than those who sleep 8 or more hours a night. Lack of sleep reduces a person's ability to process information sustain attention, have accurate motor skills, and react normally. Being awake for 18 hrs is similar to having a BAC of 0.08 which is legally drunk.

Differences in mindsets in Gender?

In the science fields found that there was a correlation between a fixed mindset and the female representation in that field of science females are underrepresented. Found that the more likely they are to support a fixed mindset field- less likely to find women in that field. This can also predict the African-American representation as well. (study done be Leslie & Cimpian, 2014).

Fixed (entity Mindset)

Intelligence is a fixed trait- cant improve it more innate focused on result

Growth (incremental Mindset)

Intelligence is a malleable quality, a potential that can be developed- can shape it can learn different things and has a potential.

"Stop signal reaction time"

It is harder to withhold yourself when you are given go, go, go, no-go, only on certain trials you have to withhold your response there are difference in reaction time. When adding the facial component of an expressive face and a neutral face teens had more false alarms they thought they were going to press a button when they se an emotional face. More activation in ventral straitum compared to children and adults.

Relationship between SES and Cognitive Functions

Language/Left perisylvian, visiospacial/parietal, declarative memory/medial temporal, cognitive control/anterior cingulate, working memory/lateral prefrontal, reward processing/orbitofrontal) SES accounted for all domains except reward processing. SES effects on cognitive conflict mediated by language skills. High SES did better on language. When you account for language skills there is no differences between cognitive conflict- explanation of cognitive conflict???? SES predicts- vocabulary at 2 yrs, by age 3 how many words a child has heard, lower the family income the lower the child's school achievement.

Relationship between family SES and brain functioning (behavioral and structural MRI)

Looked at the different gray matter in different kinds of SES families found that at 5 months of age there was no difference between gray matter but as the child got older there was a decrease in gray matter in the frontal and parietal gray matter- mainly parietal gray matter- Hanson et. al 2012 Parental education has a greater impact in this decline in gray matter than income does. Those that have a higher SES have better access to resources like books, and different language.

Regions involved in the social brain.

Medial prefrontal cortex- executive function and attention inhibit background noise EBA- extrastriate body area- tells you where the person is oriented based on body language also talks about mood Superior temporal sulcus STS- eye gaze- where they are looking and multi sensory integration piece, what is their tone and voice saying about what they are talking about FFA- fusiform face area- expertise area- recognize the association of faces MS- mirror neuron systems- ability to perceive someone's actions and think about how it applies to you- if you see someone dancing and you are a good dancer you will get the same activation Amygdala- emotion processing- take in all of the info from other areas and based on this you have an emotional response talks to prefrontal cortex and communicates with it. Orbital frontal cortex- how should I behave/ what should I say? Two different levels of processing- Red: low level social brain There are people around that you can talk to, facial characteristics, body orientation and mood- these processes get moved into higher level processes - EBA, amgydala, FFA Higher level social brain Theory of mind- inferring how that person feels and why- amgydala- put yourselves in other peoples shoes and feel what they are feeling, Empathy- insula, Deciding what to say and what not to say, Orbital frontal cortex- decides what you should and shouldn't do. - mirror neurons, medial prefrontal cortex, STS, insula- pain, orbital frontal cortex. High levels- takes information from low level stuff and processes it.

Praise for Fixed Mindsets

Muller & Dewck study- Gave 5th grades difficult problems to solve and assigned them different kind of praise Intelligence praise- Wow that's a really good score you must be smart at this- encourages more of a fixed mindset- those who were given this praise looked at a performance goal wanted to know how many they got right- after one trial they got significantly less problems correct because they received the praise when they had already done an easy problem that they have already done so when it got to the more difficult ones they think maybe I am not that smart. Fixed- It's about me, Hide Mistakes, Conceal Deficiencies

Does pre-school affect outcomes?

Preschool alone cannot affect outcomes there needs to be the added family component- with the family component there is an increase in turn taking, there is lower parent stress, lower problem behavior, higher social skills, the most impact was language and nonverbal IQ. Involving the family causes a greater impact than just one intervention alone. -neville et. al 2013

Rapid Eye Movement o What occurs during REM sleep? (EEG & psychologically)

Rapid eye movement, 1.5 hrs. into sleep- more likely to wake up, usually dreaming- higher frequency lower amplitudes waves, correlated with learning

Cambridge Gambling Task

Rod went through the orbital frontal cortex of dude. He had difficulty with self regulation and reasoning, he could not inhibit his behavior. Study done by blackemore & Robbins- four decks of cards two are the decks have the higher risk but a bigger reward and two other decks have a lower risk and less payoffs- the decks are explained and found that there was a lot of activation in the ventral medial pre frontal area also found that the more lesions there were in this area the more risk that was taken, Those that have lesion in the dorsal prefrontal cortex make the same amount of risks as the control.

Slow Wave Sleep What occurs during SWS? (EEG & psychologically)

Slow wave sleep or deep sleep- someone will come into your room and you won't hear them- occurs during early part of the night- delta waves deep sleep stages 3&4. correlated with learning.

Educational implications

Study in Switzerland on started school 20 mins later those who were sleep deprived showed they could not stay on task and focus and had less positive attitude towards life. The school who had started 20 minutes later had substantially lower scores in these areas and lower scores in daytime tiredness. Persistence is related to academic achievement and those who had higher daytime tiredness and lower positive attitudes towards life. Those who were not tired had higher persistence and that improves a positive attitude towards life.

Can preschool program change attention?

There was no difference in attention when kids just did head start alone, there was no difference in attention when they did the ABC- attention boost for children program alone, but when they added that family component there was a difference in attending and non attending. - Neville et. al 2013

How does napping affect performance on visual perception tasks?

Those who did a certain task did it over and over again and they got worse at the task- they moved them to a different location and they continue to get progressively worse. If they take a nap and got just Slow wave sleep they did not do better. But if they took a 90 minute nap and got REM and slow wave sleep they did do better. Shows that naps do help if you get both slow wave sleep and REM sleep. (Mednick et al., 2002) 90 min nap > 60 min nap > no nap a 90 min nap completes a full cycle (stages 1-2-3-4-3-2-1- REM is a full cycle.

How does sleep affect performance on visual perception tasks?

Train people on annoying task and looked at how much time they needed- those studied then waited 8 hours and studied again did not do as well as those who studied right before they went to sleep had memory improvements- what helps is consolidating memory over consecutive days- showed memory improvement on these perceptual tasks. Showed the different kinds of sleep people were getting- first two hours there was slow wave sleep- highly correlated with learning- REM sleep in the later night is more associated with learning- showed a .98 correlation on sleep and memory- need both slow wave sleep and REM sleep in order to fully improve on this task. Stickgold et al. 2001 people get sleep they perform better at visual perception tasks than if they don't- in general performance is better with sleep.

• Theory of Mind

ability to put yourself in someone else's shows so that you might know what someone is experiencing.

Brain metabolism

auditory cortex, visual cortex, and frontal cortex, all of their synaptic density increase up until your adolescence they then begin to decrease

Know concept of Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

cells that wire together, fire together (Hebbian synapse)- your hippocampus and your cortex are communicating together while you are sleeping.

Role of Stress?

children who may be in chronic stress which is continual, these situation are continual and unpredictable, cortisol is released when we are stress and this has bad consequences for the brain- leads to atrophy of the prefrontal cortex and the hippocampus, initially the hippocampus grows but then it begins to atrophy, also shows increased activity in the amygdala, those who are younger can recover from stress have more dendritic spikes but this continues to decrease as you age. The more cortisol you have from chronic stress the more impact it has on your executive function. Key thing is maternal education and risk and that is associated with the executive function. Higher family income greater recruitment of the prefrontal cortex specifically dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. all related to emotional regulation, less activation in amygdala. If chronic stress was happening there would no significant relationship of the prefrontal cortex. Those who had lower family income at age 9 showed a lower emotion regulation at age 24

What is the role of sleep in learning and memory?

consolidates memories and allows us to consolidate the learning we have done. Sleep contributes to learning in the first two hours and the last two hours of the night.

Cognitive Control

correlation table- SES, maternal education correlated strongly to executive function- high SES/maternal education= greater cognitive control

Exercise and Achievement in Children

did the PACER test- showed that those who had a higher aerobic capacity had a correlation with math achievement and reading achievement. Children born with higher SES get more exercise, controlled for this-

Cab driving and hippocampus

done in London- map of downtown. Complicated streets. Given pencil and paper exams in order to be a cab driver here- cabbies who were able to get around London showed changed in hippocampus. See that it is playing this role in navigation and place and spatial. In this study saw cab drivers for 4 years and 30 years- saw an increase in posterior portion of hippocampus as function of how long a cab driver. Compared to bus drivers- bus drivers have a specific route. Smaller anterior portion of the hippocampus in cab drivers. Cannot separate whether they had a big hippocampus in the beginning or whether you developed one from being a cabbie. posterior hippocampus- used in novel route finding, anterior hippocampus- used in repetitive route finding- bus drivers. larger anterior hippocampus.

brain driven

driving to change the brain- manipulate brain activity to directly change behavior

smart drugs

drugs to increase the executive control- Adderall- side effects, ethical control

TMS

electrically stimulating or elevating specific areas of the brain- disrupt of facilitate neural activity

Consequences of not sleeping enough

enter SWS more quickly; generally not able to catch up on sleep. adolescent accidents more prevalent with early start times, accidents less prevalent with later start times. life attitude, daytime tiredness, grades all negatively affected.

Gender Differences in sleep cycle in childhood

girls get more sleep than boys.

Poor vs. Good stoppers on Iowa Gambling Task

go no go task in driving- put teens in a stimulator and had them go through stimulator of yellow lights if they would go or stop- had them in the stimulator alone then they placed a peer watching them driving- peer showed a significant difference compared to if they were alone- higher risk when there was a peer in the car with them- showed higher activation of the reward system when they are going through a red light. -same ventral straitum activations

Grey Matter Density (GMD)

gray matter peaks during adolescents than continuously decreases during adulthood- inverted U shape, white matter increases- cell bodies are decreasing- this leads to an increase in white matter and more myelination and more regions connected. fMRI showed more focal activation more frontalization and integration- systems are talking to each other more. PET scan shows decreased glucose which increases efficiency of the brain. EEG scans showed a decrease in delta sleep and a decrease in cyclic power slow wave sleep and REM sleep. Postmortem studies showed us that there is overproduction and selective elimination or pruning that increases in adolescents- increase in synapses and neurotransmitters are becoming more selective. pruning becomes more prevalent process, so synaptic and grey matter density decrease less glucose is used because the brain becomes more efficient. PFC becomes more connected to other regions.

vmPFC

hot aspects (connectivity w/ AMY and hypothalamus)

- Evolutionary purpose of adolescent brain and behavior and mental disorders that appear during this time and why?

less inbredding so meeting animals from different groups, if their risky behavior goes good they can report back to the group and that may advantage the entire group. Facilitates separation from family- do not want your child to be by you the entire time so they learn to be on their own- more expressing themselves and interacting- increased risk taking, increased sensation seeking, greater peer affiliation, greater exploratory range males that displayed more risky behavior were more likely to find a female sex partner. - Disorders that tend to appear in adolescence and theories on why- time of dramatic change in brain, body and behavior and social stress leads to mental health issues- schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, substance abuse, eating disorders

String player study

looked at the left and right hand of string players- measured the 5th figure and size- the right hemisphere should change. When they are using their left hand there should be less representation in the left brain. The brain response for the 5th finger that is used in playing was stronger- they looked at the amount of time they had been practicing- the size of D5 response is larger when they started playing? Is it years of practice or longer experience? Did they already have good representation of these fingers or did the brain change from 20 years of practice. Think that they already had good representation of fingers. Looked at the strength of the response- called the dipole strength response.

New blind vs. late blind plasticity

looks at people who were born blind vs. those who were later blind- see the later activation- for those people are reading Braille see activation in visual cortex as far as the V1, V2, V3 areas more strongly in the left hemisphere- when they are given an auditory input can see increased activity in the auditory area as well- we see a reorganization. those who were blind earlier in life have more reorganization- those recently blinded have regorganization as well

Regional Hyper grey matter density

more gray matter in frontal and temporal in ASD kids- no more gray matter in occipital lobe though. This aligns with symptom presentation. Greater density in are greater symptoms of autism . Frontal- social brain: MPFC & OPFC- Temporal- social brain: mirror neuron system. Symptoms closely related to brain growth (9mo-2 years. A lot of global connections cannot get through this density matter- less activation in FFA, far more region connectivity in ASD than TD- regional density so dense its impeding global connectivity.

brain inspired

most current products, based more or loosely on brain data and theories- haven't seen studies on neuroscience related to that.

Overgrowth brain development with autism

on average have a higher brain volume of people- can measure head at age 4 and tell brain size. Brain is 10% larger in ASD kids.

Regions implicated

prefrontal cortex- as you age the TOM migrates downwards to the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex- abstract thinking, focus. develops around 4 or 5

Monkey somatosensory plasticity studies

recorded the hand representation in somatosensory cortex- looked at the 1st and 2nd digit looked at overall size of representation in the cortex- had monkeys do a boring task - just put finger on drum and if there were too little dots- and monkeys were doing a two point discrimination task. Sometimes with one finger, two fingers, and how representations change and actually using fingers. Looked at how the representation changed in the brain when using different fingers. When you extended stimulation you have an increase in the size of the brain with those fingertips. If you continuously paired stimulation over and over again with the two fingertips, the brain says that these cells are firing together, then we wire together,

Role of expertise in FFA processing

responsible for characteristics and familiarity of their face, processes expertise, and we are all experts in faces, whose face is it, what does their face tell me, Brain does not see the face just as an object-fMRI study- Kanwisher et. al 1997, activity spikes in FFA when looking at faces. When see an O and a F there is spike in the FFA when shown faces and a decline when shown an object. FFA is an expertise area- humans are experts at not only faces, but facial characteristics- gender and emotion.

future role of genetic testing

see what genes are expressed and not expressed- variation when it comes to genes

monkey and tools studies

somatosensory receptive field- care for stimulus near hand- one teach to use tools becomes a part of sensory image- almost like an extension of their body can similarly see that in the shoulder as well.

How are mindsets transmitted and reinforced by teachers?

some teachers have entity or fixed mindsets on student's learning. If a child is struggling with math the teacher will tell them it's okay we can't all be really good at math- teacher with entity view of teaching portray that in the classroom. Teachers will comfort the child if they have an entity mindset- teacher will give child less math homework and it becomes a self- fulfilling prophecy by giving them more comfort and unhelpful strategies. Students who were given the comfort feedback ended up with a stronger entity mindset 40% of teachers have this entity view. If the teacher gave more of an investment or assisted the child in the problems they were having the child's motivation was significantly higher if the teacher gave them more of a strategy feedback vs. a comfort feedback the child had more motivation. - Rattan et. al teachers with a growth mindset tend to reward effort and outcome and tend to give more helpful strategic feedback.

Delayed sleep cycle in adolescence

teens are going to sleep later and waking up at the same time- so they are receiving less sleep than they need- they actually need more sleep than they are getting- less sleep because of homework, stress, hormonal changes, more screens (phones, tv, computer)- teens also have a chronotype???????? Teens make up for sleep during the weekend. Not just humans but animals also go through a strange sleep phase similar to adolescent sleep phases- primarily use the onset of sexual maturity across all species. younger people sleep more; adolescent cycles are squeezed by a delay in wanting to go to sleep and getting up for school, older people sleep less.

False belief tasks

tests the theory of mind independent of what the child is using. By age five children can understand that others think different as them. At a young age they believe that everyone sees the world the same way as them at four they begin to understand that others don't think the same way as them. At 4 to 5 they begin to have a view of mind as an adult believe that others can have different beliefs than them.

visual and auditory cortex in blind individuals

the auditory area gets taken over by visual input. Particular regions are liked to language. Lip reading in people who are deaf light up in auditory speech areas. If you give hearing people auditory speech their left auditory regions light up- deaf people who are lip reading get a batch of left auditory hearting as well. Similarly in people are reading Braille they get activation of their visual cortex or same areas for people who read.

What is the role of hippocampus in memory consolidation?-

the hippocampus lays down these memories- everything in your hippocampus is being processed by your cortex and then you will no longer need your hippocampus to hold those memories because they are layed down in your cortex. Cortex is building its own kind of network when you are sleeping- they are laying these neurons down. When you are awake you are encoding all of these memories into your long term store and then when you go into slow wave sleep all of the things that happened during the day are in your hippocampus and they are then being consolidated into your cortex. During REM sleep there is synaptic consolidation of those things in the cortex by the cortex. during SWS hippocampus drives cortex During REM sleep cortex drives cortex memories become hippocampus independent.

Discipline in fixed mindsets

think people are born bright with certain abilities- switch off during failure and have easy goals- don't like being vulnerable or risking things. Don't like challenges or looking stupid.

Discipline differences between growth mindset

thrive to challenges, set learning goals and actually look for feedback performance- have higher expectations for themselves. Set higher goals and when they do worse they try harder and engage in self monitoring. Throw selves into difficult tasks and self confident

SES & brain study

total grey matter greater for high SES kids, mostly in frontal and parietal lobes, fewer dendritic spines = less densely connected

tDCS

trans cranial direct stimulation- one that has a positively charged electrode one with a negatively charged electrode- found inhibit responses do repeated treatments and found that this could be helpful in depression- effect brain activity

VWFA reorganization

used a TMS to zap the occipital region in people who are visual and can read Braille and people who were born blind see that brain reorganizes so the occipital region is more important for those who are blind to read. Also zapped the sensorimotor cortex saw a decrease in both those who could read Braille and could see and those who were blind.

a combination of the above and intervention

used to describe theories, manipulating or tracking the brain- based sorts of things, hard for educators to navigate all of these.

brain supported

uses evidence from neuroscience

Long - Term potentiation

when an axon of cell A is close enough to excite cell B and this repeatedly happens we see some growth process or metabolic change taking place in one or both cells such that A's efficiency as one of the cells firing B is increased.

Brain activity differences between mindsets

when people with a fixed mindset receive negative feedback (for ex. that was wrong) they have less activation in the dorsal area of their brain, and when they received positive feedback they had more activation, compared to growth mindset activation- they were surprised. people who have a growth mindset have more activity (because they are thinking and processing why and about what they got wrong/correct to learn) when they are given feedback, while people with a fixed mindset have far less because they just check if they were correct.