Public Speaking Final Chpts 14-26
Approaches to Convey the Info
Defining, Describing, Demonstrating, Explaining
Conclusion Tips
END, include all 3 elements of conclusion, never apologize, never add new material, practice
Simile
direct comparison; "ogres are like onions"
One-sided Message
does not mention opposing claims
Pose a rhetorical question
doesn't invite actual response but is used to make audience think; let audience know your speech will answer it
Guidelines for Effective Informative Speeches
don't overestimate knowledge of audience, relate subject to audience, appeal to different learning styles, personalize ideas
Understatement
downplaying something for something less than it is
Promote Interest & Motivation
draws audience members into speech and stimulates interest; seeing facts of argument laid out can make significant difference in how listeners respond to persuasive appeal
A Good Quotation
elegantly and succinctly expresses an idea relevant to your topic, pulls ideas from literature, poetry, film
Reiterate Thesis and End Memorably
end with a challenge (informative), end with a call to action (persuasive), use bookend & attention-getting devices
Hyperbole
exaggerated claims not meant to be taken literally
Body Language (Nonverbal Communication)
facial expressions, eye behavior, gestures, general body movement
Speaking Extemporaneously
falls somewhere between impromptu and written memorized delivery
Colloquial Expressions
familiar language to a group of people
Authoritative Warrant
feel emotion
Syllogism
form of rational appeal defines as three-part argument consisting of a major premise, a mini premise and a conclusion logically following from first two steps
Personification
giving human qualities to an inanimate object
Ethos
greek word for character
Effective Speakers
have enthusiasm, are confident, show concern and interest
Example of Slippery Slope
helping refugees in the Sudan today will force us to help refugees across Africa and around the world
Functions of Visual Aids
helps listeners process and retain info, promote interest and motivation, convey info concisely, lend professional image
Preview Main Points
helps mentally organize speech, use straight forward preview sentence, helps keep audience's attention
Articulation
how crisp and clear you say the sounds and wordsAu
Rate
how fast or slow you speak
Pitch
how high or low your phrases are; the range of sounds
Volume
how loud or soft your voice is
Specific Speech Purpose
how you want your audience to react
Example of Non Sequitur
if we can send a man to the moon, we should be able to cure cancer in five years
Example of Either-Or-Fallacy
if you don't send little susie to private school this year, she will not gain admission to college
Metaphor
implied comparison of two unlike objects; "time is a thief"
Connotation
implied, understood, perceived meaning
Serif Typeface
includes small flourishes, or strokes at top and bottom of each letter; (easier on the eye and best for body of text)
Vocal Variety
incorporates volume, pitch, rate, pauses; what you want to achieve
Target Audience
individuals within broader audience who are most likely to be influenced in direction speaker seeks
Persuade
influence the attitudes and behaviors of others
Example of Begging the Question
intelligent design is the correct explanation for biological change over time because we can see godly evidence in our complex natural world
Introduction Tips
keep short, include all 4 elements of intro, never apologize, practice
Flip Chart
large paf od paper on which speaker can illustrate speech points
Multimedia effect
learning principle that suggests we learn better from words and pictures than from words alone; provided that the aids complement, or add to the info rather than matching spoken point
Substantive Warrants
logos, evidence (warrant by cause, warrant by analogy)
Establish Credibility
make statement of your qualifications for speaking on topic at particular occasion and to specific audience
Causal
making a faulty causal connection
Con's of Extemporaneously
may become repetitive and wordy, speech may take longer than anticipated, placing at speaking notes may fail to jog memory
Forewarning
may predispose listeners in opposite direction and thwart your persuasive goal
Visual Rhetoric
meaning conveyed by the images or graphics in visual aids beyond merely clarifying the verbal message
Motive
predisposition to behave in certain ways
Begging the Question
presenting an argument in such a way that its necessarily true, even though no evidence has been presented
Bandwagon
presenting something as true because general opinion supports it
Using quality Visual Aids
shows listeners you are approaching presentation professionally --> motivates them to approach in same way; increases your credibility--> helps get your message across
Effective delivery
skillful application of natural conversational behavior to speech in way that is relaxed, enthusiastic and direct
Claims of Value
something is right or wrong or good or bad; more subjective than factual
Object Speech Organizational Pattern
spatial, topical
Appeals to Tradition
speaker argues for truth of claim based solely on common practices in the past
Hasty Generalization
speaker attempts to support claim by asserting that a particular piece of evidence (isolated case) is true for all individuals or conditions concerned
Speaking from Memory (Oratory)
speaker puts entire speech into writing and commits it to memory
Speaking from Manuscript
speaker reads speech verbatim, from prepares written text containing entire speech
Red Herring
speaker relies on irrelevant information to support argument
Competence
speaker's knowledge of and experience with subject matter
Comparative Advantage
speakers viewpoint or proposal is shown to be superior to one or more alternative viewpoints or proposals
Methods of Delivery
speaking from manuscript, memory, impromptu, extemporaneously
Jargon
special words or expressions that are used by a particular profession or group and are difficult for others to understand
Typeface
specific style of lettering (ex: Arial, Times New Roman, Courier)
Concrete Language
specific, tangible, and definite (nouns or verbs)
Categories of Informative Speeches
speeches about objects or phenomena, people, events, processes, issues, concepts
Argument
stated position with support, for or against an idea or issue (contains core elements of claim, evidence, warrants)
Non Sequitiur
statement in which conclusion isn't connected to reasoning
General Rule for Visuals
take the length of speech and divide by 2 and add 1
Ad Hominem
targets people instead of issues and attempts to incite audience's dislike for opponent
Preview Sentence
tell the audience the main points and the order you will present them
External Evidence
testimony, stories, graphs, statistics
Denotation
textbook definition
Purpose of a Visual Aid
to support, summarize or add to ideas; NOT to repeat verbatim what you are saying in your speech
Example of Sweeping Generalization
today everyone owns a cell phone
Claim of Value Arrangement Pattern
topical pattern of arrangement
Concept Speech Organizational Pattern
topical, causal, circular
Issue Speech Organizational Pattern
topical, chronological, causal, circular
Event Speech Organizational Pattern
topical, chronological, causal, narrative
People Speech Organizational Pattern
topical, narrative, chronological
Goodwill
toward audience
Speaking Impromptu
unpracticed, spontaneous or improvised
Gain Audience Attention
use a quotation, story, questions, unusual info, humor
Motivational Warrant
use emotion to show how your evidence supports your claim
Line Graph
use points connected by lines to demonstrate how something changes or fluctuates in value
Pro's of Memory
useful for brief speeches (toasts and introductions), sometimes helpful to memorize portion of speech
Example of Red Herring
I fail to see why hunting should be considered cruel when it gives pleasure to so many people and employment to even more
Example of Ad Hominem
I'm a better candidate than X because unlike X, I work for a living
Elements of the Introduction
I. Attention-getter II. Introduce topic and purpose III. establish credibility IV. preview main points
Elements of Conclusion
I. signal to audience (Brakelight) II. summarize main points, III. Reiterate thesis and end memorably (Clincher)
Table
to summarize info or data in an easily viable form
Keep the Aid Design Simple
1 idea per aid, sequential layout, short phrases, 6X6 rule; avoid chartjunk
Monroe's Motivated Sequence
1. attention 2. need 3. satisfaction 4. visualization 5. action
How to Diagram an Argument
1. write down claim 2. list evidence you have in support of claim 3. write down corresponding warrant that link evidence to claim
Model
3-D, scale size representation of an object (such as a building)
Argument
a stated position with support for or against an idea or issue
Sans Serif Typeface
block-like and linear; designed without flourishes; (best for small amounts of text, such as headings)
Chalkboards
boards you use with chalk
Whiteboards
boards you use with nonpermanent markers
Refutation
addresses each main point and refutes opposing claim to your position
Abstract Language
ambiguous or unclear
Monroe's Motivated Sequence
an effective pattern that explicitly calls for audience members to act on the speaker's suggestions
Irony
an expression that uses language usually opposite to what it means
Analogy
an extended metaphor
Successful public speakers identify and appeal to 4 sets of paired emotions in listeners
anger&meekness, love&hatred, fear&boldness, shame&shamelessness
Using your Body in the Delivery
animate facial expressions, maintain eye contact, use natural gestures, good posture, dress appropriately
Prop
any live or inanimate object; can be subject of speech
Pathos
appeal to audience's emotion
Logos
appeal to audience's reason and logic
Elocutionary movement
approach to public speaking in which speechmaking is regarded as type of performance, like acting
Slippery Slope
argument based on faulty assumption that one case will necessarily lead to series of events or actions
Either-Or-Fallacy
argument stated in terms of two alternatives only, even though there may be multiple ways of viewing issue
Example of Hasty Generalization
as shown by the example of a Labrador retriever biting my sister, this type of dog is dangerous and its breeding should be outlawed
Evidence
audience's preexisting knowledge and opinions
Introducing speech with humor can
build rapport, put listeners at ease, set positive tone for speech's theme and key points; use with caution
Type and Degree of Change you seek with a _____
call to action
Allusion
casual reference to something
Processes Speech Organizational Pattern
chronological, spatial, causal
Claim of Policy
claims that recommend a specific course of action
Multimedia
combines several media into a single production (stills, sounds, video, text, data)
Elements of Ethos
competence, moral character, goodwill
Introduce Purpose and Topic
declare what speech is about and what you hope to accomplish
Persuasion
deliberate process of influence of convincing others to share your beliefs, values, attitudes or behaviors
Organizational Chart
to show lines and direction of reporting in a hierarchy
Two-sided Message
mentions opposing points of view and sometimes refutes them
Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
model of human action based on principle that people are motivated to act on basis of their needs
Components of Oral Style
more words that refer to people and human relationships to help create and sustain interest and attention
Pros of Extemporaneously
most popular method of delivery, most conducive to achieving natural conversational quality of delivery, allows flexibility, allows more eye contact, freedom of movement
Scanning
move your gate from one listener to another long enough to complete one thought before shifting
Inductive Reasoning
moves from specific cases to a general conclusion
Example of Bandwagon
nikes are superior to other brands of shoes because everyone wears nikes
Aural Channel
nonverbal channel of communication made up of vocalizations that form and accompany spoken words
Visual Channel (Silent Language)
nonverbal channel of communication that includes speaker's physical actions and appearance
Arouse Curiosity
nonverbally; setting up for presentation; verbally; combining other attention getters, questions with statistics, speaking in different language, dancing
Con's of Memory
not natural, prevents true eye contact with audience, mental lapse or block is always possible
Visual Aids
objects, models, pictures, graphs, charts, video, audio (used alone or in combination within context of speech)
Example of False Appeal to Authority
our history professor recommends that we stay at the frontier place in Orlando, so it must be a good place
Handout
page-size item that conveys info that is either impractical to give to audience in another manner or is intended to be kept by audience
Levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs (bottom to top)
physiological needs, safety needs, social needs, self-esteem needs, self-actualization needs
Pie Graph
to show proportions of the total
Claim of Policy Arrangement Pattern
problem-solution comparative advantage
Claim of Fact Arrangement Pattern
problem-solution, problem-cause-solution
Informative Speech
public speaking intended to increase audience's understanding and awareness by imparting knowledge
Speaker Credibility
quality that reveals a speaker had good crisp grasp of subject, displays sound reasoning skills and is honest, genuinely interested in welfare of audience (expertise, trustworthiness, speaker similarity)
Deductive Reasoning
reasoning from general condition to specific instance
Refer to the Occasion
references to speech occasion and relevant facts about audience make listeners feel recognized as individuals
False Appeal to Authority
referring to celebrity, athlete, actor, musician or a lay person as an authority
Moral Character
reflected in speaker's straightforward and honest presentation of message
Alliteration
repetition of beginning sounds
Con's of Manuscript
restricts eye contact and body movement, limits expressiveness in vocal variety and quality
Presentation aids help listeners to
see relationships among concepts and elements, store and remember material, critically examine key ideas
Font
set of type of one size and face; point size: size of typeface
Example of Appeals to Tradition
the president of the United States must be a man because a woman has never been president
Example of Causal
the president of the United States must be a man because a woman has never been president
Expectancy Value Theory
theory of persuasion positing that audience members act according to perceived costs and benefits (value) associated with particular action
Claims of Fact
this is or is not true/this will or will not happen
Bar or Column Graph
to compare magnitude or volume among categories
Pictogram
to depict comparisons in picture form
Flowchart
to diagram processes
Pro's of Manuscript
useful when you must convert very precise message, reduces risk of misinterpretation, award presentation
Pro's of Impromptu
useful when you're asked to make remarks on the spur of the moment, can be used in a Q&A session
Sweeping Generalization
uses "red flag" words; all, none, always, never, everyone, no one
Brakelight
verbally; use transitional words, phrases (finally, looking back, in summary) nonverbally; adjust manner of delivery to indicate speech is winding down (vary tone, pitch, rhythm, rate of speech)
Imagery
visually descriptive/figurative language
Paralanguage
vocalizations; how something is said, not what is said
Elements of Vocal Delivery
volume, pitch, rate, pauses, vocal variety, pronunciation, articulation
Onomatopoeia
words that sound like what they stand for; "boom"
Pauses
you need pauses for dramatic flare and interest
Con's of Impromptu
you're speaking on short notice with little time to prepare
Choose organizational pattern based on
your communication goals, nature of topic, needs of your audience
Ethos
your good character, not important to your audience, they want to feel they can trust what you have to say