Psychology 101 (Study.com)
Paul Ekman's Six Basic Emotions
(1) anger, (2) disgust, (3) fear, (4) happiness, (5) sadness, (6) surprise
David Wechsler
A psychologist who believed socioeconomic factors impact intellectual evaluations and argued against single-factor intellectual evaluation, favoring a two-factor testing system
Howard Gardner
A psychologist who introduced the theory of multiple intelligences; this man recognized that methods of learning and intellectual strengths vary from person to person
Lawrence Kohlberg
A psychologist who studied the moral development of children. He developed a theory of moral development that includes three levels, each with two stages.
Erik Erikson
A psychologist who worked on a theory of psychosocial development that involved eight stages of contrary pairs of behavior. Erikson believed that formulating our identity is a lifelong process.
Jean Piaget
A psychologist who worked to create a model of cognitive development in children that included four stages.
Schizophrenia
A psychotic disorder defined by a patient losing the ability to stay connected to reality. It can include hallucinations, delusions, disordered speech, social withdrawal and more.
Statistical Significance
A result with less than a 5% chance of taking place by place is statistically significant.
Mnemonic device
A rhyme, acronym or other linguistic tool that helps improve long-term memory of concepts or lists
Pain Disorder
A somatoform disorder that causes individuals to experience pain without a physical cause.
Lithium
A specific psychiatric drug often used to treat bipolar disorder.
Family Therapy
A specific type of group therapy that focuses on families and family relationships. Not everyone in the family is seen all the time.
The Magical Number 7, Plus or Minus 2
A study in which George Miller used a series of numbers to prove that there are distinct limits to the human short-term memory
Eating Disorders
A type of disorder that involves controlling hunger and eating habits. It can be influenced by social pressures to be thin and perfect. Anorexia and bulimia are examples.
Source amnesia
A type of memory distortion where you can remember something but not where you learned it
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
A type of personality disorder characterized by an unrealistic sense of self-worth. People with this personality disorder show little concern for how others feel.
Antipsychotics
A type of psychiatric drug that reduces 'positive' symptoms, or symptoms that represent emotions more powerful than those people normally experience. Often used for schizophrenia.
Humanistic Psychology
A type of psychology that holds that individuals are good and guided by their feelings. This branch of psychology focuses on helping people grow and improve themselves.
Developmental Psychology
A type of psychology that's concerned with how people change over the course of their lives. Developmental psychologists are often interested in prenatal and infant development.
Descriptive Statistics
A type of statistics used to describe data. These statistics often involve averages. An example includes your GPA.
Group Therapy
A type of therapy where people work together, sharing experiences with one another. Typically the therapist facilitates their discussions.
Chunking
A way of breaking up long strings of information into smaller bits, such as splitting a 7-digit phone number into two subgroups of three and four numbers
Iconic memory
Also known as visual memory; this is a type of sensory memory that causes a visual echo of an image that is no longer actually within your view
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD)
An anxiety disorder that can result in large amounts of anxiety and physical maladies, such as fatigue, trembling and insomnia. This disorder may also be connected to the brain's amygdala.
Biological Therapy
An approach to psychological treatment that involves using biological methods in an attempt to fix mental ailments. These therapies are not commonly used today.
Passive-Aggression
An immature defense mechanism. Passive-aggression leads individuals to take their anger out in unproductive ways.
Embryo
At this stage of prenatal development, differentiation of cells begins to occur. After nine weeks, the embryo develops enough to be termed a fetus.
Authoritative Parenting Style
Authoritative parents try to set responsible demands on their children but are also responsive to the needs of their children.
Morphemes
Basic letter and sound constructions that represent meaning on their own, including prefixes (re-) and suffixes (-ed)
Normative conformity
Behaving according to expected social norms
The fundamental attribution error
Blaming internal behaviors for issues; blaming people over situations
Humanistic Approach
Carl Rogers created this type of therapy. Humanistic therapists use active listening and positive regard. They attempt to help people increase self-awareness.
Phallic Stage
Children from 3-6 are in this developmental stage, according to Freud. It involves recognizing differences between boys and girls. The Oedipus and Electra complexes can develop at this stage.
5 levels of Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs
Chronologically in order: (1) physiological needs, (2) safety needs, (3) social needs, (4) esteem needs, (5) self-actualization needs
Aggression
Committing an act of violence against someone with the specific intent to do harm to them
Parasympathetic nervous system
Half of the autonomic nervous system; controls resting state functions like digestion; calms you
Sympathetic nervous system
Half of the autonomic nervous system; handles functions when your body is ready for action, like running or crouching; important to fight or flight response; revs you up
Humor
Humor is a mature defense mechanism. Humor allows individuals to deal with difficult situations in a healthy manner.
Types of Therapy
Individual, Family, Couples, Marriage, and Group
Intimacy and Isolation
Individuals in the young adult stage of Erikson's psychosocial development struggle with a conflict between these factors.
Somatoform Disorders
Individuals with these disorders exhibit the symptoms of physical disorders without a physical cause. Instead, the symptoms are caused by psychological problems.
Histrionic Personality Disorder
Individuals with this disorder try to get the attention of those around them and don't develop emotional attachments.
Substance Abuse Disorders
Individuals with this disorder use some kind of substance in a maladaptive way that can prove physically dangerous or damage social relationships.
Visual intelligence
Individuals with this kind of intelligence may be able to create vivid images in their imaginations and may learn best when they can see a picture or demonstration of what's being discussed
Experimental Research
Individuals working on experimental research work with independent and dependent variables.
Episodic memory
Long-term memory of specific events that allows you to recall things like the names and faces of new acquaintances or what happened before a car accident
Percentage of people who achieve full self-actualization
Maslow speculated that the number of adults who achieved their full potential to be below 1%
Social identity
Membership in a particular group or groups which determines the things we do every day
Misinformation effect
Memory distortion where details of a story change over time until you remember them the way you tell the story and not the way they really happened.
Plutchik's Eight Basic Emotions
Organized into oppositional pairs: anger vs. fear; joy vs. sadness; trust vs. disgust; surprise vs. anticipation
The self-serving bias
Our tendency to attribute our successes to things that we have done, but blame our failures on things out of our control
Median
Part of the central tendency of data. The median refers to the number located directly in the middle of a numerical set.
Insulin Shock Therapy
Patients suffering from schizophrenia could have received this treatment back in the 1930s - 50s. It involved placing patients in a coma with insulin, and is no longer used.
Patient Behaviors Related to Improvement
Patients who want to succeed, have good support and are prone to attacking problems are more likely to benefit from their treatment.
Divergent thinking
People who are able to think abstractly and come up with a variety of different conceptual solutions to a problem often use this type of thinking, which is strongly linked to creativity
Anti-social Personality Disorder
People who have this personality disorder can be very charismatic, but lack a sense of right and wrong. People with this disorder used to be known as psychopaths.
Analytical intelligence
People with this skill may be very matter-of-fact and tend to want clear, demonstrably correct answers to questions
Linguistic intelligence
People with this type of intelligence may be 'good with words,' with the ability to speak articulately or write entertaining stories
Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development
Piaget's second stage of cognitive development. Children who are between the ages of 2-7 are in this stage, and they develop logic skills.
Basis for Piaget's Theory of Development
Piaget's theories about development were concerned with how humans grew cognitively.
Behavior Therapy
Pioneered by Joseph Wolpe, this is a type of therapy that can be used to treat phobias. Treatments can include exposure therapy and aversion therapy.
Instinct and Attachment
Primary factors in the development of infants.
Two-Factor theory of emotion
Proposed by Stanley Schachter and Jerome Singer; theorizes that the emotions we experience depend on both physiological arousal as well as cognitive processing
Cannon-Bard theory of emotion
Proposed by Walter Cannon and Philip Bard; theorizes that emotions and physiological arousal happen at the same time
Antidepressants
Psychiatric drugs that can be used to treat depression by affecting neurotransmitter levels in the brain.
Harry and Margaret Harlow
Psychologists who were interested in determining the value of love in the development of living creatures. They conducted an experiment with monkeys.
An emotion
an affective state with specific physiological signs which has an effect on both thinking and behavior
Fight or flight response
Reaction to a threat - to either stay and fight, or run away; found throughout nature, including humans
Reliability in Psychological Studies
Reliability in a study means that it provides accurate and consistent results.
Intrapersonal intelligence
Self-reflective and self-aware people who are in touch with their motivations and emotions express this type of intelligence
Examples of Instinctive Knowledge in Babies
Shutting their eyes when faced with a bright light, Avoiding sharp objects, Grasping objects, and Rooting reflex
James-Lange theory of emotion
Similar theories proposed by William James and Carl Lange, combined into one; theorizes that humans experience physiological arousal prior to emotions
The 3 theories that explain the formation of prejudice
Social learning (learned from those around you); motivational theory (you see others as your competition); personality theory (prejudice arise from personal experience during your development)
Emotional intelligence
Someone's ability to recognize emotions as well as manage them
Inferential Statistics
Statistics that allow individuals to make conclusions based on data. Researchers can use this kind of statistic when they're trying to prove or disprove a hypothesis.
Symptoms of Major Depression
Symptoms last longer than two weeks: Loss of interest in socialization, Irritability, Feelings of worthlessness, Disruption of sleep and eating patterns
Accommodation
Takes place when an individual adapts their concept of a given object to be more exact, such as realizing that not everything that drives on the road is a car.
Safety needs
The 2nd level of needs on Maslow's hierarchy; includes safety of body, resources, family, employment, etc.
Esteem needs
The 4th (second to highest) level of Maslow's hierarchy; includes the need for self-esteem, respect, confidence, etc.
REM (rapid eye movement)
Deep sleep where your eyes are closed but move back and forth; features increased heart rate and breathing; this is when you dream; length increases from 10-20 minutes throughout the night
Punishment
A facet of operant conditioning that uses a negative consequence to decrease the frequency of a certain response or behavior
Gestalt psychology
A psychological approach focused on studying visual perception that gained popularity in the early 20th century; its name derives from the German word for 'form'
The scientific method
A science-based research and study technique that formulates a hypothesis, or a scientific theory, and tests that hypothesis with experimentation and evidence
Psychology
A scientific discipline that concerns itself with the study of human thought, behavior and emotion.
Hallucinogen
A type of psychoactive drug that affects your brain the same way serotonin or epinephrine would; examples include LSD and ecstasy
Narcotic
A type of psychoactive drug that stimulates endorphins, which can decrease pain; examples include codeine and heroine.
Theorist who believed the central conflict of your mind was between your unconscious desires and your conscious actions
Sigmund Freud
Biopsychology
This branch of psychology tries to determine how biology affects our feelings and actions. It involves the study of the endocrine system.
Jean Piaget
A cognitive psychologist who believed that internal factors such as emotions and past experiences influence the way people act
Social psychology
A branch of psychology that explores the way society and mass culture can influence the way people behave as individuals
Cilia
Cilia are small fibers that pick up vibrations and create nerve impulses that go to the auditory nerve to help transmit sound information to the brain.
Ethical standards
Rules that focus on the concepts of informed consent and minimized harm as a way of guiding psychological experiments with human participants
Endocrine System
This body system includes the glands that produce hormones and is involved in converting the food you eat into energy.
Cornea
This is the outermost part of the human eyeball and the first part of the eye that light passes through.
Dopamine
This neurotransmitter is tied to concentration, memory, and movement.
Behavioral approach
A psychological approach used to describe human behavior as strongly influenced by external factors and to question the existence of free will
Conscious deliberate behaviors
Actions you take that you are aware of and control - like making a phone call
Sigmund Freud
A famous early psychologist and supporter of the psychodynamic approach, whose theories about sex (pleasure, satisfaction) and human motivation have caused controversy
Biological psychology
A field of psychology that studies the physical aspects of the nervous system, such as the brain and the nerves, and their on impact moods and behavior
Steps in Vision
Light is focused through the lens and moves to the retina. In the retina, rods and cones convert light to electrical signals that can be read by the brain.
Stimulant
A psychoactive drug that blocks the reabsorption of substances like seratonin or dopamine, leading to an increase in energy; examples include caffeine and cocaine.
Depressant
A psychoactive drug that increases GABA, causing a slow down in reactions in the brain; examples include alcohol or benzodiazepines.
Psychoanalysis
A psychological interview and exploration technique that originated in the early 20th century thanks to the work of Sigmund Freud, Carl Jung and others
Scientific study of psychology
A research-based way of thinking about human behavior that seeks to conduct deep analysis on what really motivates the way people think, act and feel
Negative reinforcement
A type of reinforcement that focuses on removing an unwanted outcome; this differs from punishment because it focuses on increasing a desirable behavior rather than decreasing an undesirable one
Observational learning
A type of social behavioral modeling in which a person repeats behaviors they observe others doing; also known as 'monkey see, monkey do'
Opponent Process Theory
A vision theory that states that we process colors as 3 sets of opponent colors. This theory is supported by after-images.
Aerial Perspective
Aerial perspective occurs when things that are in the distance seem to be foggy.
Stanley Milgram
An early psychologist who conducted a famously unethical study on obedience that saw human participants administer electric shocks to each other
Independent variable
An element of a scientific experiment that causes or brings about the phenomenon or problem being studied
Observation
An element of the science of psychology that involves examining tangible and provable causes and effects
Psychoanalytic theory
Freud's theory that our repressed sexual desires are realized in our dreams; describes the what happens in dreams as manifest content, while repressed desires are latent content
Symptoms of Low Levels of Thyroid Hormones
Fatigue and Weight gain
Pupil
A small opening that allows light to reach the lens of the eye. This is the black part in the middle of your eye.
Neurons
A specific kind of nerve cell that relays signals throughout the nervous system.
Developmental psychology
A subfield of psychology that explores the way humans change and grow in different stages of life, from birth to death
Neuroplasticity
A term used to describe how the brain adapts to new circumstances and injury.
Peripheral Nervous System
Made up of your sensory and motor neurons, this body system provides sensory information to your brain and delivers motor information to your glands and muscles.
Erickson and hypnosis
Psychiatrist Milton Erickson thought that it was possible for hypnotists to communicate with a person's unconscious mind when they were under the influence of hypnosis
Rods and Cones
Photoreceptor neurons (part of Eye's Retina) that process black, white, and color.
Proprioception
The sense of your body's motion and position in space.
Lens (of the Eye)
This part of the eye focuses light. The lens is located directly behind the pupil.
Two senses that are closely related:
Taste and smell. Our sense of taste is greatly influence by our ability to smell.
temporal lobe of cerebrum
The section of your brain that processes what you hear. It can grow when you practice a musical instrument.
Behavior biology
The study of what animals do when interacting with their environment
Wilhelm Wundt
A 19th-century psychology pioneer who founded the first known scientific lab focused on psychology
Ivan Pavlov
A behaviorist who used classical conditioning to trigger salivation in laboratory dogs through the combination of the sound of a ringing bell and the presentation of food
Cognitive psychology
A branch of psychology that embraces the concept of free will and focuses on the way people can learn to change their behavior and solve problems in a rational way
Broca's Aphasia
A form of brain damage caused by damage to the frontal lobe. Individuals with this condition have difficulty speaking.
Insight learning
A form of problem-solving in which a person or animal experiences a sudden sense of clarity that had previously escaped them; this can also be called an 'aha moment'
Law of proximity
A gestalt psychology concept explains that multiple closely arranged objects or shapes tend to be seen as a singular group
Serotonin
A neurotransmitter that deals with moods, the sleep cycle, sex drive, and appetite. Depression or anxiety can result from low levels of this neurotransmitter.
Altered states of consciousness
A non-permanent change to mental state while still conscious; examples include daydreaming, hypnosis, or meditation
Variable ratio schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule where reinforcement is granted randomly and unpredictably, such as a teacher occasionally giving stickers for good grades on tests when the mood strikes
Frequency Theory of Hearing
A theory of hearing that asserts that the neurons of cilia will go off to match the frequency of the sound that enters the ear.
Classical conditioning
A type of behavioral training that uses two simultaneous stimuli, such as the sound of a bell and the smell of food, to produce an involuntary reaction, such as salivating
Fixed ratio schedule
A type of partial reinforcement schedule that uses reinforcement only when a certain threshold of behavior repetition is reached, such as giving a dog a treat after it sits on command 3 times
Taste aversion
Also known as the Garcia Effect, this is a biological response to a food or flavor that was formerly desirable but suddenly became undesirable after an illness or other unpleasant experience
Humanistic psychology
An approach to psychology that looks at that concept of self actualization and the ways people have potential to be their best
Behaviorism
An early 20th century psychological movement led by psychologists Watson and Skinner focused on the way people and other animals can be conditioned to behave in certain ways
Hypnosis
Being put into an altered state of consciousness by another person, in which you are more easily influenced by that person
Five major modern approaches to psychology
Biological, psychodynamic, behavioral, cognitive, humanistic
Five main specializations in psychology
Cognitive, humanistic, social, developmental, clinical
Symptoms of High Levels of Thyroid Hormones
Difficulties sleeping, Increased heart rate, Feeling anxious
Stage 3 and 4 sleep
Each of these lasts about 30 minutes; deep sleep with very slow delta waves in your brain - more in stage 4 than 3
Stage 1 sleep
First 5 minutes; brainwaves move from beta waves to alpha waves, then theta waves as you move from being awake to being drowsy to falling asleep
Cochlea
Fluid filled structures inside the ear that contain cilia.
Meditation
Focusing your attention to increase both your physical and mental awareness; can lead to an increase in alpha and theta brainwaves; one way to achieve an altered state of consciousness
Stage 2 sleep
Lasts about 20 minutes; falling into deeper sleep; slower heart rate and breathing, lowering of body temp; includes small bursts of brain activity known as sleep spindles
Endorphins
Neurotransmitters are released during exercise.
Newborn Senses
Newborns typically have developed senses of smell, hearing, taste and touch. However, their sense of vision is typically poor, usually only 20/120 to 20/400.
Eardrum
Part of the ear that sits directly against the ossicles.
Perception
Perception deals with your recognition and interpretation of sensory information.
Path of Hearing
Sound moves through the ear in this order: Pinna, eardrum, ossicles, cochlea and cilia.
Sensation
The ability to receive sensory information.
Behavioral
The actions that you take. Your behavior can be affected by biological factors.
Dependent variable
The outcome or effect of a cause being studied during a scientific experiment
Motion Parallax
The perception that things that are closer to you are moving more quickly.
Clinical psychology
The psychological discipline concerned with direct interaction with patients in a healthcare setting, including both counseling and psychiatric treatment
Retina
The retina lines the inside of the eye and is involved with turning light into an image. It contains rods and cones.
Iris
The term for the colored section of the eyeball. It can contract or expand based on the amount of light around you.
Activation-synthesis theory
Theory that dreams are a result of brain activation during REM sleep; says dreams are our way of regulating internal activity
Psychotherapeutic theory
Theory that suggests dreams are a person's way to deal with and process emotions in a safe environment
Biopsychologists
These doctors focus on the connections between biology and psychology, including how your brain, muscles, and glands interact with one another.
Unconscious automatic behaviors
Things a person does without thinking or trying, like worrying
Parietal Lobe
This area of your brain is involved in understanding language.
Frontal Lobe
This portion of your brain is used while speaking, planning, and effectively coordinating movement.
Autonomic Nervous System
This portion of your nervous system controls automatic bodily responses, like breathing or the rate of your heartbeat. It deals with unconscious, bodily actions.
Interposition
This term refers to a monocular depth cue that allows you to determine the relative closeness of two items based on how they overlap.
Ossicles
Tiny bones inside the human ear.
Binocular Depth Cue
Used to help our brain effectively create 3-d images.
function of lobes of cerebrum
frontal=memory, parietal=pain/tickle, temporal=hearing, occipital=sight
Biological explanations for aggression
A predisposition due to genetics; elevated testosterone; damage to the brain's frontal lobe
George Vaillant
A psychologist known for classifying Freud's psychological defense mechanisms and for adding new ones.
Types of Research Study Designs
Descriptive, Correlational, Experimental
Cognitive Therapy
Developed by Aaron Beck, this type of therapy was initially created to help with depression.
Complex behaviors
Difficult or unnatural actions that can be brought about through shaping, such as a dolphin learning how to open a box
Mood Disorders
Disorders that can be characterized by negative emotionality, social isolation, low self-esteem and problems sleeping and eating.
Psychosurgery
Doctors alter a patient's brain surgically in this type of treatment. Some forms of this surgery are still performed.
Difficulties Associated with Diagnosing Mental Illnesses
Doctors can have difficulty diagnosing patients with mental illnesses because symptoms can be much harder to interpret than when dealing with physical maladies.
Prenatal Development Stages
Egg, Zygote, Embryo, Fetus
Ego
Ego is the section of your personality that mediates between the id and the superego.
Therapist Behaviors that Lead to Success
Empathetic therapists are more likely to provide successful therapy. Those who are offensive and thoughtless have lower chances of success.
Latency Stage of Development
Erikson viewed this as the last stage of psychosocial development to occur in childhood. In this stage, people deal with the conflict between industry and inferiority.
Continuities in Development
Factors in people that stay the same throughout their lives. These continuities are of great interest to developmental psychologists.
Basis for Freud's Theory of Development
Freud based his theory of development on the idea that human personality developed in stages tied to sexuality.
Superego
Freud proposed that the superego served as the aspect of your personality that provided self-control.
Anal Compulsive
Freud thought that if parents were too demanding during the anal stage that children could become anal compulsive and fixate on being extremely orderly.
Oral Stage
Freud viewed this as the 1st stage of development. It covers the time from birth to age 2. It involves learning about delayed gratification and can lead to an oral fixation if disrupted.
Anal Stage
Freud's 2nd stage of development. Children in this stage begin developing their ego.
External explanations for aggression
Frustration-aggression hypothesis; watching others be aggressive can lead to social learning of the behavior; inflated or very poor self-esteem can lead people to act out with aggression
Id
The portion of your personality that lacks self-control and wants to behave impulsively.
Assimilation
The process of placing a new object into a category of objects that is already established, such as understanding that since a terrier is a dog, poodles and retrievers are also dogs.
Storage
The second step in the memory process, which involves encoded experiences being transferred to the long-term memory function centers of the brain for later retrieval
Semantics
The study of how different types of sounds, which are represented by different letters and syllables, join together to form words that have specific meanings
Social psychology
The study of how we understand our place in the world; looks at how we perceive things, our attitudes, and our interactions
Teratogen
The term teratogen refers to substances, such as some prescribed drugs, radiation, alcohol, and various chemicals, that can disrupt prenatal development.
Self-Concept
The term used to describe the way an individual perceives of thinks about him or herself. Includes 3 components.
Causation
The term used when referring to one variable that causes an effect in a different variable.
Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
The third stage in Piaget's model for cognitive development encompasses children from ages 7-11. Their logical thinking increases to their understanding of the principle of conservation.
Retrieval
The third step in the memory process; in this step, the brain extracts stored memories, allowing you to remember things that happened in the past
Social needs
The third tier of needs on Maslow's hierarchy, includes the need for friends, familial bonds and sexual closeness; also referred to as love and belonging needs
Self-actualization needs
The top tier of Maslow's hierarchy; includes the need for creativity, problem solving, spontaneity, etc.
Pre-Conventional Moral Development
The two stages at this level of Kohlberg's moral development theory are defined by individuals acting in moral ways in order to avoid being punished and to get what they want.
Personality Disorders
The umbrella term for behaviors that are stable for the individual affected but do not match up with the way that the majority of people behave.
Validity in Psychological Studies
The validity of a study relates to how legitimate the study is. It checks that results relate to the proper variables. Along with reliability, it makes sure studies test what they set out to examine.
The triangular model of love
Theorized by Robert Sternberg; says that the three aspects of love are passion, intimacy, and commitment
Drive theory
Theory developed by Robert Zajonc; says your performance will be improved by the presence of others when a task is easy, but during a difficult task, the this can lead to social loafing
Substance-Related Disorders
There are two forms of this kind of disorder: substance abuse and substance dependence.
Anxiety Disorders
These disorders are characterized by anxiety that is disproportionate to the situation. It can lead individuals to feel uncomfortable and worry about how others will view them.
Substance Dependence Disorders
These disorders involve using substances in a dangerous way and not being able to stop. Individuals with this disorder can experience withdrawal.
Autonomy and Shame
These factors are in conflict during Erikson's muscular-anal stage of psychosocial development.
Freudian Defense Mechanisms
These were the mechanisms, or actions, that Sigmund Freud thought people would take when they were stressed.
Psychodynamic Approach to Therapy
This approach to therapy was developed by Sigmund Freud. It focuses on the interactions between the id, ego and superego.
General intelligence
This concept argues that the way a person performs on one task, such as reading, is likely to reflect how they will perform on another task, such as math, due to a consistent level of intellectual effort
Specific intelligence
This concept reflects the fact that people may have greater intellectual abilities in certain areas, such as a person who is an exceptional writer who is not as excellent at math
Nature vs. Nurture
This debate greatly influences a lot of the studies associated with developmental psychology.
Schizoid Personality Disorder
This disorder tends to lead people to act cold or indifferent. They may withdraw to their internal world.
Placebo Effect
This effect involves people feeling better when they believe they should feel better, such as when they've been given something they were told was medication.
Bodily and kinesthetic intelligence
This kind of intelligence is often found in athletes, dancers, carpenters and other people whose areas of excellence tend to be physical, including those who learn best by doing
Logical and mathematical intelligence
This kind of intelligence lends itself well to problem solving and deductive reasoning or excellence in math and science; individuals who are good with numbers are likely to have this
Conventional Moral Development
This level of Kohlberg's moral development theory includes two stages. People at this level are concerned with how others view them and helping society function.
Displacement
This neurotic defense mechanism occurs when individuals take out their anger at one person on another person.
Anal Expulsive
This personality trait involves people being very messy. Freud tied it to parents not being demanded enough during the anal stage.
The theory of multiple intelligences
This theory was formalized by American psychologist Howard Gardner and argues that intelligence can be seen in different ways and that book smarts aren't the only way of expressing intellect
Interpersonal intelligence
This type of intelligence deals with social skills and one's ability to get along well with other people
Naturalist intelligence
This type of intelligence relates to a connection to the world outside of human development; gardener, animal trainers and scientific researchers may display this
Semantic memory
This type of long-term memory allows you to recall facts, figures and concepts, such as the date of your mom's birthday or the name of your favorite painting
Procedural memories
This type of memory covers habitual behaviors such as brushing your teeth, meaning you may be able to let your mind wander while carrying out these actions
Descriptive Study
This type of study just focuses on collecting lots of data and can include case studies. Can lead to correlational and experimental studies.
Internal Validity
This type of validity ensures that the relationship between studied actually exists.
Visual Cliff Experiment
Used to determine if infants could recognize depth and if they would attempt to crawl over a cliff if encouraged.
How attractiveness is determined
What is considered attractive varies by culture based on what a given culture views as important and what status is important in that culture
Variable interval schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule in which rewards are given at random points in time, such as a video game offering bonus points to players on an unpredictable date each month
Fixed interval schedule
A partial reinforcement schedule that grants reinforcement at specific points in time, such as an end-of-quarter bonus payment that corporate executives receive for increasing profits
Denial
A pathological defense mechanism that leads to you denying an event ever occurred.
Musical intelligence
A person with this kind of intelligence may be able to recreate a tune on piano after hearing it on the radio only once or may have a natural ability to find rhythm
Humorism
A practice that started in ancient Greece. The theory stated that four humors, or substances found in the body, were responsible for determining a person's personality.
Operant conditioning
A behavioral psychology theory that states that behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they are rewarded, such as a dog receiving a treat for sitting on command
Shaping
A behavioral training process that uses simple, incremental steps to build up to a more complex behavior, such as learning the shapes and sounds of individual letters before learning how to read
John Watson
A behaviorist who conducted an ethically questionable classical conditioning experiment in which an infant was trained to fear rats through exposure to loud noises
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
A book designed to categorize mental illnesses by noting the symptoms associated with different disorders. Illnesses are grouped together.
Self-Worth / Self-Esteem
A component of self-concept that refers to what we believe about ourselves.
Eugenics/Social Darwinism
A concept that focuses on eliminating certain genetic factors, usually related to race or ethnicity, that are wrongly beloved to be an automatic indicator of intellectual inferiority
Positive reinforcement
A consequence that reinforces a behavior through the reciept of a reward or some other kind of desirable outcome
Reinforcement
A controlled, desirable consequence that is used to cause a person or animal to repeat a certain behavior or response.
Sensory memory
A fleeting short-term memory that causes an echo in one of the senses, such as a remaining tingling feeling in the hand after brushing it against a wall
Choice-supportive bias
A form of memory distortion in which people see a decision-making process differently in hindsight based on the outcome of their choice, which can eliminate cognitive dissonance
Lobotomies
A form of psychosurgery. In this procedure, doctors remove the brain's frontal lobes, often resulting in loss of functioning and personality. No longer used.
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT)
A form of therapy used in the 1940s that involved administering electric shocks to patients. Used in an attempt to treat schizophrenia and depression. Occasionally still used.
External Validity
A form of validity that deals with making certain the study is valid for the population as a whole, and not just the people involved in the study.
Carl Rogers
A humanistic psychologist who focused on using client-centered therapy.
Stereotype
A judgement a person makes that allows them to decide how to respond in a given situation by comparing new information to past experience
Dissociative Disorders
A kind of psychological disorder that is characterized by problems with memory, perception, consciousness or identity. Examples of this disorder include amnesia and multiple personality disorders.
Sublimation
A mature defense mechanism that involves taking negative feelings and using them to fuel positive activities.
Statistical Analysis
A method for assessing data trends. Includes descriptive analysis and inferential analysis.
Authoritarian Parenting Style
The authoritarian style of parenting is characterized by parents who are exacting of their child but not sensitive to what the child wants.
Central Nervous System
The bodily system that receives and works with sensory signals. This system includes your brain and your spinal cord.
Phonemes
The building blocks of language, such as vowel or consonant sounds, that are the most basic units of distinctive sound that can represent a spoken language
Pinna
The cartilage in the outside of the ear. This is the first structure that sound passes through when entering the ear.
Self-awareness
The concept that a person is able to recognize themselves as separate or different from others
The just world hypothesis
The concept that people 'get what they deserve'; blames the victim rather than other, external factors
Integrity and Despair
The conflict between integrity and despair defines late adulthood in Erikson's theory of psychosocial development.
Terminal behavior
The desired end result of the shaping process; this result is reached through a series of small steps that are rewarded when done properly
Latency Stage
The developmental stage from 6 until puberty. Freud thought there was no focus on sexuality in this stage, with personality development occurring instead.
Biological Systems
The different physical systems of your body. This includes the nervous and endocrine systems.
Retinal Disparity
The effect of having two slightly different images sent to the brain by our eyes. The brain blends this images to craft a 3-dimensional image.
Genital Stage
The final stage in Freud's developmental theory. This stage is driven by libido and involves children separating from their parents.
Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development
The first stage in Piaget's cognitive development model. Children from 0-2 are in this stage and the focus is on object permanence.
Oral-Sensory Stage of Development
The first stage of psychosocial development according to Erikson. This stage deals with the conflict between trust and mistrust.
Encoding
The first step of the memory process; this involves unconscious processes in the brain that prepare a memory for storage based on your perception of the event
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development
The fourth and final stage of cognitive development for Piaget, covering children from 11 years old and onward. Abstract reasoning develops at this stage.
Post-Conventional Moral Development
The last level of Kohlberg's moral development theory. This level includes two stages which not everyone reaches. People at this level focus on doing good and upholding ethical principles.
Physiological needs
The lowest, most basic need on Maslow's hierarchy; includes breathing, eating, drinking, sleep, etc.
Mean
The mean is like the average of a group of numbers. You find it by adding numbers together and then dividing by the initial amount of numbers.
Mode
The mode is the number in a set that occurs most frequently. Grouped with mean and median as a measure of central tendency in data.
Frontal lobe
The part of the brain that allows for planning, speech and coordinated movement
Autonomic nervous system
The part of the nervous system that works automatically without you having to tell it what to do; includes things like breathing or digesting
Groupthink
The phenomenon of a group to trend towards consensus rather than dealing with conflict to come to a solution
