Public Speaking Final Exam

extemporaneous speaking

knowing the major ideas, which have been outlined, but not memorizing the exact wording pros: well organized and rehearsed, sounds spontaneous and polished cons: large amount of preparation time, skill required

What are figures of speech and what kinds might you use in a speech?

language that deviates from the ordinary expected meaning of words to make a description or comparison unique, vivid and memorable -Metaphor -Simile -Personification

What is considered unbiased language?

language that doesn't include even subtle stereotypes or discrimination ex. Everyone should bring his or her book to class tomorrow

What are the criteria we can use to judge whether evidence is effective?

most effective evidence: -credible -new -specific -part of a story -appropriate to your audience

Is it possible or wise to combine two or three introduction methods?

It's possible but make sure that you don't take too much time out of your speech

What is accommodation and why is it important?

sensitivity to the feelings, needs, interests and backgrounds of others -it communicates respect and can help a speaker select a topic, formulate a purpose and design strategies to motivate an audience -can avoid using biased or offensive language

How have the courts come to view freedom of speech in the last 20 years?

the Supreme Court has found "virtually all attempts to restrain speech in advance unconstitutional" much more global discussion -1989-burning the flag is free speech protected by the 1st Amendment -1997-did away with Communications Decency Act -1998-Oprah Winfrey vs. Texas cattlemen -2001-The Patriot Act-more strict

What is credibility and why is it important?

the audience's perception of a speaker's competence, trustworthiness, and dynamism -the more credible you appear, the more effective your persuasion will be

belief

a way we structure reality to accept something as true or false

What are the types of supporting material one might use in a speech? What makes each type effective?

-Illustrations-relevant stories -Explanations -Descriptions- -Definitions -Analogies -Statistics -Opinions

What are specific ways in which a speaker can adapt to a culturally diverse audience?

-U.S. (low context culture) factual-inductive method-identify facts and link them to to support a specific proposition or conclusion -(high context culture) deductive pattern of reasoning- begin with a general purpose and link it to a specific situation -Middle Eastern cultures-narrative methods including extended analogies

What are the steps in developing a persuasive speech?

-consider audience attitudes, beliefs, values and behaviors -consider audience diversity -controversial issues-make great topics -use social judgement theory to determine your purpose -state your central idea as a proposition of fact, value or policy -find supporting materials that reinforce your credibility, logic and emotional appeals -use a clear organizational pattern -get feedback as you rehearse -deliver your speech with appropriate emotion

What requirements must be present for evidence and reasoning to be ethical?

-analysis and evaluation -share with an audience all information that might help them reach a sound decision, even info that may be potentially damaging to your case

How can you test the validity of inductive reasoning?

-are there enough specific instances to support the conclusion? -are the specific instances typical (representative of the general audience) -are the instances recent?

How does a speaker adapt their delivery to different kinds of audiences?

-avoid an ethnocentric mind-set -consider using a less dramatic style for predominately high-context listeners -consult with speakers who've presented to your audience -monitor your level of immediacy with your audience -monitor the intensity of your expression of emotion -know the code-know how nonverbal communication is seen throughout different cultures

What pet peeves do teachers have about ineffective introductions and conclusions?

-beginning with "Oh, ah..." -apologizing or making an excuse at the beginning of the speech for not being prepared -beginning a speech with "Hello, my speech is on..." -saying "In conclusion" -ending a speech with "Thank you" -ending a speech with "Are there any questions?"

What are guidelines for using statistics correctly in a speech?

-use reliable sources -use authoritative sources ex. primary source -unbiased sources -interpret statistics accurately -make them understandable and memorable -round off numbers -use visual aids to present your statistics

What types of information, ideas, etc. should a speaker give credit for?

-direct quotations, even if they're only brief phrases -opinions, assertions, or ideas of others, even if you paraphrase rather than quote verbatim -statistics -any non original visual materials, graphs, tables and pictures

What kinds of evidence might a speaker use?

-facts -examples -statistics -opinions

What should an impromptu speaker do in order to be effective?

-get a good night's rest -eat carefully -arrive early -visualize success -reinforce your confidence

What are the main functions of an introduction?

-get the audience's attention -give the audience a reason to listen -introduce the subject -establish your credibility -preview your main points

How might a speaker provide closure to a speech?

-use verbal or nonverbal cues to signal the end of the speech -motivate the audience to respond

What are the main characteristics of effective delivery? How is each executed effectively?

-high level of eye contact with the entire audience -culturally appropriate, natural, non distracting gestures -purposeful, non-distracting, immediacy-cueing movement -straight but natural standing posture, matching intensity of message -culturally appropriate facial expressions, matching message -audible volume, clear articulation, minimized dialect -varied vocal pitch and speaking rate -competent use of microphone -clean grooming and clothing appropriate to audience and situation

What are some other ways to motivate listeners?

-identify an existing problem or need - use positive motivation -use negative motivation

What are the different ways to introduce a speech?

-illustrations or anecdotes -startling facts or statistics -quotations -humor -questions -references to historical events -references to recent events -personal references -references to the occasion -references to preceding speeches

How can a speaker use words effectively for their audience?

-keep your language specific and concrete -keep your language simple and avoid a long word when a short one can be used in its place -consider connotative and denotative meanings of words used -be as concise as possible in order to speak clearly

Why is effective delivery important?

-listeners expect a good speaker to provide good delivery -influences how audiences react to a speaker and his or her message -ultimately, your audience determines whether you're successful or not -a primary goal of most speech teachers

How do you determine which supporting material is best to use in your speech?

-magnitude-the larger the numbers, the more convincing -proximity-choose what's most relevant to your listeners -concreteness-use specific examples and statistics to explain abstract ideas -variety -humor -suitability-is it appropriate for the speech?

What are some of the ethical concerns that might arise in the use of emotion?

-making false claims -misusing evidence to arouse emotions -relying only on emotions without offering evidence to support a conclusion

What are the main sources of supporting material?

-personal knowledge and experience -the internet -online databases -traditional library holdings -interviews

How does a speaker respond to questions?

-prepare by asking questions to yourself first -listen non-judgmentally-repeat or rephrase questions -respond to the whole audience -bring off-topic questions back to your message -acknowledge emotions, keep to the issue and avoid personal responses to hostile questions -admit when you don't know an answer -keep answers brief and organized -warn the audience when the Q & A session will conclude

What are the main strategies for organizing persuasive speeches?

-put your strongest arguments first for hostile audiences -don't bury key arguments and evidence in the middle of your message -tell your audience members what you want them to do at the end of your speech -present both sides of an issue -reference counterarguments and then refute them with evidence and logic -adapt organization to fit the culture of your audience

How can a speaker create drama in a speech?

-short sentences -omission-the subject isn't stated -inversion-ex. "ask not" rather than "do not ask" -suspension-the key message is suspended until the end of the sentence

What are some tips the book suggests for rehearsing a speech?

-spend more time preparing and rehearsing to earn a higher grade -finish your outline two days before you speak -rehearse aloud and time your speech before making speaking notes -make rehearsals as much like the real speech as possible -seek feedback and self-critique a video of your rehearsal

What are the purposes of conclusions?

-summarize the speech -reemphasize the central idea in a memorable way -restate the main ideas -provide closure -give verbal or nonverbal signals of the end of the speech -motivate the audience to respond

How do listeners cope with dissonance?

-try to discredit you-must be competent and trustworthy -reinterpret your message-make sure it's clear -seek other information-make your info convincing -stop listening-make your message interesting -be persuaded

What specific strategies are effective in conclusions?

-use any of the techniques for an effective introduction -refer to the introduction of your speech -issue an inspirational appeal or challenge

What tips does the book suggest for using these word structures effectively?

-use distinctive stylistic devices sparingly -use stylistic devices at strategic points in your speech -use stylistic devices to economize your sentences

How does a speaker adapt their language style to their listeners?

-use language your audience can understand -use appropriate language to avoid offending your audience -use unbiased language to communicate sensitivity to your audience

What factors make humor effective in an introduction?

-your audience's first language-make sure the audience will be able to understand the humor -make sure it's appropriate for the topic you're presenting about

What are the six criteria for evaluating a website and how might they be applied to various types of websites?

1. Accountability-who is responsible for the site? 2. Accuracy-is the info credible? 3. Objectivity-consider the interests, philosophical or political biases and source of financial support of the author(s), are there advertisements? 4. Timeliness-is the site current? 5. Usability-does the layout and design of the site facilitate its use? 6. Diversity-do language and graphics reflect and respect different genders, ethnicities, races and sexual preferences? Disabilities?

What are the elements of credibility and what phases does a speaker's credibility go through?

1. competence 2. trustworthiness 3. dynamism

What are the steps in conducting research?

1. develop a preliminary bibliography or list of promising sources 2. locate potential resources 3. evaluate their usefulness 4. take notes 5. identify possible visual aids

What are the two types of analogies?

1. literal-compares two similar things 2. figurative-compares two dissimilar things that share some common feature

What are the three types of opinions?

1. the testimony of an expert authority 2. the testimony of an ordinary, or lay, person with firsthand or eyewitness experience 3. a quotation from a literary work

What kinds of statements might be considered dishonest?

1998 Bill Clinton "I did not have sexual relations with that woman-Miss Lewinsky" - taking credit for ideas and information that aren't yours

What is ethos and why is it important?

Aristotle's term for "ethical" which refers to a speaker's credibility -audiences perceive speakers as competent, knowledgable, dynamic and trustworthy

ethos

Aristotle's term for credibility

pathos

Aristotle's term for human emotion

logos

Aristotle's term for logic- the formal system of using rules to reach a conclusion

What are Maslow's levels of motivational needs?

Bottom to Top 1. Physiological-air, water and food 2. Safety-safe, secure, protected 3. Social-the need to feel loved and valued 4. Self-Esteem-our desire to think well of ourselves 5. Self-Actualization-the need to fully realize one's highest potential

What is a non sequitur?

Latin for "it does not follow"; an idea or conclusion that doesn't logically relate to or follow from the previous idea or conclusion

ethnic vernacular

a variety of English that includes words and phrases used by a specific ethnic group

What is nonverbal expectancy theory?

a communication theory that suggests that if listeners' expectations about how communication should be expressed are violated, listeners will feel less favorable toward the communicator of the message

dialect

a consistent style of pronouncing words that is common to an ethnic group or geographic region

What is a fallacy and what are the common fallacies addressed in the book?

a false reasoning that occurs when someone attempts to persuade without adequate evidence or with arguments that are irrelevant or inappropriate types: -casual-assuming a faulty cause/effect relationship -bandwagon-assuming that because others approve then the conclusion is valid -either/or-oversimplifying options to either one thing or the other -hasty generalization-reaching a conclusion without adequate evidence -ad hominem- "to the man; critiquing the person rather than the merit of the idea presented -red herring-using irrelevant information to distract from the real issue -appeal to misplaced authority-using the non-expert testimony of someone who doesn't have appropriate credentials -non sequitur-(see non sequitur)

attitude

a learned disposition to respond favorably or unfavorably toward something-likes or dislikes

What is a rhetorical question?

a question intended to provoke thought rather than an elicit answer

What is a syllogism and what are its parts?

a three-part argument that consists of a major premise, a minor premise and a conclusion

What is cadence and what are the ways speakers might employ it in a speech?

cadence- the rhythm of language -repetition -parallelism -antithesis -alliteration

How can cognitive dissonance motivate listeners?

cognitive dissonance- the sense of mental discomfort that prompts a person to change when new info conflicts with previously organized thought patterns -allows the audience to experience a way of thinking that's inconsistent and uncomfortable -can change attitudes and behavior

What is nonverbal communication and what does that mean in the context of a speech?

communication other than written or spoken language that creates meaning

What is reasoning by analogy?

comparing one thing, person, or process with another to predict how something will perform and respond

What's the difference between connotation and denotation and why might this matter in a speech?

connotation- the meaning we associate with a word based on our experiences denotation- a word's literal meaning

definition by classification vs. operational definition

definition by classification-a "dictionary definition" operational definition-a statement that explains how something works or how it's done

impromptu speaking

delivering a speech without preparing in advance pros: can easily adapt to how your audience is reacting to the message during the speech, authentic and spontaneous cons: challenging to organize the speech and deliver it smoothly, difficult to cite evidence

What is the difference between a description and an explanation?

description-provides the details that allow audience members to develop mental pictures of what a speaker is talking about explanation- statements that make clear how something is done or why it exists in its present form or existed in past form

What is ELM and what are the direct and indirect routes of persuasion?

elaboration likelihood model-the theory that people can be persuaded by logic, evidence, and reasoning, or through a more peripheral route that may depend on the credibility of the speaker, the sheer number of arguments presented or emotional appeals direct persuasion route-when audience members critically examine evidence and arguments indirect persuasion route-occurs as a result of factors peripheral to a speaker's logic and argument such as the speaker's charisma or emotional appeals

What is the role of emotion in persuasion and what specific strategies can a speaker use to employ emotion in persuasion?

emotional response theory-emotional responses can be classified as pleasure, arousal or dominance -use concrete examples -use emotion-arousing words -use visual images -use appropriate metaphors and similes -use appropriate fear appeals -appeal to a variety of emotions -communicate emotions nonverbally -tap into shared myths

What are some of the traditional holdings available in the library?

encyclopedias, dictionaries, directories, atlases, almanacs, yearbooks, books of quotations and biographical dictionaries

Why are "to inform" or "to persuade" ethical goals, while "to coerce" or "to manipulate" are unethical?

ethical goals-socially responsible and conveys respect and offers listener choices unethical goals-demeaning and/or psychologically oppressive

Why is it important to balance free speech with ethical speech?

ethical speech includes being responsible, honest and tolerant to your audience while free speech is legally protected speech or speech acts. Striking a balance between these help provide a structure to your free speech, considering the audience as you create the goal of your speech, the outline of your arguments and your supporting material

Which type of speaking is expected in COM 115?

extemporaneous

How do propositions of fact, value and policy differ?

fact-focuses on whether something is true or false value-calls for the listener to judge the worth or importance of something policy-a statement that advocates a change in policy or procedures

What is patchwriting and what are some examples of it?

failing to give credit for compelling phrases taken from another source ex. -failing to give credit to a source or adequate information in a citation ex. -relying too heavily on the vocabulary or sentence structure of a source

What is slander?

false speech that harms someone -definition narrowed in 1964 by the Supreme Court-must have been made with "actual malice"

How can a speaker create memorable word structures?

figurative imagery (metaphor, simile, personification) drama (short sentences, omission, inversion, suspension) cadence (repetition, parallelism, antithesis, alliteration)

memorized speaking

giving a speech from memory without using notes pros: direct eye contact, can move freely and make gestures cons: may forget the speech, may sound over rehearsed and mechanical

pauses

help to accent your message -can determine the effectiveness of an anecdote -can emphasize a particular word or sentence

pitch

how high or low the voice sounds

What's the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?

inductive-uses specific examples to arrive at a general conclusion deductive-moves from a general statement to a specific, certain conclusion

antithesis

opposition, such as that used in parallel two-part sentences in which the second part contrasts in meaning with the first ex. Ask not what your country can do for you;ask what you can do for your country

What are the differences between oral and written language styles? Why are they important?

oral-more personal, use the pronouns "I" and "You" more often, more repetitive, less formal -this is why your professor didn't want to write your speech out word for word -the personality of the speaker, the subject of the discourse, the audience and the occasion should affect the style of language used

How can a speaker motivate positively and negatively?

positive- emphasize positive values and benefits (not just features) negative-a strong threat to a loved one of an audience is stronger than a fear appeal directed directly at the audience members -the more competent, trustworthy or respected the speaker, the greater the likelihood that an appeal to fear will be successful -convince your listeners that the threat is real and will most likely occur if they don't take action -increasing the intensity of fear -convince your listeners that they have the power to make a change that will reduce the threat

What is plagiarism and what are some examples of it?

presenting someone else's words or ideas as though they're your own ex. altering a couple of words in a sentence you found in a source and claiming it as your own

manuscript speaking

reading a speech from a prepared text pros: you can carefully craft your message, polished language cons: it takes much skill and practice to make the message sound interesting

What is causal reasoning?

reasoning in which the relationship between two or more events leads you to conclude that one or more of the events caused the others

What are appropriate strategies for receptive, neutral and unreceptive audiences?

receptive-identify with your audience, clearly state your speaking objective, tell your audience exactly what you want them to do, ask listeners for an immediate show of support, use emotional appeals effectively, make it easy for your listeners to act neutral-capture your listeners' attention early in your speech, refer to beliefs that many listeners share, relate your topic not only to your listeners but also to their families, friends and loved ones, be realistic about what you can accomplish unreceptive-don't announce immediately that you plan to change their minds, begin your speech by noting areas of agreement before you discuss areas of disagreement, don't expect a major shift in attitude from a hostile audience, acknowledge opposing viewpoints, establish your credibility, consider making advocacy a goal

What is persuasion?

the process of changing or reinforcing a listener's attitudes, beliefs, values or behavior

articulation

the production of clear and distinct speech sounds

alliteration

the repetition of a consonant sound several times in a phrase, clause or sentence

jargon

the specialized language of a profession

rate

the speed at which someone talks -most people average 120-180 words per minute -2 factors affect rate: speaking style and content of the message

What is an oral citation and what is an example of one?

the spoken presentation of information about a source including author, title and year of publication -ex. In Smith's web article "How I Became Me", ...

pronunciation

the use of sounds to form words clearly and accurately

How does a database differ from the internet at large or from search engines?

use is restricted to the patrons of the libraries who subscribe to them

parallelism

use of the same grammatical pattern for two or more phrases, clauses or sentences

What is social judgement theory?

when listeners are confronted with a persuasive message, their responses fall into one of three categories: 1. a latitude of acceptance 2. a latitude of rejection 3. a latitude of non-commitment

regionalism

words or phrases used uniquely by speakers in one part of a country

In what circumstances might a speaker want to reinforce rather than change beliefs, values or attitudes? Which are most stable and which are most likely to change? What is the relationship between these three and behavior?

your listeners may already like, believe or value something or sometimes do what you want them to do ex. An audience may believe in recycling but only do it every once in a while. By reinforcing their belief in recycling, they may recycle more often attitudes-most likely to change beliefs- second likely to change values-least likely to change