GOV312L Exam 3 Review

6. How and why has Democracy Promotion been a more or less important element within U.S. foreign policy over the years?

-Democratic peace theory has long justified American efforts to expand democracy...means more partners for cooperation, more trade, and more peace -Post-cold war brought new idea that the spread of democracy aligned with greater security for the US Basically, Democracies tend to align with the rest of the free world which is largely led by the U.S. Therefore, by promoting democracy, the U.S is able to expand their influence and the number of allies.

10. What are the two main dilemmas facing NATO and how did the Trump administration address these dilemmas?

2 main dilemmas: Europe shirking duties and US as a reluctant hegemon Europe Shirking - European countries shirking their responsibilities, not fulfilling their duties, to provide their own military security by not spending enough on their militaries during and even after the Cold War US as a reluctant hegemon - The costs of international institutions like NATO is outweighing the benefits that the US receives - Trump threatened to reduce the US' respect towards Article 5 - the one that says that "any attack on a NATO ally is considered an attack on every NATO member"

9. According to the Krasner reading, what are the two main tendencies within US foreign policy regarding democracy promotion and dealing with authoritarian regimes? What third option does Krasner propose in how the U.S. should deal with long-standing dictatorships?

2 tendencies are: turning dictator into liberal democracy (Bush), or hands off approach (Trump and Obama). Krasner says these two approaches are flawed. Krasner recommends promoting good enough governance by emphasizing greater security, economic growth, and better provision of some services Krasner recommendations when dealing with 3 groups: consolidated democracy [maintain the alliance to sustain democracy] , transitional country [nudge/sustain democracy], despotic regime [find the best local leader, even if not democratic]

2. Discuss how restrictions on voting rights affected American democracy. What are the major historical expansions of voting rights during American history and how have expanded voting rights affected descriptive representation of women and ethnic minorities? How has universal suffrage affected election outcomes?

5 expansions of voting rights: 1800s: expand white male voting rights 15th amendment (1870): can't be denied voting rights due to race (Jim Crow laws, literacy test, poll taxes, etc. still prevented though) 19th amendment (1920): sex, women can vote Voting rights act of 1965: racial equality, and helped create majority minority districts 26th amendment (1971): voting age is now 18 Universal suffrage increases legitimacy internationally and domestically, and increases loyalty, increases the acceptance of political decisions Still: US does not have a lot of women in Congress compared to the rest of world, and there is a gap between minority population and representatives who are minorities Expansion of voting rights has led to greater popular acceptance of political decisions/outcomes. Electoral outcomes are affected by who is allowed to vote.

7. Discuss how credibility is based on capabilities and resolve (see Section 14.2).

A state must have proper capabilities for the threat to be credible, and they have to demonstrate their ability to carry out the threats. Less powerful states can make these threats, but they are likely to have little effect. EX: Haiti can't deter a nuclear attack by the US because Haiti does not have the capabilities to make an annihilating attack. A state must also have proper resolve (willingness) for the threat to be credible. EX: the parents have the capability to turn the car around, but that doesn't mean they have the resolve to.

4. Why is alleviating global poverty so important? How is poverty a main driver of other social ills such as lower life expectancy and poor education?

Alleviating global poverty will reduce child mortality rate, decrease crime and corruption rates, increase education, and improve gender and ethnic inequality. Having a higher level of income will allow people to have access to health care, prenatal care, etc. All countries are interested in alleviating global poverty because that means more people are getting the opportunity to live a better life.

9. What is a Nationally Determined Contribution?

An NDC is a nationally, voluntarily set goal on carbon emissions reduction that each member of the PCC sets for themselves; avoids the binding and negotiated targets set by the Kyoto Protocol.

3. Compare and contrast Putin's expectations at the beginning of the Russian invasion of Ukraine with what has happened so far in the war. How did Putin miscalculate in regards to Ukrainian resistance and the Western response to the war?

At first, Putin underestimated Ukraine and believed that the West would not intervene as strongly as they did.

1. According to the reading (Section 33.1), what is the basic scientific claim about the causes and extent of climate change? What are the main environmental consequences that scientists fear will result from climate change? What countries and regions will be most affected by climate change (see Section 33.2)?

Basic Scientific Claim: do not assert that warming has been uniform - some areas of Earth have seen greater increase than others Carbon dioxide is a heat trapping gas 1.5-3 degrees Fahrenheit increase - everyone feels effects Carbon dioxide levels have increased significantly since the Industrial Revolution began From 280 ppm in 1800 to 400 ppm in 2015 Average global temperatures +5.5 degrees F. from 1800 to 2050 at current rate of CO2 emissions (Mann and Toles, The Madhouse Effect) Environmental Consequences: effects plants, amount of energy in atmosphere, and precipitation cycle - makes it more likely for hurricanes and floods, rising ocean level Greenhouse gasses are causing it - CO2 (carbon dioxide), Methane (Ch4) and Nitrous Oxide(N20) Measures this in a "signal to noise" ratio- signal is local change in temperature and noise is the variability in temperature Lowest Variability and Hottest Temp= tropical regions of the globe around equator More impact on poorer countries

8. Using the module's reading (Section 19.5), describe historical waves of democracy and the possible causes of these waves such as demonstration effects, neighborhood effects, conditionality of international organizations, and the influence of hegemons.

Basically democracy occurs in 3 growing waves with a partial reverse wave where the democratic government breaks down and turns autocratic. 1st wave: First initial major growth in democracy: 19th-early 20th century Think U.S, Britain, France, etc. Ended in WW1 when we see many nations reverse to autocratic regimes: think Germany and Italy. 2nd wave: Post WW2 growth in democracy: West Germany, Japan, Italy, Latin America, largely supported by American Hegemony. Saw reversal in 60s and 70s when many Latin American regimes broke down (totally wasn't influenced by CIA). 3rd wave: Started in earnest in late 70s and 80s Democratization of much of Southern Europe: Spain, Greece, Portugal. Breakdown of military dictatorships in Latin America. Collapse of many autocratic communist regimes and establishment of democracy in Eastern Europe: Poland, Baltic States, etc. Reversal being seen in modern day: rise of autocratic China, Russia, etc, rise of populists across world. Basically democracy occurs in 3 growing waves with a partial reverse wave where the democratic government breaks down and turns autocratic. Neighborhood effects: states emulate level of democracy of their neighbors Demonstration effect: states adopt laws and economic policies similar to those that appear successful

12. How did President Biden reverse President Trump's decisions on the Paris climate accord? Why would other countries potentially question the stability of the U.S. commitment to the agreement of a Democratic president reenters the Paris accord?

Biden signed an executive order rejoining the Paris Climate Accord. They would question stability of the agreement because the US exited and entered back with no consequences, and the Democratic president would still have to have majority of congress agree with him on climate issues ^for more than one term at a time

8. How does a state demonstrate credibility in nuclear deterrence? Understand measures to demonstrate credibility such as brinkmanship, tripwire forces, "the threat that leaves something to chance", and public pronouncements made by democracies (see Section 14.2).

Brinkmanship ("the threat that leaves something to chance" - Schelling): aggressive risk-taking, short of initiating conflict, in the hopes of gaining a bargaining advantage. Tripwire Forces: small units, not large enough to attack or defend, but rather serve the purpose of "American casualties" if these units were attacked or harmed. The practice of placing one's own forces in harm's way on the territory of an ally that one protects with extended deterrence threats. The idea of these tripwire forces is to raise the stakes of an adversary's attack against a protected ally by guaranteeing that such an attack involves losses for the patron state offering protection, thereby increasing the likelihood that the patron state will follow through on threats. Public Pronouncements by Democracies: elected officials make public threats (because if they back down, domestically, the citizens may view them as weak for backing down).

2. According to the reading (Section 26.3), what is comparative advantage and how does it contribute to aggregate economic gains for states from trade? How does trade contribute to the economic sources of order in the international system?

Comparative Advantage: being more efficient in producing one good/service over a different toog/service; implies that countries can grow wealthier by specializing in the production of goods in which they have a comparative advantage in compared to a different good

3. What is an externality?

Costs or benefits of some transaction by people not involved in transaction Absence of property rights creates externalities (costs of benefits of some transaction by people not involved in transaction) Private costs and social costs of using resource diverge Factory pays nothing for pollution (0 private costs) while people in the city pay health costs from unsafe water (social cost) Factory is distributing its costs of production to everyone

4. Discuss the three potential scenarios offered in the module regarding how the war in Ukraine might end. What are the major obstacles to a negotiated settlement? Why is the current stalemate and a longer-term conflict a likely scenario? How might the war in Ukraine expand to a direct conflict between Russia and NATO?

Could end in a stalemate with a negotiated settlement Both sides will not be satisfied without feeling like they got something out of itm, Could end in a stalemate with NO negotiated settlement Could cause WWIII

7. Describe some of the efforts by the United States to promote democracy around the world. What are the political challenges associated with American efforts to promote democracy? What are the benefits and drawbacks associated with promoting democracy around the world?

DIRECT: Pres like Bush have tried to transform dictatorships into liberal democracies Flaws: costly, often unsuccessful, backfires (with military intervention) Ex. Iraq and Afghanistan, Vietnam DEMONSTRATE: Trump and Obama hands off approach, choosing to demonstrate the virtues of democracy by example through a well functioning American political system, but not promoting democratic regime change Flaws: ignores problems at its own peril, allows radical elements to grow to threaten US homeland Ex. Al Qaeda leading up to 9/11

1. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 19.1), what is democracy? Describe Robert Dahl's three "procedural minimal" conditions of democracy.

Democracy is competitive and "free or fair" elections 3 minimal conditions for democracy: 1) public contestation: (electoral competition & individual freedoms) 2) Inclusion (universal suffrage) 3) democratic sovereignty: have elected bodies with actual power

4. According to the lecture and the reading, (Section 19.3), what is the democratic peace theory? How do the factors that contribute to democracy's influence over foreign policy in general - electoral constraints, institutional constraints on power such as checks and balances, and a shared democratic identity - help to explain peaceful relations between democracies?

Democratic Peace Theory: Democracies are peaceful towards other democracies, but not peaceful towards autocracies. Causes of Democratic Peace Theory: Electoral constraints raise political costs associated with war Institutional checks and balances make peace settlements more durable bc democracy helps to solve commitment problem Shared democratic identity: Democracies externalize norms of conciliation and compromise with each other and there is less public support for using military force against fellow democracy

4. According to the reading (Sections 13.3, 13.4), what is deterrence? What are the different types of deterrence? What is extended deterrence and how does it affect the credibility of threats of nuclear deterrence?

Deterrence is based on threats when an actor tries to prevent harmful behavior not by taking action to stop it but by threatening retaliation in response to the behavior in question. Three different types of deterrence: general, immediate, and extended. General deterrence is a long-term maintenance of military forces as a show of force to deter an enemy's potential surprise attack or first strike. This involves longer timeframes, lower tensions, and a lower chance of imminent conflict than immediate deterrence. Immediate deterrence is the issuing of deterrent threats during a crisis. It can be differentiated from general deterrence by its shorter timeframe, higher tensions, and the greater likelihood of imminent conflict. Extended deterrence refers to instances where a country issues a retaliatory threat to protect other countries, allies or countries deemed to be vital national security interests, from prospective aggression by a third party. In the context of mutually assured destruction, extended deterrence entails a significant problem of credibility. Essentially, a country that engages in extended deterrence to protect allies against an aggressor that enjoys second-strike capability is signaling that it is willing to risk its own cities and citizens to protect another country.

5. What are the three different distributional struggles related to the problem of climate change?

Distributional struggle within countries Ex) Switching from coal to solar energy People who work in the coal industry will lose their jobs Solar energy prices increases; very costly to switch over EX) Oil versus general public winners and losers can create greater costs Distributional struggle among countries Developed (US and Europe) versus Developing (BRIC: Brazil, China, India, Russia) Variation in carbon emissions across countries means different levels of preparedness for changes US: carbon consumption in electricity, transportation, industry Europe: less in transportation Industry (and carbon emissions) shifting to developing world; caps would impede their growth Developing countries wanting to develop like developed countries did first before being concerned about the environment Distributional conflict across generations We should be concerned for the future of the next generations If environmental issues keep getting pushed buck, it's going to create more problems Solution: political cooperation

5. According to lecture and reading (Section 27.3), what are the domestic distributional consequences of globalization? Which groups win and lose from globalization inside the United States?

Due to globalization manufacturers move their factories to international locations (where they can source labor for much cheaper) which causes workers in the U.S to lose their jobs. Companies win in this case because they are able to manufacture their products for cheaper but the workers lose because they are not able to find a job at the same or higher level due to the lack of necessary skill sets to move upward and therefore end up getting a minimum wage job.

5. How is immigration policy related to partisanship in the United States?

During the Bush administration, some/most republicans were in favor of a more open immigration policy for economic reasons. After Bush's presidency, more republicans became more conservative about it, but until Trump's candidacy, it remained a fairly small issue. Democrats tend to be more in favor of an open immigration policy. Republicans believe that most immigrants will vote for democrats.

2. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 30.1), what are the main elements of international economic cooperation? Why is political cooperation between states on international economic affairs difficult to achieve?

Economic Cooperation: Joint reduction in tariff barriers Monetary cooperation: multiple countries coordinate monetary policies (e.g. synchronize interest rate changes) to preserve stable exchange rates Foreign aid Emergency lending The problem of contracting over time states cheat Uncertainty about the political interests of other states Monitoring compliance Distributional hurdles: which side is getting a better deal? To combat these problems the best they can, the allies decided to create Bretton Woods Institutions

6. What is foreign aid? How does the amount of foreign aid provided by the United States compare with contributions from other wealthy countries? What percentage of national government spending in the US goes to foreign aid?

Foreign aid - monetary assistance provided to developing country governments or particular groups or actors within developing countries. While the US contributes the most towards foreign aid in raw dollar amounts, the US gives a relatively low percent of its Gross National Income compared to other countries. The US spent 48 billion on foreign aid out of the 4.4 trillion federal budget. So, we spend about 1% on foreign aid.

8. Which group of countries will be the recipients of foreign aid under the Paris Climate Accord? How did this aid help facilitate the construction of this international agreement? And how might this aid help countries fulfill their emission targets?

Foreign aid will be administered to developing countries that are likely to be future leaders in carbon emissions, such as China, by developed countries that are currently or have historically been leading carbon emission rates, such as the United States and some countries in Europe. This will help ease the costs of converting to alternative energy sources and compensate for the costs of climate change.

1. What does globalization in financial terms look like?

Foreign investment in companies through factories and bonds

4. According to lecture and the reading (Section 30.3), what is the GATT and what is the WTO? How do these organizations differ? What are some of the norms, principles, and rules associated with the GATT and WTO? How does the dispute settlement mechanism in the WTO support international trade?

GATT - General Agreement of Tariffs and Trade - regulated trade until 1995 Multilateral international organizations designed to support the reduction of trade barriers on a reciprocal basis Provided a series of rules that would guide negotiating rounds during the Cold War Important: no enforcement capabilities, trade disputes handled on a bilateral basis WTO- World Trade Organization- (replaced the GATT) Key difference: institutionalized a dispute settlement mechanism with established procedures for filing grievances, investigating complaints, and punishing defection Designed to ensure that states uphold existing trade concessions (e.g. tariff cuts) negotiated through GATT/WTO The judicial panel can enforce these obligations by authorizing compensation to the injured party in form of trade sanctions Interesting: the plaintiff has a lot of discretion on where to impose retaliatory tariffs Political logic: WTO enforcement capacity keeps global economy open by punishing states pursuing protection While successful at preserving existing trade concessions, WTO relatively ineffective over last decade in securing further trade liberalization because limited support in developed world (US, Europe, Japan) Trade Policy through 2 Channels: Negotiating Rounds Dispute Settlement Mechanism (DSM)- Under GATT: because of veto the system was weak, partners could dispute proceedings and take it to the convenience of judges, it had general high rates of compliance Under WTO: can only authorize retaliation for violations of trade rules, defendants are required to participate when complaints file disputes

1. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 31.1), how do different measures such as national GDP, average income (GDP per capita), and average rate of economic growth influence which countries are perceived as economically powerful and prosperous in the global economy?

GDP is the aggregate sum of goods and services sold by private and government actors, and this measurement shows the US and China as the most prosperous countries. GDP per capita/average income shows European and North American countries along with Japan as being the most prosperous. Average rate of economic growth shows China and India being the most prosperous. In general, GDP just shows countries with large economies. This measurement usually means countries with a lot of people. GDP per capita adjusts for that, and shows the average person's influence. Average rate of economic growth shows the up and coming countries that are likely to play a large role in the future with some like China already being important.

3. Describe the general level of extreme and moderate poverty in the world. Which countries and regions have the highest concentrations of poverty? Why has the percentage of the world's population living under extreme poverty declined significantly since 1990? (See Section 31.1)

Global poverty levels have decreased significantly since 1990. Poverty levels went from 35% in 1990 to 26% in 2002 and less than 20% in 2008. Africa and Asia both have high concentrations of poverty. Most of this poverty decline was due to China and India's rapid economic growth because of their large populations.

4. If trade makes states wealthier, why is there political resistance to globalization?

Globalization causes domestic political conflict because some groups win and others lose, ex: steel manufacturers in US face heavy competition from China and could lose lots of workers and profit Basically trade as a whole makes states wealthier, but unevenly distributes the added income

10. How have domestic political considerations (and the distributional consequences of trade) in the United States contributed to this trade war?

Grand strategy of America first Deeper skepticism of free trade Hurts American manufacturing and jobs Consistent with domestic political strategy of Trump Trump's demands specific to trade with China China should boost imports of US products, Protection of US intellectual properly, and no currency manipulation Trade deficit Indicator of unfair trade policies, Trump wants to offset deficit by raising tariffs on Chinese products Therefore, the US wants to pressure China to alter its trade policies, and US believes they will do so because China can't afford to lose the US market

4. According to the reading (Section 32.3), why is there a gap between public opinion regarding the preferred levels of immigration and immigration policies adopted by democracies? How does the collective action problem help to explain this gap?

Groups with particular preferences face challenges to collection action (voting as bloc, mobilzing to prearrue state to adopt preferred policy) because of the free rider problem Certain groups that are smaller and more concentrated are better able to mobile their members to affect policy than others

6. According to the reading (Section 27.3), what is the Heckscher-Ohlin model of trade? What does the H-O model of trade demonstrate about the relationship between access to the international market and redistribution of income within countries?

Hecksher-Ohlin model of trade shows how trade redistributes income Adds to the Ricardian model of trade - factor endowments as source of competitive advantage that shapes countries exports. International trade increases the returns, or income, to holders of abundant factors in an economy. International trade pushes down the income of holders of scarce factors in an economy. Export abundant resources and products, import scarce resources and products

9. What do the Fed's actions say about the costs and benefits of American hegemony/leadership in the global economy?

Hegemonic stability theory and US leadership US at center of global economy since 1919 Long term investments in political and economic order that benefits the US. Funds allies in WWI, WWII, rebuilds Europe with Marshall Plan aid, protects flow of oil in Middle East, provides military and financial aids to countries opposing Soviet Union, opens domestic markets to international trade There is a dependence on US economy, US capital, and STEADY DEMAND FOR THE DOLLAR (or financial assets denominated in dollars)

5. Under what conditions might nuclear weapons paradoxically make war less likely?

If both sides possess secure second-strike capabilities, then both sides are deterred from launching war. EX: US and Soviets avoided direct military confrontation during the Cold War because of the risk that a war could escalate into a nuclear war and kill millions.

1. What are institutions? What is the difference between institutions and organizations? What are some examples of institutions in domestic and international politics?

Institutions: rules of the game, humanly devised constraints that structure incentives and interaction; ex: domestic: don't speed, international: sovereignty, no chemical weapons in warfare Organization: fulfill larger set of political goals that the members share, political actors in the international system; ex: NATO, WTO Organizations uphold institutions (rules). Organizations can act, and possess agency and political incentives that drive their behavior in the international system. Institutions cannot act; they exist as rules to constrain behavior.

5. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 30.4), what is the International Monetary Fund? What are its main functions? What is the main source of its influence in the international economy? What is conditionality and how does the IMF use it to promote economic reforms within countries? Why does the U.S. have so much influence within the IMF?

International Monetary Fund (IMF) is also known as World Bank "lender of last resort" - provided short term liquidity to gov'ts during financial crisis Acts like a bank: Overseas pool of capital created by member countries Limit exchange rate fluctuations (prevent currency wars from Depression that interrupted trade) Lender of last resort: Help governments in exchange rate crisis stabilize reserves with loans Conditionality: demands conditions that change economic conditions in the country and enhance long term ability to repay IMF loans as multiple disbursements: get partial money, then must implement reforms before get more Often imposes real pain: cut tariff barriers, cut budget deficits i.e. raise taxes and cut spending Power of IMF stems from its willingness to lend when no one else will Good housekeeping seal of approval necessary for private capital to come back in QUOTA BASED VOTING SYSTEM: vote shares The US and the IMF: Voting power not equal in IMF, set by relative contribution to Fund US biggest shareholder, therefore lots of influence on terms of emergency loans i.e. bailouts US often relaxes conditions for strategic reasons (e.g. Pakistan)

2. Understand, explain, and give examples of how international institutions shape international politics through the following mechanisms: a) guiding behavior and shaping expectations; b) providing information about state interests and incentives to comply; c) allocating and generating power for states.

International institutions guide the behavior of states as they tell states what they can and cannot do. EX: the recognition of sovereign states are designed to be reciprocal and both states agree not to violate territory boundaries. The specification of these rules makes it possible to identify state interests. EX: when the Syrian government violates the rules by using chemical weapons, it tells the world what type of government it is.

8. According to the reading (Section 32.5), how does international migration affect the demographic composition of countries? How do these demographic changes create conflict within countries over issues of national identity?

International migration can drastically change the demographic composition of countries by bringing in a more diverse group of people from different countries. These chances create conflict because of a desire to keep national identity the same. Ex: many Americans believing that speaking English is a crucial part of national identity, America being built on WASPs

7. According to the reading (Section 21.2), what is interstate cooperation? What are some of the primary impediments state faces when trying to reach cooperative settlements with each other?

Interstate cooperation - when multiple states lower their sovereignty to establish and adjust rules that facilitate peaceful interactions between states Primary impediments: Collective action problem, free-riding problem, unfulfilled agreements, commitment problem, transaction costs, "winners and losers" of deals

5. How has the Russian invasion of Ukraine contributed to a global food crisis? Explain the significance of loss of Russian and Ukrainian grain exports for global food prices. How does the decline of Russian fertilizer exports factor into the global food crisis?

Invasion led to Western sanctions on Russian fertilizer exports, which increased prices of food substantially, and affected the poor and vulnerable the most. This could spark political unrest and instability which could shift anger to the Western sanction-doers: US and Europe. Also countries like Armenia, Egypt. and Mongolia import almost all of their wheat from Ukraine and Russia, and Ukraine crops are not being harvested due to war.

6. According to lecture and the reading (Section 32.4), how is international migration a part of the broader phenomenon of globalization? How does the international flow of labor through international migration create winners and losers within domestic economies?

Just as we have increased movement of goods across world increases aggregate wealth of countries, we have increased migration/movement of labor that increases economic growth in aggregate DOES create winners and losers though where industries like hi-tech, agriculture, and construction benefit from low wages, but people within country all experience lower wages as result, and there's increased demand for social services

8. Why did the United States launch a trade war against China in 2018?

Launches a trade war because Trump disliked the fact that China was taking manufacturing jobs from the United States Sources of underlying conflict between the two countries China's economic rise and potential shift in distribution of power China's state-managed capitalism creates unfair advantages by supporting Chinese firms but not supporting US firms Trump demands greater US exports to China, protection of US intellectual property, no currency manipulation

6. What are the three main long-term implications of the war in Ukraine that were discussed in this module?

Long term implications include: strengthening NATO and alliance between US and Europe allies, affirm global political order, remake regional political order in Europe, and cause Russia to decline

1. What was the significance of atrocities reportedly committed by the Russian military in the Kyiv suburb of Bucha? How have these atrocities affected the war?

Lots of innocent civilians were harmed, and men were shot if they said they were part of the military. The atrocities have led to the international community reacting by condemning Russia and calling for more sanctions. Zelensky criticizes the lack of action by the UN

3. According to the reading (Section 32.2), what are the main types of immigration policy? What are the main differences between merit-based migration policies and family-based migration policies?

Merit-based policies: designed to encourage economic growth and development Employment based: employers in America hire foreign workers with specialized skills Point system: awards points for desirable characteristics such as high education/skills Admit migrants on a temporary basis (months to years) Family-based migration policies: allows citizens and legal resident to sponsor family members for visas Admission based on family reunification tends to offer permanent residence

2. Which countries or regions have the most national wealth? Which countries have the highest average income per capita? Which countries have had the highest rate of economic growth over the last 30 years? (See Section 31.1)

Most national wealth: China, US, India, Japan, Russia Highest average income per capita: United Arab Emirates, Ireland, Kuwait, Sweden, Switzerland, and US followed by general European and North American countries and Japan Highest rate of economic growth: China, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Myanmar, India

2. According to the reading (Section 13.1), what is mutually assured destruction (MAD)? What is second-strike capability and how does it affect nuclear deterrence? How is second-strike capability related to mutually assured destruction?

Mutually assured destruction is the condition between two nuclear states in which each state has a second-strike capability. It ensures that both states in a nuclear conflict will sustain damages sufficient to negate any potential advantages from a first strike with nuclear weapons. Second-strike capability is the ability to survive a first-strike nuclear attack with sufficient nuclear warheads intact and operational to launch a devastating counterattack. This counterattack is intended to be damaging enough to outweigh any benefits that would be gained from launching a surprise attack in the first place. This is a necessary condition for MAD.

9. How might national missile defense influence the stability of nuclear deterrence?

National missile defense is the use of satellite and missile technologies to destroy incoming ballistic missiles before they reach their targets. This influences stability of nuclear deterrence because it undermines mutually assured destruction by undermining an adversary's second-strike capability. If one side has the capacity to shoot down its adversary's missiles before they reach their targets, they are less vulnerable to retaliation. Could incentivize the side with Missile defenses to the first strike, and could incentivize a military buildup in states without defenses to launch a preemptive strike before defenses are operational in the adversary state.

10. According to the reading (Section 14.4), what is nuclear proliferation? Why do states acquire nuclear weapons, sometimes at the risk of provoking severe international backlash? Why do nuclear states and the international community want to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons?

Nuclear proliferation is the act of non-nuclear states acquiring nuclear weapons. They acquire these to adapt to the nuclear revolution (security) and domestic politics- competition with military bureaucracies. They want to prevent the spread of nuclear weapons because it undermines stable nuclear power relations, places with domestic instability that have nukes - more likely to have accidents or spread to terrorist groups, and it leads to a nuclear arms race (as once one state gets one, many others in the region will chase for one).

4. Describe the tradeoffs associated with participation in international organizations and national sovereignty.

Participating in international organizations allows certain protections and built-in allies, but detracts from national sovereignty as states no longer have the ability to act only for themselves or call all of the shots - must adjust to a multilateral mindset.

8. According to the reading (Sections 21.2, 21.3, 21.4), what are the incentives for global governance through international institutions? How are efforts at global governance confronted by the collective action problem? Once international agreements are established, what types of problems of compliance and enforcement do international organizations face?

Parties care about how the benefits or costs of interactions are distributed among original parties as well as how externalities are distributed among parties that are not directly involved

2. Discuss the global patterns of international migration (see Section 32.1). What are the countries with the largest inflows of international migration and which countries have the largest inflows of refugees?

People usually leave less developed countries to more developed (Western countries). Poorer countries usually get their migrants from involuntary refugees. Countries that are the top destination: US, Saudi Arabia, Germany Countries with lots people leaving their country: India, Mexico, China, Russia Turkey= main country that has inflow of refugees

6. How can global capital markets discipline or influence the economic policy of governments?

Policy implications: international capital markets can sharply constrain a country's monetary policy: limiting discretion of elected officials and forcing them to push their economy into a recession to assure creditors

9. According to lecture and the reading (Section 32.6), how does international migration intersect with national security? How does international migration present challenges for national security but also resources that can enhance a country's security?

Post 9/11 increase in American public interpeting international migration through lens of national security: see it as a potential threat of terrorism Terrorism concerns have occured before 9/11 though: Japanese American internment in WWII Resources to enhance national security States improve relations with other countries by accepting their migrants; better communication/ties Migrants provide state's economy with much-needed labor (also entrepreneurship) Contribute to the states's armed forces

11. Describe how President Obama's use of executive orders to commit to the Paris climate accord made the U.S. commitment to the agreement vulnerable. Describe how President Trump undermined the Paris climate accord when he came into office and then withdrew the U.S. from the agreement.

President Obama based his pledge for American carbon emission reductions on executive orders. This made them vulnerable because the next president could reverse them unilaterally. The Trump administration started to undermine American commitments to the Paris agreement even before formally announcing withdrawal by rescinding Obama's executive orders. President Trump formally announced in November 2017 that it intended to withdraw the US from the Paris Agreement. However, the U.S. officially remains a party to the Paris agreement until November 2020, meaning the next election could reverse this decision again. A Democratic president in 2020 could rejoin the Paris agreement but other states would likely question how stable this commitment would be. If Trump is reelected it would likely mean the effective end of the Paris agreement Other countries are unlikely to continue to push for significant emission reductions while allowing the U.S. the world's second largest carbon emitter to free ride.

10. What are the pros and cons of the Paris climate accord?

Pros: Advantages of Paris deal: Broad collective agreement: Previous agreement, the Kyoto Protocol, only had emission reductions for developed countries. Paris deal commits both developing and developed countries to emission reductions. Cannot mitigate climate change without developing countries involved in the effort. New voluntary approach: Uses voluntary national targets rather than binding agreements with imposed targets to achieve lower emissions. More realistic. Addresses needs of developing countries: Has $100 billion in "climate finance" to help developing countries find ways to break out of poverty through development without contributing to climate change. Disadvantages of Paris deal: Challenge is executing and deepening the Paris deal. Current targets will not meet the target of an increased global temperature of less than 2 degrees Celsius. Watchdog groups have shown that countries are not meeting their voluntary NDCs

4. What is the collective action problem? How might it be applied to the challenges of managing climate change? What are some of the political solutions to the collective action problem in the case of carbon dioxide emissions?

Public good: non-excludable and non rivalrous These attributes activate free rider problem Free riding as failing to limit own carbon dioxide emissions CO2 cuts as a public good: costly to exclude countries (and their citizens) from consuming once supplied Potential solutions: Large actors provide public good on own International agreement to punish noncompliance Markets undersupply public goods, necessity of international agreement

2. Before the stalemate in the invasion, what were Russian President Vladimir Putin's goals in Ukraine and his broader goals for Russia's position in European security?

Putin wanted to make Russia a great power again, and increase its sphere of influence.

9. What are some of the important stages in this trade war between China and the United States?

Raising tariffs in both countries from 2018-2019 Phase 1 trade deal of 2020: eased access of american exports to china COVID ruined the proceedings of a trade deal

7. What are remittances? How do remittances help to redistribute wealth from wealthy countries to poorer ones (see Section 32.4)?

Remittances: money sent from migrants to family and friends back home; create a greater distribution of wealth from wealthy countries to poorer ones compared to foreign aid. Advantages include: remittances are unconditional since usually between family members they avoid government structures and thus corruption provide valuable form of social insurance, credit, and investment in countries that lack these markets

3. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 26.3), what is the Ricardian model of trade? Describe the processes by which it suggests that trade and specialization can increase aggregate national income.

Ricardo articulated the principle of comparative advantage: countries specialize in the activities in which they are relatively more productive. These productivity differences stem from differences in technology or skills (labor productivity). Basically, by allowing another country to focus on making a particular product more efficiently than the US can, the US can focus on specializing in a particular product, expand the production of those goods.

1. Explain how the Russian invasion of Ukraine hit a stalemate, particular in its attempt to capture the capital, Kyiv.

Russia did not anticipate Ukraine's military response to be this strong. Russia has had poorly planned military strategies.

9. Why do countries give foreign aid at all if it does not really seem to help that much? What political, security, and economic goals are met through aid?

Some humanitarian reasons, but also for political influence. This influence helps keep a power that shares the US's interests in power. Some goes to other countries to divert migrants and refugees. For example, The US gives aid to Central America to divert some migrants there, and the EU gives aid to Turkey to divert Syrian refugees there. Also, it is cheaper to give military aid to build up another country's defenses than actually go to war or station troops there.

7. What are the main components of the Paris Climate Accord? How

States will submit voluntary reduced carbon dioxide emissions target to keep mean global temperature increases less than 2.0 degrees Celsius An important distinction: the emission targets are not legally binding, as there is no world government that can enforce the compliance with these emission targets Each member state needs to submit their plans for achieving emissions targets for review every year, and must revise it if necessary to make it stronger or as strong as the old onehould it operate to limit the growth of carbon dioxide emissions?

7. What emergency actions did the Federal Reserve undertake to help prevent a broader global financial crisis during the COVID-19 pandemic?

The Fed has undertaken EXTRAORDINARY and UNPRECEDENTED actions during covid to prevent the economic shutdown associated with covid from triggering a global financial crisis SHORT ANSWER: Has extended unprecedented amounts of credit to businesses, banks, and governments. Dropped the federal funds rate target to 0 to 0.25 (overnight interest rate charged to largest banks). Multiple rounds of quantitative easing- asset purchases that increase the size of the balance sheet. Direct lending to large corporations. Indirect lending to small and medium size businesses. LONG ANSWER: March 3: dropped Federal Funds Rate target to 0.00 to 0.25 Multiple rounds of quantitative easing (asset purchases that increase size of its balance sheet) 3/15- announce purchases of $700 billion (treasuries and mortgage backed securities) 3/23- announced that purchases open ended (NEW) Direct lending to large corps (NEW) Treasury (the US taxpayer) provides a backstop to take on up to $75 billion in losses April 9: Indirect lending to small and medium businesses (NEW) Fund 95% of loans originated by other domestic financial businesses April 9: direct lending to state and local govts, up to $500 billion (NEW) Swap lines (exchange dollars for foreign currencies) up to 15 most trusted central banks March 31: FIMA Repo Facility (Foreign and International monetary authorities)-- Fed will lend dollars (create reserves) to foreign actors that hold and post US Treasury bonds as collateral (NEW) Preventing a global run on the dollar so foreign financial institutions don't have to sell US Treasury bonds (and drive down their price) to cover other losses

3. Why is it unlikely that Vladimir Putin or other Russian officials will be prosecuted for war crimes in the foreseeable future?

The ICC (International Criminal Court) rarely ends up persecuting governments, even if they are in violation of the law and commit war crimes. They take too long and they don't have the official jurisdiction to carry out prosecutions against Russia.

6. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 33.6), what is the Paris climate accord? How might it operate to reduce carbon emissions and limit the increase of average temperatures? How did it navigate the tension between developed and developing countries?

The Paris Agreement is a treaty under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) that aims to reduce average global temperature increase to below 2° above pre-industrial level. Deal reached in December 2015 Important role played by United States in final terms of the agreement Agreement on process by which states would submit voluntary reduced CO2 emission targets to keep average global temperature increases below 2.0°Celsius, with ultimate goal of less than 1.5° Main components of agreement: 1) Nationally determined contributions that are voluntary and not legally binding. Designed to work through the politics of naming and shaming 2) Fund to transfer $100 billion dollars from developed to developing countries Designed to help developing countries pay costs and as compensation for the fact that developed countries are more responsible for this problem due to their earlier industrialization

7. How does the US target its foreign aid? What objectives get more or less funding? Which countries receive the most foreign aid from the US?

The US mainly targets its foreign aid to economic aid(71%) with relatively little going to military aid(29%). The US gives 25% of all foreign aid to Afghanistan, Israel, Jordan, Egypt, and Iraq.

1. According to lecture and the reading (Section 30.2), what is the Bretton Woods economic order? What were the main forces that served as an impetus for the U.S. to construct the Bretton Woods order? What are the main organizations that emerged from Bretton Woods?

The US supports creation of international orgs to ensure economic growth through international trade. Supports open trade, exchange rate stability, and loans for economic reconstruction and war zone facilities peace and globalization. The main inspo was to prevent issues like the Great Depression and WWII. Main orgs are WTO and IMF

6. Why does the United States participate in the United Nations and often abide by its decisions when it could just ignore it instead (because it possesses much greater military capacity than the UN)?

The US's most important military alliance US key player because of seat on Security Council Can ignore, but...why participate regularly? (ex., seek approval for 2003 Iraq War) Source of legitimacy abroad and domestically UN reflect global public opinion, easier to gain if allies support Domestic public more likely to support policies that have secured UN approval (Chapman-UT)

5. According to the reading (Section 19.4), what are some critiques of the democratic peace theory?

The critique is that countries transitioning to a democracy experience more conflict. Alternative explanation for why peace occurs is that having a common enemy of the Soviet Union and great power settlements explains peace in Western Europe after WW2

8. How does the status of the U.S. dollar as the reserve currency of the global economy help the Federal Reserve to take such dramatic steps during the pandemic to support the U.S. economy? How is this related to the Hegemonic Stability Theory?

The demand for the $ increased since it is so stable which allows the US to take out loans to resolve financial issues related to COVID. Hegemonic Stability Theory:

1. How have nuclear weapons influenced US foreign policy since 1945 and how have nuclear weapons complicated the provision of national security?

The development changed from wanting to develop nuclear weapons to nuclear proliferation and preventing development of nuclear weapons in other states. Nuclear deterrence has become very effective, and second strike capability is essential to stable nuclear powers as nuclear weapons make it nearly impossible to protect citizens. FP has shifted from defense to deterrence.

6. According to lecture and the reading (Section 14.1), what is the problem of credibility in nuclear deterrence? Explain why the effectiveness of deterrent threats depends on credibility.

The difficulty of making a threat credible when adversaries understand that following through on the threat leads to negative effects for the issuer of the threat as well as the receiver. Nuclear deterrence under conditions of mutually assured destruction (MAD) poses a problem of credibility because your adversaries know that following through on a nuclear threat means the issuer of the threat will also face destruction because of adversaries' second-strike capability. EX: if your parents threaten to turn the car around if you are rowdy, will they really turn it around if you don't stop?

5. What is the political significance of the dollar's reserve currency status in the global economy?

The dollar as a reserve currency means that many international transactions outside of the United States occur in dollars. It means that foreign countries have faith in the dollar and US banks. It also means that the U.S can do financial shenanigans without too many consequences because if the value/stability of the U.S dollar were to fluctuate too much, it would harm the global economy, so the international community basically has to accept what the Fed gov does.

9. What are the Cold War origins of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)? What did Lord Ismay mean when he said the goal of NATO was "to keep the Russians out, the Americans in, and the Germans down"?

The goal of NATO was to help American military power and "hurt" their enemies Russia and Germany after the Cold War. Keep Russians out - protecting NATO alliances / Europe from a possible soviet threat. Americans in - NATO is a binding mechanism for American military power (Keeping American militarily relevant in Europe and to make US act multilaterally rather than unilaterally) Keeping the germans down - maintaining peace between democratic powers in Europe by integrating them into an alliance led by an outside in the US

3. According to your reading (Section 13.2), what is the nuclear revolution?

The potential changes to warfare brought about using nuclear weapons which are 1) duration - nuclear weapons increase the speed at which +large-scale destruction can be inflicted upon an enemy. 2) targeting of noncombatants - nuclear weapons can target civilian populations without first defeating a state's military forces. 3) relationship between winning and losing sides - MAD means that both sides in a nuclear conflict can face potential annihilation. 4) shift from national security strategies - the shift from defense to national security based on deterrence.

3. According to the reading (Section 28.3), what is the Mundell-Fleming Trilemma? How does this trilemma highlight the tradeoffs for states as they strive to achieve three goals: monetary policy autonomy, exchange rate flexibility, and capital mobility?

The tension between these three goals: - monetary policy autonomy (internal facing, like when Fed adjusts interest rates to fight inflation but then later it will impact foreign exchange rate) - exchange rate stability (how strong your economy is in the global market) - and capital mobility (rate at which u can increase your assets value)

4. What other indirect effects may occur from the investigation of war crimes by Russia in Ukraine even if Putin or other Russian officials are not prosecuted or punished for war crimes?

There's a normative effect of the allegations, even though no concrete punishments US and Europe have added additional sanctions and given military aid (gave Ukraine armed drones)

8. According to the reading (Section 31.6), why doesn't foreign aid work better to alleviate global poverty?

Three reasons: 1. The richest countries do not provide enough to alleviate poverty to make a difference. 2. Receiving states do not use the foreign aid effectively (lost to corruption). 3. Donor countries and organizations do not target foreign aid effectively.

7. How do trade and globalization shape political relations and order in the international system?

Trade and globalization can facilitate cooperation between nations that rely on each other for goods However, globalization activates domestic political conflict because some groups win and others lose (ex: groups that lose their jobs due to trade lobby for tariffs, domestic firms lose due to competition and lobby, etc)

2. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 33.3), what is the tragedy of the commons? Why is it rational for individuals to overuse public goods? How does this phenomenon help to explain the difficulty of managing the sustainable use of commonly held public property? Know some examples.

Tragedy of the Commons: free riding until the good vanishes, resources shared over time depletes it Emerges with public property or resources for which it is difficult (costly) to restrict their use (consumption) Divergence between private benefits and social costs: Individually rational for people states to consume, but diffused costs to society insufficient to prevent overuse Resource gets depleted Examples: oil fields, common grazing lands, overpopulation, fisheries, atmosphere

5. What are the two main political bodies of the UN? How can they confer legitimacy? Which states have the most power within these political bodies?

Two main political bodies of the UN are the general assembly and the security council. The General assembly rarely achieves consensus since all states have voices (ex: they failed to order a resolution for ceasefire in Gaza), and the Security Council has 5 members (China, France, Russian Federation, UK, USA) from WW2 and 10 rotating countries. The 5 permanent members have vetoes - thus during Cold War the Russians and the US would constantly veto each other and put the UN in a somewhat gridlock.

1. According to the reading (Section 32.1), what are the main differences between voluntary and forced migration?

Voluntary migration: legal vs illegal/undocumented migration Someone who moves to another country for personal gain (higher wages, job, closer to family) Forced migration: refugees seeking asylum, human trafficking Involve movements of people from poor countries suffering war, persecution, and natural s disasters to other poor countries who can't accommodate influx of people

2. What are war crimes? How have the actions of the Russian military in Ukraine met the criteria for war crimes?

War crimes are actions that violate humanitarian law during war. These include willful/deliberate torture and killings. Observing the damage done in Ukraine, civilians were found to be tortured and killed by the Russian military. For instance, some were found with bags over their heads, their hands tied behind their backs.

4. According to the lecture and the reading (Section 28.4), what is a trade deficit? How are trade deficits related to foreign capital inflows and investment in the United States?

What is a trade deficit (aka current account deficit): When imports exceed exports in a given year. How are trade deficits related to foreign capital inflows and investment in the United States: It's buying more from foreigners than it's selling to them. The US finances these trade deficits with loans from foreigners. The capital amount surplus shows up as more investment capital coming into the US. Trade deficits show a healthy investment climate (if it were unhealthy foreigners wouldn't invest) These foreign investments then help compensate for very low savings rates in the US.

2. According to the reading (Section 28 - Introduction, Section 28.2), what is an exchange rate? How do shifts in exchange rates alter patterns of imports and exports? How can exchange rate changes influence trade policy?

What is an exchange rate: An exchange rate simply captures the price at which one currency can be traded for another. It indicates the relative value of two currencies. How do shifts in exchange rates alter patterns of imports and exports: When the dollar appreciates in value relative to another currency, imports from that country into the United States become cheaper. (higher dollar, more imports). Appreciating the dollar tends to increase imports and hurt U.S. exports. Exporting firms tend to like a falling dollar, because it makes their exports cheaper to foreign consumers.

3. According to the reading (Section 19.2), how does democracy affect foreign policy? Explain how mass participation through elections expands the range of societal interests that can affect foreign policy. Explain how competitive elections create a punishment mechanism that influences foreign policy.

When you have elections, foreign policy tends to match the people's interests more definitively. For example, there's a lower chance of war being perpetrated (especially between democratic countries) because the costs of war are associated with the people, so the people are more likely to vote for candidates supporting peace if they're affected by a war. In the same way things like trade deals / multilateral agreements will be more affected by how they affect the populace in terms of things like employment and historical relationships between states. If a government does something unpopular like invading a country without a strong reason then that government can get switched in elections.

13. According to the Baker reading, what are the economic and national security benefits of ambitious U.S. leadership in combating climate change? What are the four pillars of the Baker-Schultz plan to reduce carbon emissions?

Written by former senior officials from the Reagan and George H.W. Bush administrations, this article presents a conservative argument for U.S. leadership in combatting climate change. They acknowledge the two common (usually conservative) objections to pursuing ambitious steps to combat climate change - economic costs and the free rider problem. They turn both of these objections on their heads: Environmental protection and economic growth are complementary not mutually exclusive The U.S. already has a comparative advantage in low-emission manufacturing and so stronger environmental protections would actually promote a more equal playing field for American companies Strategic benefits for the U.S. from ambitious environmental protection: Environmental protection can foster economic growth: Cleaner energy such as natural gas and renewable energy like wind and solar power is becoming much more cost effective, so the U.S. has substantially cut emissions while maintaining a strong economy Like the internet revolution, climate-saving technologies could bring revolutionary economic efficiencies Climate change is already causing significant economic costs through worse natural disasters, combatting it will help the country's bottom line Environmental protection can enhance national security: Climate change poses serious national security threats such as flooding of major cities and international conflicts over water scarcity and thus reducing climate change will lessen these threats Winner of the clean energy race will determine the international balance of power and set the rules of the new clean energy international economy, which ties to hegemonic stability theory Policy proposal: Carbon pricing as the most efficient means to reduce emissions Four pillars of the Baker-Schultz carbon pricing approach: 1) Economy-wide, revenue-neutral carbon fee. This would cost less than subsidies and regulations. 2) Revenue from carbon fee returned to American citizens as dividends. A family of four would receive approximately $2000 per year. 3) Carbon pricing would replace many environmental regulations 4) Carbon tariff would be applied to energy-intensive imports to level playing field

1. According to the textbook reading (Section 26.2), what are the chief indicators of the increase of globalization since World War II?

indicators: Growth of imports and exports More immigration which means integration of labor markets Barriers to international commerce erode Volume of economic transactions increase with overall increase in economic activity

3. How might international economic organizations, like the WTO and the IMF, facilitate economic cooperation among states and higher levels of international trade?

•Provide enforcement mechanisms WTO: judicial panel (Everyone has equal say) IMF conditionality (the US has more power in the IMF because they are contributing more money) •Helping to reveal information about state interests •Monitor compliance •Reducing distributional challenges